Academic articles 3 2 and Palmyre Manivet 1 n 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals cuneiform and unprovenanced ended sales houses of auction n 2003, the major the over anger public to being in response as the interpreted time was at that a move tablets, placed on restrictions the associated and sites, archaeological and museums Iraqi of looting do not these those original conclusions events, from on years UNSCR 1483. Ten trade by I Neil Brodie Abstract appear so secure, though they cannot be discounted. Th is article will look at fi ve analyses to examine analyses to examine ve fi articleat is will look Th be so discounted. they secure, though cannot appear their sales wider between and auction a relationship is there that demonstrate and those conclusions, one. a straightforward not is it but contexts, commercial and material www.artcrimeresearch.org 1 2 2BQ. OX1 Oxford, St, 75 George House, Hayes Oxford, of University Archaeology, School of SW3 3HE. Court, 112a Cranmer London, Cylinder Seal Sales at Sotheby’s and Christie’s (1985–2013) and Christie’s at Sotheby’s Seal Sales Cylinder cylinder seals, Christie’s, Sotheby’s, provenance, auction houses houses auction provenance, Sotheby’s, Keywords: cylinder seals,Christie’s, In 2006, one of the present authors published a paper showing to revisit the subject, extending data analysis through to the that the London auction houses of Christie’s and Bonhams end of 2013, and introducing a graded system of measuring had stopped selling unprovenanced cylinder seals soon after provenance. the 2003 Coalition invasion of Iraq (Brodie 2006: 215-217). He later demonstrated that Sotheby’s New York had done Methodology likewise and that the apparent ending of sales extended to include cuneiform tablets (Brodie 2008: 64-66). The timing of Two data sets were collected for analysis: the total number of these sales endings suggested they had been made in response lots and the total number of cylinder seal lots offered annually to the invasion of Iraq, which had precipitated the looting of at the London antiquities sales of Christie’s and the New York the National Museum in Baghdad and archaeological sites antiquities sales of Sotheby’s, both from 1985 to 2013, together throughout the country. There was at the time extensive critical with associated information about provenance and price. The media coverage of this looting and of the associated trafficking basic unit of analysis was the auction lot. Lots comprising of Iraqi antiquities and other cultural objects. In May 2003, books, paintings and Islamic antiquities were not counted. Article 7 of United Nations Security Council Resolution For cylinder seals, most lots comprised a single cylinder seal, (UNSCR) 1483 reaffirmed trade sanctions on Iraqi cultural though some comprised two or more. An occasional lot mixed objects first imposed by UNSCR 661 in August 1990 after the cylinder seals in with other types of object. Such lots were Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. So the sudden disappearance of counted as “cylinder seal” lots if the first object mentioned unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tablets from in the catalogue listing was a cylinder seal, or if the majority auction sales was easily understood as reflecting a conscious of objects in the lot were cylinder seals. The number of lots decision by auction houses to stop selling material from Iraq, offered each year and the prices of sold lots were tabulated perhaps motivated by a desire to guard their reputations and summed as annual totals for both antiquities and cylinder against negative publicity, or even to protect themselves from seals. Two different measures of average price were used. any possibility of legal action under UNSCR 1483 should any The first was the straightforward annual median price for all Iraqi object offered for sale be shown to have been looted. sold lots, providing an estimate of market value. The second measure was annual mean price per lot offered (and not, as This expression of auction house policy intervention was would be more usual, mean price per lot sold). This second unexpected. The conjecture prompting the analyses published measure was intentionally designed to assess profitability for in 2006 had been that the active looting of archaeological sites the auction house of sales by including the cost of lots that in Iraq should result in more material from Iraq entering the failed to sell. market, which should in turn cause more to be sold at auction. Thus auction sales could be taken as passive and proxy measures The data were subject to five separate analyses. First, of the severity of looting and trafficking. Cylinder seals were changes in the volume and profitability of antiquities sales chosen as a marker artifact for Iraq to test the hypothesis, but at the two auction houses were examined to provide a broad the results of the analyses were equivocal (Brodie 2006: 216- commercial context for the following analyses of cylinder 218). There was some suggestion of increased numbers being seal sales. Second and third, for each auction house in turn, offered for sale, but nothing conclusive. Once the results were starting with Sotheby’s, changes through time in the volume, in, however, the observation that auction houses might be profitability and provenances of cylinder seal sales were actively reacting to public disapproval or hardening laws was examined, and discussed in relation to the broader commercial interesting as it suggested a different diagnostic applicability context previously established. Next, as something of a for long-term auction sales data. It suggested that auction digression, the data sets were used to consider the relationship sales might be used to measure the impact or effectiveness of between provenance and price, which is sometimes seen to be different strategies or mechanisms of regulatory control. an expression of market autoregulation (Brodie 2014). Finally, the number and provenance of Syrian cylinder seal lots offered By 2014, it was clear that some auction houses had resumed for sale was examined to consider whether any conclusions accepting consignments of cylinder seals and offering them might be drawn about the market in relation to the looting for sale. By that time, a better understanding of auction house occurring in Syria. business practices was also beginning to cast doubt on the conclusion drawn in 2006 that the auction houses had stopped Provenance cylinder seal sales in response to negative media reporting and more stringent legislation. If that conclusion was indeed Provenances provided in auction catalogues are always mistaken, it would also call into question the idea that auction incomplete. They hardly ever provide a full accounting of the sales might be used to measure the impact and effectiveness of ownership and sales history of an object from the circumstances statutory or other strategies aimed at regulatory control. Thus of its initial discovery to the occasion of its auction. Most after some discussion, the authors decided the time was right often, they provide only a single date. Less often, they provide

4 www.artcrimeresearch.org Academic articles 5 Th ere are two justifi cations for using “verifi able “verifi using for cations justifi two are ere Th known Erlenmeyer and Marcopoli collections. But of the 144 of But collections. Marcopoli and Erlenmeyer known an individual had 16 only sale in for catalogue, the ered off lots auction at and all had 16 been bought provenance, able verifi 498) 426 and (lots two the only Of those 1990s. 16 lots, during Collection, the Erlenmeyer to and further attributed were the us although Collection. Th the Marcopoli 471) to (lot one placed have would auctions previous of dates able easily verifi class, seals the in post-1989 provenance the Surena of most able collection a verifi the entire gave text the introductory was that a provenance albeit 1970-1989, of provenance by conducted investigation An verify. to cult diffi nevertheless the time seals at the Surena of the provenance into US customs example, sale, for the Christie’s the USA for into their import of us, Th Iraq. export from of date any determine to unable was the provenances, ed falsifi of the problem aside even leaving be understandably might provenance” able “verifi of concept even disingenuous, perhaps and problematical, as regarded in truth, which is, questionable. a reliability suggesting provenance” as a measure of provenance. Th e fi rst is that it isrst that fi e Th provenance. of a measure as provenance” the If here. the type of presented analyses statistical enables been had provenance” “published of concept robust more a published by accompanied lots of used, the small number meaningful breakdown any prevented have would Thprovenance e second classes. provenance erent diff into the data of in doubt,” of t “benefi the it introduces is that cation justifi illegal with concerned enquiry, of the context given that able “verifi of the acceptance criminal conduct, possibly and might when it provenance of a true as statement provenance” fraudulent evidence of miss be to occasion falseon likely is In action in error. such impute to than rather malpractice false than positives. rather falsenegatives produces it ect, eff drawn malpractice or practice about conclusions any us Th be considered should provenances able verifi of the study from reliable. Seals Syrian Cylinder used had 2008 and 2006 in cylinder published analyses e Th all not that understanding Iraq, artifactsseals for marker as been found have would themarket cylinder on seals appearing have would the majority that nonetheless reasoning but in Iraq, were what to exclude example, for ortmade, was eff been. No it 2014, however, By seals analysis. from described “Syrian” as continued have might houses auction that deemed was possible seals. Iraqi of seals the exclusion Syrian to sellto demonstrably sites archaeological 2011 Syrian also was since the case that It seen since not a destructive with being looted intensity were it analyticalseemednecessaryus for Th earlier. years ten Iraq seals, seals other between purposes Syrian and distinguish to more But in Iraq. been found have to still believed likely most as utility potential had seals the Syrian themselves that, than set the same use investigating for Syria, artifacts for marker Th e cylinder seal analyses published in 2006 and 2008 and e 2006 in cylinder published sealanalyses Th Each lot was allocated to one of four provenance classes, classes, provenance four of one allocated to was Each lot their of out demonstrably Lots Up to 1969 (pre-1970). their country of of out demonstrably 1970-1989. Lots of out demonstrably (post-1989). Lots 1990 onwards provenance. no with Nothing. Lots had used a simple measure of provenance. Any indication of of indication Any provenance. of measure usedhad a simple describe to enough was a date, even just ownership, previous those seals with were Unprovenanced seala provenanced. as the purposes the present of For whatsoever. indication no and methodology required, was robust a more however, study, able “Verifi provenance. able assessed was verifi as provenance a of provenance of date the earliest that means provenance” previous a of the conjunction from determinedeither was lot a publication from or ownership, of date and name owner’s a potential provide would this information theory, In date. the verify to the wherewithal with independently customer would that something provenance, about ered facts being off limited but common the more of some be with possible not catalogues, in auction be to found descriptions “provenance” cation verifi Nevertheless, a gentleman.” of “property as such of CollectionSurena cylinder e for seals, Th easy. always not is 2001, June in York New at Christie’s sale for ered off example, presented analyses statistical the in main included not though catalogue the for text e introductory Th a case is in point. here, the the been collection over had assembled that stated seals the well- from incorporated had and 30 years preceding one or two references, at best, to previous owners. Th e purpose e Th owners. previous best, to at references, two or one a establish to is information provenance this incomplete of so origin, country of its of out object was which an by date sale be can its assessed, of ethical the legal and propriety that So when owner. past a noteworthy particularly off show to or described when objects are or discussed is here, provenance in be the provenance understood should it “provenanced,” as minimal. usually and incomplete is question in changes decided by thresholds date discriminating with as were classes adopted provenance e Th law. international follows: the UNESCO of the 1970 date before origin country of the Preventing and Prohibiting of the Means on Convention Cultural of Ownership of Transfer Exportand Import, Illicit museums being used is by which increasingly Property, acceptable for a threshold as organizations museum and acquisition. the UNESCO Convention of betweenorigin the 1970 date imposed rst trade UNSCR 661, which fi of the 1990 date and objects. cultural Iraqi on sanctions of UNSCR 661. er 1990 date the aft origin their country of www.artcrimeresearch.org of questions relating to market volume and regulatory control available for an auction is limited, and restricts the number of that had prompted the original and repeat analyses with regard lots able to be auctioned. The physical and human limitations to Iraq. of the auction house mean that sales cannot increase in size indefinitely to accommodate increasing quantities of material. Neither of the present authors can assess cylinder Ideally, in such circumstances, an auction house would seals stylistically or assign them to the correct cultural or maximize profit by selling as many high-quality, high-value geographical milieu of their production. The authors were objects as possible in the limited time available. But there are dependent for stylistic identifications upon the presence also countervailing considerations. Supply and demand, as and reliability of descriptions offered in auction catalogues. realized through the number and financial wherewithal and Although cylinder seals are mainly found within the area taste of buyers and sellers, must also be taken into account. of modern Iraq, the region that roughly corresponds to the The availability of expensive objects is dependent upon the modern country of Syria produced distinctive styles of cylinder existence of sellers willing to part with them. Furthermore, seal from the early second millennium BC onwards. These it is pointless offering expensive objects of a type no one is so-called Syrian cylinder seals display local iconographies willing or able to purchase. Sometimes an auction house incorporating Egyptian, Anatolian and Aegean imagery and may be forced to accept poorer quality material from a long stylistic features. They exhibit regional distinctions, and are established consignor in order to keep business, or as part also differentiated chronologically, into “Old Syrian” and of a larger consignment of more expensive objects. Thus an “Classic Syrian” (with further period sub-divisions). Cylinder auction house is an active commercial agent. What ultimately seals described as Syrian have regularly been offered for sale by appears for auction is the outcome of several decisions made both Christie’s in London and Sotheby’s in New York. In their in view of likely market conditions aimed at maximizing sales catalogues, seals identified as Syrian are almost exclusively revenue while minimizing costs. described only as “Syrian,” without a chronological marker. The absence of a chronological marker suggests that the term Consider, for example, a hypothetical (or maybe not so “Syrian” in the catalogues is used more as a geographical than hypothetical) situation whereby the quantity of cylinder seals cultural identifier. Seals of other cultural styles found in the area reaching the market is increasing because of the growing that corresponds to modern Syria are also offered for sale. The incidence of looting at source. If the cylinder seals are selling Mitanni empire, for example, which controlled parts of what well, and for a good price, an auction house might decide to is now Syria from the early sixteenth to the mid-fourteenth accept more cylinder seals for sale. But if the increased supply century BC, produced seals that are divided stylistically into is driving down desirability and price, an auction house might “Mitannian” and “Syro-Mitannian;” where these appeared in be more selective, choosing to accept only the better quality sales catalogues, they were tabulated as Syrian. The catalogue and thus more expensive seals. And the cylinder seals do not descriptions of cylinder seals are often focused on the physical exist in a material vacuum. Similar decisions will need to be appearance of the object: they are frequently described only made about other categories of object that might be sold in as “cylinder seals,” with a description of the materials used the same auction. In the limited time available, for example, and the scene depicted, but without any indication of the would it be more profitable for the auction house to sell a lot geographical origin, age or stylistic attributes of the object. It of cylinder seals or a lot of Greek vases? What are their relative is therefore possible that some seals listed simply as “cylinder availabilities? Which one would be the most likely to sell, and seals” are in fact “Syrian cylinder seals” and could be identified which would command the higher price? Thus any attempt as such by experts. They could not be recognized as Syrian by such as the present one to derive meaning from the auction the present authors, however, and so the statistics presented sales of a single type of object must pay close attention to the might underrepresent the presence of Syrian seals. material contexts of the market in which the sales took place, and the commercial response of the auction house concerned Analysis One: Auction House Antiquities Sales to those contexts.

Auction houses are in business to make a profit, and The original analyses of cylinder seal sales in 2006 took must balance many considerations when choosing what no account of their broader material and commercial contexts, consignments to accept and offer for auction. A primary concluding, perhaps naively, that the ending of cylinder seal consideration is likelihood of sale. An auction house devotes sales was in direct response to the very obvious damage time and resources to the presentation of every lot offered being caused by the well-documented theft and looting of for sale, and takes its profit by charging a buyer’s premium archaeological sites inside Iraq. Perhaps that conclusion was and seller’s commission on every lot sold. Thus if a lot fails at the time and continues to be the correct one, but a nagging to sell, it represents a real loss for the auction house, because doubt persists that other considerations were playing a larger the costs associated with the lot’s presentation and auction role than previously suspected. For Sotheby’s in particular, are not recovered. Then there is the issue of time. The time it is known that since 2002 the company has endeavored

6 www.artcrimeresearch.org Academic articles 7

6 and other lots with a pre-1970 provenance were were provenance a pre-1970 with lots other and 5 Figure 8 shows the provenance information provided provided information the provenance 8 shows Figure Support for this suggestion is forthcoming from the from forthcoming is this suggestion for Support Analysis Three: Cylinder Seal Sales at Christie’s London Seal Sales at Christie’s Cylinder Three: Analysis annually ered cylinder of seal off the number lots shows 7 Figure per price lot the mean 2013, and 1985 to from Christie’s, at more is the pattern that apparent is immediately It ered. off the number Although Sotheby’s. for remained the one confused and than er 2003 aft sharply off dropped ered off lots of of consignments onwards, 2009 from 2008, to through low in and Christie’s by accepted cylinder regularly seals were the relative that 5 shows Figure numbers. increasing gradually for low as of cylinder dropped never seal lots tability profi 2002, when it 1997 to From Sotheby’s. did for it as Christie’s 4-75 percent was it Sotheby’s, for 6-35 percent in the range was Christie’s. for the to 2014. Clearly, 1980 from at Christie’s ered off lots for provenance able verifi no with ered being off lots of number a 1), indicating Table er 2008 (see also aft sharply dropped information relay to Christie’s the part of on concern greater 5 the Metro- to loan on century, twentieth been in the early assembled having Erlen- in 1940. The published mostly and 35 years, Art for of Museum politan in said and published, well cylinder Collection less meyer though collection of also was known seals known, well well was Small Moore Ada The been in the 1960s. assembled have to the catalogue 6 to due the market on appearing quantities increased to due was in price up at the be data confirmed from cannot that but in Iraq, looting of the upsurge cylinder of seals keep to the failure that speculate to possible is hand. It to gather pace with increasingly smaller higher- sales of pace increasingly with gather to the how shows 5 objects. Figure expensive more and quality of of to that cylinder seal tability sales compared when profi 2000s. early and 1990s in the sales late decline to began overall in the for Sotheby’s nancial sense good made fi have would It cylinderof seals consignments accepting stop to mid-2000s material. of types table profi more on focus instead to and lots of the provenance 6 shows Figure statistics. provenance Th e of 2013. to end the 1985 through from at Sotheby’s ered off Small Moore the the 1991 sale Ada of of provenances pre-1970 CollectionCollection the the 1998 sales Erlenmeyer of and out, stand also off ered. Th of seals shortage no is there that show data ese ered. alsooff would seem ere Th provenance. a pre-1970 with in circulation from Sotheby’s ethical be preventing legalto no or obstacles material, well-provenanced such of consignments accepting beennot has it fact e that Th been happening. not has it but stop to decision Sotheby’s the idea that supports happening related selling cylinder primarily or necessarily seals not was with to do more had but cking, traffi and looting of issues to of tability the poor profi and upmarket move the company’s material. types other of to cylinder seals when compared Sotheby’s was was Sotheby’s 3 and then nothing up to the end of of the end to up then nothing and 4 Figure 4 shows the number of cylinder seal lots off ered ered cylinder of seal off the number lots 4 shows Figure the 2013, and 1985 to from York New Sotheby’s at annually ered no cylinder seals off ered. Sotheby’s off per price lot mean in 2004, lot in 2003, one Analysis Two: Cylinder Seal Sales at Sotheby’s New York York New Seal Sales at Sotheby’s Cylinder Two: Analysis moving closer to the ideal model of small sales of expensive smallthe ideal expensive closer salesto modelof of moving Christie’s for data the equivalent 2 presents objects. Figure and numbers of declining suggestion is some ere Th London. So the through Sotheby’s. for as so marked not but prices, rising annually, ering to 900 lots between 600 off was 1990s, Christie’s between to 300 down was the 2010s, the number by whereas by Christie’s ered being off lots of thenumber Still, lots. 700 and ered being off that double than more 2013 was in 2012 and are prices when Christie’s that 3 shows Figure Sotheby’s. by from been has separation a real there US dollars, to converted per lot tability profi thus and price mean of in terms Sotheby’s was by 2010s the Sotheby’s and 2000s, since the early ered off ese Th price. and quality of leader in terms the market clearly the cylinder for seals context a basic commercial provide data the cylinder of seals interpretation Any follow. that analyses context. this be commercial respect to with made must data 2013. Given the frequent presence of seals of in sales before presence the frequent 2013. Given decided stop in 2003 to does seem have to 2003, Sotheby’s cylinder that of to seals, adhered and consignments accepting known is what From 2013. of the end until least at decision is it however, model, business developing the company’s of looting about concerns to decision that attribute to began upmarket premature move er 2003, Sotheby’s Aft cking. traffi and successfully to move upmarket across all categories by selling by all categories across upmarket move to successfully objects expensive more thus and quality better but fewer Th isstrategy evident commercial is 100). 2008: ompson (Th the number how 1 shows sales Figure data. in the antiquities New by salesSotheby’s antiquities in annually ered off lots of was it 1999. While as early as perhaps decline started to York er something off to Sotheby’s the 1990s for during common number the 2010s that by annually, 900 lots between and 600 time, the same At 200 lots. between to 100 and down was increasing. was ered off per price lot the mean 3 for theStag and Artemis of statue bronze Imperial Roman lenistic/Early Lioness” “Guennol the Elamite 5 December of on 41) and (lot 28,600,000 USD the7 December sale to on due is Hel- a Late of the 7 June sale to on due is “spike” price 2010 The USD. 57,161,000 “spike” 2007 price for The 23,826,500 USD. for Antinous of bust Imperial a Roman of 4 Pan- the Charles part of Collection. major The Pankow the Charles from was a as Sotheby’s sold at was and Egyptian antiquities collection comprised kow 163 lots the cylinder of seals, before sale 158 out with the day owner single seals post-1989eight a with provenance, 2004, of in lot single The 42,707 of offered per price lot a mean or 6,961,290 USD, a total selling for the part been as of accepted have seals of may the consignment Thus USD. a is It sell to the Egyptian material. agreement highly profitable and larger to appear sell to what agree might house auction an how of goodexample profitable more and larger a partas of lots priced lower or bequality poorer consignment. www.artcrimeresearch.org about ownership histories7. Most of the lots offered after 2008 the bar was short-lived. It remains possible, however, that the (37 out of 55) were offered with a provenance dating back to events of 2003 occasioned deeper reflection within Christie’s between 1970 and 1989. Only one lot was offered with a post- about the hazards of offering unprovenanced objects for sale, 1989 provenance8, and nine were offered with no provenance. nourishing internal dialogue about what an appropriate policy On the face of it, that might suggest that Christie’s was trying might look like, and shaping what was ultimately implemented to restrict sales to material shown to have been outside Iraq at an unknown date and subsequently revealed in 2015. by the 1990 date of UNSCR 661, but a closer look shows that 27 out of the 37 lots with a provenance dating back to Analysis Four: Provenance and Pric between 1970 and 1989 were from the Surena Collection. The predominance of seals from a single consignor might have It is sometimes claimed that price responds positively to a biased the data. The provenance of the Surena Collection and provenance that reaches back a long time, and particularly one difficulties with its verification have already been discussed that stretches back to before the 1970 date of the UNESCO in relation to the 2001 sale at Christie’s New York. None of Convention. The data presented in Table 1 seem to confirm the lots sold at Christie’s London had been offered in the 2001 the claim. The median price of all lots sold at Christie’s during Christie’s New York sale. the period 2008 to 2013 is highest for those with a provenance that can be traced back to before 1970, and lowest for those By 2015, it was known publicly that Christie’s was with no provenance. This ranking is in line with observations using different date thresholds for what it considered to made by Hanson (2011: 124) about the price differential of be acceptable provenance when accepting antiquities provenanced and unprovenanced cylinder seals offered for consignments, depending upon the likely country of origin sale on-line. Various reasons have been suggested as to why of the antiquity being consigned. Before accepting an object a long provenance should provide a price premium (Brodie for sale, Christie’s required documentary evidence that it was 2014). One is that a long provenance assures legitimacy, out of its country of origin before a specified date. The date particularly one stretching back to before 1970 that renders was that of a Memorandum of Understanding with the USA, an object acceptable for museum acquisition, so that customer agreed under the 1983 Cultural Property Implementation preference will force the market to respond positively with Act9, the start of a conflict, or 2000, whichever was most higher prices – a process of autoregulation. A second possible appropriate (Cobden 2016). This implies that Christie’s did not reason is that a long provenance might act as a “quality filter,” in recognize other relevant laws or international conventions, that only good quality objects are likely to have been kept and such as for example UNSCR 661 or 1483, or the 1970 date collected over a prolonged period of time, and are therefore of the UNESCO Convention. The provenances of cylinder worth more when they come to auction. A third possibility is seal lots offered since 2008 seem to be broadly in accord with that the provenance itself might be of value, in that an object this policy. Remembering that the definition of provenance provides material association with the prestige or historical being used here is verifiable provenance, of the eight sold lots interest of an earlier owner. Looking more closely at the eight recorded as unprovenanced, seven had dates only placing lots sold with a pre-1970 provenance, four had a provenance them in European collections in the 1970s and 1980s, with that could be traced back to 1896 as part of the Charterhouse no names were provided. If those dates were all true, then Collection,10 while the remaining four had provenances dating all but one of the lots (sold in 2009) would have left Iraq back only as far as the 1960s. The median price of the four before the 1991 date of the Gulf War. So if a decision to stop Charterhouse lots was 7,219 GBP, while the median price of selling cylinder seals and other objects of Iraqi origin had the remaining four lots was 1,317 GBP, lower than that of the been made in 2003, it looks to have been modified by 2008, eight sold lots with no provenance. In this case at least, it looks perhaps because it was about that time the policy relating to to be the prestige of the Charterhouse name itself that was acceptable provenance that was known publicly by 2015 was pushing up prices, not concern over the 1970 date threshold first introduced. Thus if Christie’s did stop selling cylinder that would signal acceptability as a museum acquisition. seals in 2003 because of concerns about looting in Iraq, or at least concern about negative publicity and legal intimidation, Table 1. Provenance and price of cylinder seal lots offered and sold at Christie’s London since 2008. (All prices in GBP, standardized to 2005 value). 7 More research will be necessary to determine whether this in- crease in provenance information was specific to cylinder seals and perhaps other objects of suspected Iraqi origin, or whether it was general for all types of object. 8 April 2009, lot 102, with a verifiable provenance of 2004, but with 1999 offered as a date of previous ownership though without an owner”s name. 10 The Charterhouse Collection of antiquities belonged to Charter- 9 For sales in New York. It is not known whether the date of a mem- house, a long-established English school. It was sold at Sotheby’s London in orandum of understanding was considered significant for sales in London. 2002.

8 www.artcrimeresearch.org Academic articles 9 1,564 1,813 11,395 1,606 1,406 4,136 97 95 69 37 96 99 38 101 144 Not a single lot off ered by Christie’s prior to 2004 had a had 2004 to prior by Christie’s ered off lot single a Not Syria 2011 since across in looting increase e enormous Th Erlenmeyer Erlenmeyer (December) Erlenmeyer (Total) Surena nalysis Five: Syrian Cylinder Seals Syrian Cylinder Analysis Five: in Sotheby’s and London in BetweenChristie’s 2013, and 1985 of 129 total salecylinder a for ered between them off York New modern Syria. of the region certainly from or seal possibly lots cylinder Of the Syrian sold. were 86 percent Of those 129 lots, pre- able a verifi had 77 percent Sotheby’s, sealsold by lots old and large sales two of of one all from 1970 provenance, cylinder the the 1991 sale Ada of collections seals, of namely Collection the the sale 1998 Erlenmeyer of and Small Moore sold in lot, one only 23 percent, Collection. Of the remaining formed having of 1970-1989, provenance able a verifi 1993, had in 1988. sealsthe Bergaminicollection part of published of again, Here at all. provenance able verifi no had remainder e Th were provenances pre-1970 able the verifi that possible is it associated the prestige because of a lot of in the listing included note to important is it Nevertheless, owners. previous any with the preclude not did provenance able verifi of the absence that a lot. sale of only three of 2004, Since the beginning provenance. able verifi been certain modernin origin have or Syria possible a with lots back dating provenance all a with by Christie’s, sale for ered off the beginning of at hypothesized was betweento 1970-1989. It 2003 since auction cylinder for that seals appearing the study either Syrian, exclusively or been predominantly have might decision a conscious making were houses because the auction in er 2011 looting because aft or Iraq, from material avoid to of source a possible as in Iraq looting supplant to came Syria more becoming seals Syrian were and the market to supply data no is in evidence the Christie’s ere Th available. generally 9). Furthermore, those scenarios (Figure of either support to onwards 2011 ered from seals Syrian being off of the proportion decades. preceding of that from erent radicallydiff not was a collection with Surena the both ered, from off were two Only was sold. neither and provenance, ict pre-confl objects: Syrian ancient for market a is there that indicates worthwhile made task dangerous and arduous an is looting purpose of the the and therefore gain, nancial fi by primarily t profi generate to which objects nding from be fi must looters Syrian 2011, unprovenanced since sale. However, through cylinder been be found expected seals might as have such to in auction greater at sale for ered been off not have looters by they are that plausible therefore is It before. than numbers Mean price (lots offered) 15,779 1,820 Median Median price 4,091 2,981 1,538 Median price (lots sold) 5,506 966 Percentage Percentage lots sold 100 86 89 Percentage Percentage lots sold 100 94 Lots sold 8 32 1 8 Lots sold 140 59 Lots offered 8 37 1 9 Lots offered 140 63 Table 2. Th e sale statistics of three major collections of collections major of three e statistics sale 2. Th Table Sale Ada Small Ada Moore Erlenmeyer (June) Up to 1969 to Up 1970-1989 1990 onwards Nothing Provenance www.artcrimeresearch.org cylinder seals. (All prices in USD, standardized to 2005 value). to standardized cylinder seals.(All in USD, prices It is also informative to look at the sales statistics for three three for the sales statistics look at to also is informative It cylinder of collections seals the study sold during large Small the sale Ada of York New period: the 1991 Sotheby’s the sales of York New heby’s Collection, the Sot 1998 Moore York New Collection, the Christie’s 2001 Erlenmeyer and expected, the Ada As 2). Collection (Table the Surena saleof provenance Collection,well-documented is with SmallMoore the least 1930s, performed best, a median with at to back dating the comparison, by though, Surprisingly 5,506 USD. of price a with Collection poorly, Erlenmeyer performed somewhat ered from off all lots Nearly 1,406 USD. only of price median though sold, collections Erlenmeyer and Small Moore the Ada Collection sold, the Surena of smaller percentage much a verify to attempts facing culties the diffi because of perhaps Small the Ada either than shorter 1970-1989 provenance, its shorter its despite Yet provenances. theErlenmeyer or Moore per price the median provenance, problematical perhaps and the of Collection that closer to was the Surena sold for lot the Erlenmeyer of Collection that than Small Moore Ada sale more the Surena make to enough was Collection, it and sale had Erlenmeyer the for beenthan Christie’s for table profi were there although that show these results Perhaps Sotheby’s. Collection, the Surena of the provenance over doubts customer exceptional some were there notwithstanding provenance rm Thconfi results ese prices. high for sold er that sealsoff on between provenance relationship a positive while is there that inevitable an not is it one, straightforward a not is it price, and object quality, of considerations by be overridden may it one, exert might owners previous of prestige and the name and ethicalof propriety concerns price than upon uence infl more the UNESCO Convention. of the 1970 date around structured being made available for sale on the wider market away from public scrutiny. It certainly takes only a few minutes to find cylinder seals for sale on the Internet. If looted and trafficked Syrian seals are being offered for sale outside the auction houses to avoid the public gaze, it further brings into question the utility of auction house sales for measuring market volume or the effectiveness of various means of regulatory control.

Conclusion

In 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tablets, a move that at the time was interpreted as being in response to public anger over the looting of Iraqi museums and archaeological sites, and the associated restrictions placed on trade by UNSCR 1483. Ten years on from those events, these original conclusions do not appear so secure, though they cannot be discounted. There is a strong suggestion that Sotheby’s might have stopped selling cylinder seals because of its developing strategy of selling only good quality, expensive objects, and cylinder seals just could not command the prices required. Christie’s did markedly reduce the number of seals it was offering for several years, but started increasing them again in 2009, though possibly subject to satisfying a “pre-conflict” provenance threshold. There is a relationship between auction sales and their wider material and commercial contexts, but it is not a straightforward one. Auction sales do not offer a clear window onto the broader antiquities trade. If they offer a window at all, it is a distorting one, and care must be taken when interpreting what is seen.

10 www.artcrimeresearch.org Academic articles 11 Figure 2: Christie’s London. Total antiquities sales 1985-2013, no data for 1991. (All prices in GBP, 1991. (All in GBP, prices for sales data 1985-2013, no antiquities Total London. 2: Christie’s Figure 2005 value). to standardized Figure 1: Sotheby’s New York. Total antiquities sales 1985-2013. (All prices in USD, standardized to to standardized sales 1985-2013. (All in USD, prices antiquities Total York. New 1: Sotheby’s Figure 2005 value). www.artcrimeresearch.org Figures Figure 3: A comparison of annual mean price per lot offered for Sotheby’s New York and Christie’s London. (All prices expressed as USD, and standardized at 2005 values).

Figure 4: Sotheby’s New York. Cylinder seal sales 1985-2013, no data for 1996. (All prices in USD, standardized to 2005 value).

12 www.artcrimeresearch.org Academic articles 13 Figure 6: Provenances of cylinder seal lots off ered for sale at Sotheby’s New York (1985-2013, no (1985-2013, York New at Sotheby’s sale for ered cylinder of seal off lots 6: Provenances Figure 1996). for data Figure 5: Profi tability of cylinder seal sales, measured as the mean price per lot off ered ofered cylinder of off pricecylinder sealper lot mean as tability the sales,measured 5: Profi Figure sales (including of antiquities all ered off per price lot the mean of seal a percentage as sales expressed 1996. for data no 1991; Sotheby’s: for data no cylinder seals). Christie’s: www.artcrimeresearch.org Figure 7: Christie’s London. Cylinder seal sales 1985-2013, no data for 1991. (All prices in GBP, standardized to 2005 values).

Figure 8: Provenances of cylinder seal lots offered for sale at Christie’s London (1980-2013, no data for 1991).

14 www.artcrimeresearch.org Academic articles 15 Figure 9: Christie’s London. Syrian cylinder Syrian 1991. (All in seal prices London. for sales data 1980-2013, no 9: Christie’s Figure 2005 values). to standardized GBP, www.artcrimeresearch.org Acknowledgments

The paper was based on research conducted while Brodie was in receipt of funding from the European Research Council under FP7, grant number ERC StG-2011 283873 GTICO as part of the Trafficking Culture project.

References

Brodie, Neil (2006). “Iraq 1990–2004 and the London antiquities market.” In Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, and the Antiquities Trade, edited by Neil Brodie, Morag Kersel, Christina Luke and Kathryn W. Tubb, 206–26. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Brodie, Neil (2008). “The Western market in Iraqi antiquities.” In Antiquities Under Siege: Cultural Heritage Protection after the Iraq War, edited by Lawrence Rothfield, 63–74. Walnut Creek: AltaMira. Brodie, Neil (2014). “Provenance and price: autoregulation of the antiquities market.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 20(4): 427–44. Hanson, Katharyn (2011). “Ancient artefacts and modern conflict: a case study of looting and instability in Iraq”. In Cultural Heritage, Ethics, and the Military, edited by Peter Stone, 113-128. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer. Lahowin, Marina (2016). “Executive interview: Sandra L. Cobden.” Available at http://savingantiquities.org/executive-interview-sandra-l- cobden/, accessed 12 October 2016. Thompson, Don (2008).The $12 million Stuffed Shark: The Curious Economics of Contemporary Art. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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