a history Identifying Glyphs Timeline In traditional heraldic painting and ledger books, Prior to the 1860s, art was vital to America Indian culture. For the , art provided spiritual protection, social sta- gest temporality, as the past, present, and future were often portrayed in the same Plains artists used personal glyphs to communi- bility, and personal prestige. Unlike European tradition, there was no distinction between art and craft, and no separate artist composition. Figures remained two-dimensional, rendered with a thick outline class. Since art was an integral part of everyday life, everyone was an artist; some people simply had more skill than others. and filled with distinct areas of flat color. Traditional Heraldic robes were often cate stories. A “glyph” is a symbol that identifies 1840 Plains representational art, on which ledger art is based, was male dominated and consisted of pictographic painted horizontally across the widest expanse of buffalo hide, namely the area important people, places, and property. Its design signs, shorthand visual representations, used to communicate stories and histories. Clarity was of the upmost impor- around the torso, so Plains warrior artists typically chose to orient their ledger is based on a person or object’s name. For example tance, so figures were two-dimensional with frontal bodies and heads in profile. Facial features and dress were empha- books horizontally. ’s personal glyph, to the right, is a sized, as clothing communicated rank and tribal affiliation. Personalized glyphs, or While European settlers fought and negotiated with native peoples, wolf with lines flowing from its mouth, represent- symbols, were often painted above prominent individuals for identification. Heraldic American Indians were relocated to reservations and those who resisted were ing sound waves of a wolf’s howl. painting, a traditional form of representational art, recorded warriors’ brave deeds. imprisoned. In both places, ledger art served a starkly different purpose than it did As the settlers moved westward, they brought new materials. Plains warriors on the Plains. Prisoners were encouraged to sell artwork and ledger books were Anonymous (), Warrior with shield 1849 Howling Wolf is born acquired ledger books from friendly soldiers, through raids, and by trade. By 1868, purchased by soldiers, scouts, tourists, and eager anthropologists. More time and and lance under fire from unseen enemies, paper replaced buffalo hide as a medium, as its compact form was ideal for carrying abundant materials led to stylistic experimentation, resulting in the emergence of n.d, graphite and crayon on paper, 8 x 20 cm, on horseback. Paper needed no additional preparation like buffalo hide, so artists could the self-conscious artist. Manuscript 4452-B, National Anthropological carry the materials along with them, drawing from observation. Commercial colored On the reservation, in addition to being a source of income, art also Archives, Smithsonian Institution. 1850 Chief Young-Man-Afraid-Of-His-Horses or pencils, pens, and crayons were more portable than natural pigments and bone served as a mode of personal expression in the midst of oppressive surroundings Tasunka Kokipapi ( Lakota, 1830- brushes. Thus ledger book art replaced older forms of Heraldic painting while retain- and drastic change. No longer painted on hides for public display, the small, private paintings in ledger books became 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie 1900), Robe, 1870-1880, paint on buffalo ing many of its conventions. prized personal possessions. As the very foundation of their lives was irrevocably altered, Plains artists were able to record Howling Wolf’s Drawing Book, ca. 1875, Detail. No. 5 War Dance hide/skin, 225 x 190 cm, National As with earlier Heraldic paintings, Ledger books often contained the work past victories and old ways of life before they were forgotten. Creative power granted American Indians an authority they Museum of the American Indian. of multiple artists. Trails of footprints and the placement of figures continued to sug- had otherwise been stripped of, helping to maintain personal honor and the traditions of Plains people. Howling Wolf’s father, Eagle Head (or Minimic, left) and Howling Wolf (or Honanistto), Two Indian Chiefs in Fort San Marco, c. 1877. Photo courtesy of the Saint Augustine Historical Society Discussion Questions Howling Wolf Howling Wolf likely completed this ledger, his last known artwork, during his first three years Southern Cheyenne, 1849-1927 on the reservation. Although Howling Wolf’s reservation paintings are few, they are some When you look at Howling Wolf’s paintings, what do you see? of his most revolutionary. The stylistic change is drastic; in earlier drawings, Howling Wolf generally used crayon to apply flat, primary colors, while on the reservation he used ink, wa- 1860 m Drawing Book 1861 Howling tercolor, and opaque paint, blending the colors together. Departing from tradition, Howling 1864 & Eagle Wolf’s first battle What are the similarities and differences between Howling Wolf’s ca. 1875 Wolf depicts ceremonies, dances, and other scenes of everyday life in Joslyn’s twelve-page Head named Bowstring Society headman style and traditional Heraldic painting? ledger book. Although it is possible that these paintings were created with the intent to sell, m ink and watercolor on paper, 7 1/2 x 10 1/4 in., it seems unlikely. Howling Wolf paints Cheyenne historical events that happened long before 1865 Chief How did the arrival of non-native peoples affect the Plains Indians’ way of life? his birth, denoting major figures with their personalized glyphs. These images would have signed the Laramie Treaty Gift of Alexander M. Maish in memory profound personal meaning and importance within the Cheyenne community, but would m 1869 Battle of Washita River & be unfamiliar to non-Indians. In these paintings, Howling Wolf records a people’s history and of Anna Bourke Richardson Death of Chief Black Kettle How did being displaced and relegated to reservations affect American Indian art? preserves a way of life. 1870 Northern Cheyenne Joslyn Art Museum 1991.19 moved to reservation 1870 1874 Intertribal A Cheyenne Chief meets a white man for The Cheyenne first acquired horses over The Sun Dance is performed once a year by Howling Wolf unconventionally shows the attack on Adobe Walls 1875 Southern Cheyenne surrender the first time. Behind the trader, a Sioux 150 years before Howling Wolf’s time, the whole Cheyenne community to ensure dancers from behind. Cheyenne women to government; Howling Wolf & Eagle Chief holds a pipe, a sign of friendship. revolutionizing hunting and warfare. A the tribe’s well-being. The men in front are parade enemy scalps and a bloodied arm Head imprisoned at Fort Marion This event took place over a hundred years flint arrowhead glyph identifies the Flint members of the soldier society of the Sun in celebration of the men’s success at war. prior to Howling Wolf’s birth. Rather than or Arkansas River. The Cheyenne are on Dance Makers, shooting at a rawhide figure A scalp or limb was valued for the honor 1876 The Battle of Little Bighorn; paint from memory, he paints an event the right preparing to trade a dog travois of the enemy. Musicians sit in the center, it implied in first touching a fallen enemy. Howling Wolf goes to Boston that forever altered the course of Cheyenne (sled), while the are on the left with while spectators crowd in from behind. Small pieces of scalp were used to fringe 1877 Howling Wolf history. a horse. The X’s indicate previous trades. Most ledger drawings display action from war clothing and bridles. returns to Fort Marion left to right. This view is unusual in that 1878 Howling Wolf it shows a singular moment from the 1880 released from Fort Marion ceremony from an aerial perspective. No. 1 The first white men seen by the Cheyenne No. 2 First Horses No. 3 Medicine Lodge No. 4 Scalp Dance 1881 Eagle Head dies

Howling Wolf, identified by his personal In addition to dancing for war and ritual, Buffalo hunts were very dangerous. A Prior to their nomadic lifestyle, the 1883 Widespread draught glyph, leads the Bowstring Society in a the Cheyenne also enjoyed dancing for horse slips on the undulating hills. Its rider Cheyenne grew corn. A woman underneath and starvation on the Plains war dance to energize his fellow warriors pleasure. Here Howling Wolf paints a social falls headfirst. Blood pours from the buf- an arching brush-shelter cooks alongside a 1884 Howling Wolf becomes and encourage men to join the raid. His dance. The men at the left play one large faloes’s mouths and wounds. The overlap- plot of corn and squash. Her dress is typical Warrior Society headman horse is painted with symbolic wounds in drum, providing music for the young man ping tracks cutting across the page show of the 1870s; she sports a choker, a cape commemoration of past battles. Figures and woman in the center of the . The the fast and chaotic nature of the chase. with sleeves, a skirt with side panels, a are cut off, suggesting the continuation of hide enclosure is pulled back to allow air Howling Wolf blends colors to emphasize silver belt and moccasins. It is interesting 1890 1892 Reservation land divided space beyond the picture plane. circulation and provide spectators with a the dynamism of this gruesome scene. Howling Wolf presents her as such, as better view. The young man tenderly wraps the scene took place long before Howling & sold into individual allotments his blanket around the young woman’s Wolf’s birth. shoulders. 1898 Curtis Act mandates No. 5 War Dance No. 6 Social Dance No. 7 Buffalo Hunt No. 8 Corn Field allotment of all tribal lands

Nomadic tribes often held competitions be- Traditionally marriage was negotiated The hunters dressed in war apparel, Roman Nose was a Southern Cheyenne 1899 Congress granted tween different warrior societies or bands. between a Cheyenne brave and the bride’s perhaps on the way to a raid, pause to leader, identified at the front of the war railroad companies rights-of-way Howling Wolf simultaneously shows past and parents, but occasionally an elopement hunt. This was a common occurrence, as procession by his personal glyph. After a 1900 through American Indian lands present, painting both the start and near took place. Footprints surrounding the tipi providing sustenance for the tribe was of battle, returning warriors would pause culmination of an old fashioned horse race. suggest careful deliberation. Their intricate utmost importance. At the top, Howling outside the village, changing into ceremo- The stakes are displayed at the left by the dress and tipi indicate status. In fact, the Wolf paints a spotted dog chasing a deer, nial clothing before charging victoriously starting line: a quiver, folded robe, lance, and glyph above the tipi marks it as the home perhaps an allegorical representation of back to camp. Men shoot into the air and 1907 Oklahoma Territory merged two horses, winner takes all. He adds dyna- of Red Cloud, an Oglala Lakota Chief. the hunt. wave scalps in celebration as the women with American Indian Territory mism to the scene by blending colors in the come out to congratulate them. stream, making the water appear to flow. Streamers blow in the wind, and the horses strain forward, flying towards the finish. No. 9 Horse Race No. 10 Elopement No. 11 Antelope Hunt No. 12 Roman Nose 1910

Howling Wolf (Honanistto) Born in 1849, Howling Wolf’s life bridged a period of immense transition on the prints to indicate movement and the passage of time. He continued to paint in two dimensions with a bold, steady outline. ment of non-Indians, the tribe’s primary food source, the buffalo, was hunted to Great Plains; he was a nomadic warrior, prisoner, and ultimately resident of a res- However, in contrast to traditional Plains artists who produced public art, Howling Wolf became a self-conscious artist, near extinction. By outlawing raids, European settlers took away the very mecha- ervation in present day Oklahoma. In only a decade, Howling Wolf saw his people’s realizing his own personal style. With more time and ample supplies, he practiced with the conventions of Heraldic nism by which Plains men achieved personal growth, determined status, and Howling Wolf, “At the Sand Creek Massacre”, Oberlin way of life irrevocably changed. painting, adding landscape elements to create more complete scenes. He experimented with his technique, using inks, ultimately formed their identities. Disease and starvation ravaged the reservation Ledger p. 4, 1874-1875, pen, ink, and watercolor on The outhernS Cheyenne had a sociopolitical structure divided into civil pencils, crayons, and washes, alternating between light application and deep saturation; he even blended colors periodi- due to insufficient rations and medical assistance: aid that had been promised. 1920 ledger paper, 8 x 12 1/2 in., Gift of Mrs. Jacob D. Cox, and military branches. Council chiefs and warrior society headmen were elected cally. Perhaps most radical of all, he illustrated figures from above and behind, He became disillusioned with the false promises of the U.S. govern- 1904, AMAM 04.1180.5, Courtesy of Allen and all subordinate to the head chief. In the 1850s–60s, Chief Black Kettle desired utilizing foreshortening. ment. He wrote to Sergeant Pratt, saying, “You gave me the white man’s road Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin College. peace with non-Indians. Howling Wolf’s father, Eagle Head, was headman of the At Fort Marion, Howling Wolf suffered from rapidly failing eyesight. and it is very good. At the fort you gave us cloth[e]s but we have been here Bowstring Society and initially he supported Black Kettle’s peace efforts. Eagle Head was in good standing with the authorities, so when the prison one year and they are about all gone…When I hunted the Bufalo [sic] I was not 1924 Indian Citizenship Act In Plains culture, men gained status by participating in raids and battles so surgeon seemed to be doing more harm than good, Howling Wolf was sent to poor; when I was with you I did not want for eney [sic] thing but here I am poor extends citizenship and voting Howling Wolf, Fort Marion, 1876. pencil, crayon despite his father’s desire for peace, at age 15, Howling Wolf likely fought in defense Boston for treatment. There, he became enamored with the white man’s way I would like to go out on the planes a gane [sic] where I could rome [sic] at will rights to all American Indians & ink on paper. Courtesy New York State Library of his people at the Sand Creek Massacre. He participated in several conflicts, joining of life. He learned how to speak English and Spanish fluently and abandoned and not come back a gain.” his father in battle at the Adobe Walls. After the failed attack and harsh winter of traditional dress. Five months after returning to Fort Marion, Howling Wolf Abandoning the white man’s way of life, Howling Wolf sought honor through traditional means. He became a 1874–75, the Southern Cheyenne surrendered to the U.S. government, and Eagle was released to the reservation, where he sought to convert others to his new prominent leader and worked to reclaim Cheyenne land and helped acquire food during intense famine. Howling Wolf’s 1927 Howling Wolf dies Head and Howling Wolf were imprisoned in Fort Marion, Florida. way of life by preaching about the good of the Bible and farming. For three desire for status may have limited his artistic production on the reservation. Art was no longer viewed as sufficient means Sergeant Pratt, Howling Wolf’s guard, supplied prisoners with art materials years, Howling Wolf worked various jobs, serving as assistant at the agency of bringing spiritual and social stability, so he could no longer achieve the honor he sought though it. Howling Wolf, Southern Cheyenne, and encouraged them to provide for their families by selling artwork to curious tour- school and as a private for the agency police. Howling Wolf, Fort Marion, pencil, crayon & ink on Near the end of his life Howling Wolf yet again decided to profit from ‘Indian exoticism.’ He and one of his sons 1930 photo while imprisoned at Fort Marion ists. The majority of Howling Wolf’s artwork was completed during this period. He After his father’s death in 1881, Howling Wolf saw that adopting the paper. Courtesy Western Americana Collections, founded a wild-west type show in Houston, Texas, where they recreated a Cheyenne village, performing dances for tour- Background Image: Howling Wolf’s Drawing Book, ca. 1875, Detail. No. 10 Elopment in Florida, ca. 1876 kept close ties to traditional Heraldic painting, using a horizontal orientation and foot- white man’s way of life hurt his people more than it helped. With the encroach- Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale U. ists twice a day. In 1927 he died in an automobile accident on his way home from one of the shows. This project is supported by the generous contributions of Blue Cross Blue Shield of Nebraska, The Dixon Family Foundation, Gilbert M. and Martha H. Hitchcock Foundation, poster © Joslyn Art Museum 2014 Iowa West Foundation, Mammel Foundation, Nebraska Arts Council, Nebraska Cultural Endowment, and Wells Fargo HOWLING WOLF (SOUTHERN CHEYENNE, 1849–1927) DRAWING BOOK ca. 1875, INK AND WATERCOLOR ON PAPER

JOSLYN ART MUSEUM© OMAHA, NEBRASKA Gift of Alexander M. Maish in memory of Anna Bourke Richardson, 1991.19