Chronology of How the West Was Lost

1540: Coronado leads Spanish expedition on to southern plains. 1600-1700: Horses spread from the Southwest aeross the plains. 1779-83: Major smallpox epidemie from Mexieo to Canada. 1801-02: Smallpox epidemie. 1804-06: Lewis and Clark expedition. 1830: Indian Removal Aet: Tribes from the Southeast and Great Lakes foreed west to and Arkansas. 1837: Smallpox breaks out on upper Missouri and spreads aeross the plains. 1846-48: War between the Vnited States and Mexico. 1848-49: California . 1851: Treaty of Fort Lararnie with northern plains tribes. 1854: annihilate LieutenantJohn Grattan's eommand. 1861-65: Ameriean Civil War. 1862: Sioux "uprising" in Minnesota. 1864: Colorado militia massaeres Southern at Sand Creek. 1866-67: " War": Sioux fight to dose . 1867: Treaty of Medicine Lodge with southem plains tribes. 1867-83: Buffalo herds exterminated. 1868: Vnited States Army campaigns against southern plains tribes; George Custer destroys Southem village on the Washita River. Treaty of Fort Laramie with the Sioux. 1869: Transeontinental railroad eompleted. 1869-70: Smallpox on the northem plains. 1870: Vnited StatesArmy destroys Piegan village on the Marias River. 1871: V.S. Congress eeases to make treaties with Indian tribes. 1874-75: Red River War on the southem plains. 1875: Seventy-two southem plains warriors sentas prisoners ofwar to Fort Marion, Florida.

209 210 CHRONOLOGY OF HOWTHE WEST WAS LOST

1876-77: "The Great Sioux War": Sioux and Cheyennes annihilate Custer's command at the Little Big Horn. 1877: killed. 1879: Captain Richard H. Pratt opens Carlisie Indian School in CarlisIe, Pennsylvania. 1881: surrenders. 1881: U.S. Supreme Court decides Ex Parte Crow Dog. 1883: Courts ofIndian Offenses established. 1887: Congress passes Dawes A1Iotment Act. 1889-90: spreads from Nevada to the plains. 1890: Sitting BuH killed. at Pine Ridge reservation, . 1903: U.S. Supreme Court mIes Congress has power to abrogate treaties with Indian tribes in Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock. Questions for Consideration

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the documents and drawings reproduced in this book as sources for understanding or reconsidering Plains Indian history and the history of the Arnerican West? 2. What do the sources in this book tell us about the lives and experi• ences of ? What do they omit? 3. Which, if any, ofthe sources appear (a) to be of dubious authenticity; (b) to betray the influence of non-Indian editors or interpreters; or (c) to have been created consciously for a white audience? 4. The region in the early nineteenth century has been described as "a world in flux." To what extent do the sources justify this description? 5. Account for the relatively rapid defeat of the Plains Indians by the in the second half of the nineteenth century. 6. What do the sources in this book reveal about the different ways in which Indian people responded to the demands and pressures im• posed by the United States government in the late nineteenth cen• tury? 7. In what ways did the lives of Plains Indian people change between 1800 and 1900? In what ways, if any, did their lives display continuity and resilience? 8. Two Leggings said that "nothing happened" after his people were confined to the reservation. What evidence do the sources in this book provide to help us (a) understand this reaction and (b) refute this statement?

211 Selected Bibliography

The literature on the history and culture of the Plains Indians is volumi• nous. This bibliography lists only a selection of the sources used in preparing this book. Students should refer to the notes for additional works.

PRIMARY SOURCES Annual Reports olthe Board olIndian Commissioners 1870-1880 (Washing• ton, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1871-81). Gary Clayton Anderson and Alan R. Woolworth, eds., Through Dakota Eyes: Narrative Accounts 01 the Minnesota Indian War 011862 (St. Paul: Minne• sota Historical Society Press, 1988). Althea Bass, The Way: A Memoirolan Indian Boyhood (NewYork: Clarkson N. Potter, 1966). George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions 01 NorthAmerican Indians. 2 vols. (London: Author, 1844). Raymond J. DeMallie, ed., The Sixth Grandlather: The Teachings 01 Given to John G. Neihardt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984). , From the Deep Woods to Civilization: Chapters in the Autobiography 01 an Indian (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977 ed.). Jerome A. Greene, comp. and ed., Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views olthe Great Sioux War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994). Charles J. KappIer, ed., Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. 2 vols. (Washing• ton, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1904). Arnold Krupat, ed., Native AmericanAutobiography: An Anthology (Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, 1994). O. G. Libby, ed., 'The Narrative of the Campaign Against the Hostile Dakotas," Collections 01 the State Historical Society 6 (1920). Frank B. Linderman, Plenty Coups, Chielol the Crows (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962). Frank B. Linderman, Pretty-shield, Medicine Woman olthe Crows (Lincoln: University of N ebraska Press, 1972). Garrick Mallery, "Picture Writing of the American Indians," 10th Annual Report olthe Bureau 01 American Ethnology, 1888-89 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1893),266-328.

213 214 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thomas B. Marquis, interpreter, : A Warrior Who Fought Custer (Minneapolis: The Midwest Co., 1931). . lames Mooney, "Calendar History ofthe Indians," 17thAnnual Report olthe Bureau 01 American Ethnology 1895-96, part 1 (Washington, D.C.: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1898), 129-445. lames Mooney, 'The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of1890," 14th Annual Report 01 the Bureau 01American Ethnology, 1892-93, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1896). Peter Nabokov, Two Leggings: The Making 01 a Crow Warrior (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967). lohn G. Neihardt, : Beingthe Life Story ola HolyMan olthe Sioux (Iincoln: Vniversity of Nebraska Press, 1988 ed.). "Prince Maximilian of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, 1832-1834," in Reuben G. Thwaites, ed., Early Travels, 1748- 1846, vols. 22-25 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1906). Report 01 the Joint Special Committee on the Condition 01 the Indian Tribes. [Doolittle ReportJ 39th Congress, 2nd session (1866-67) Senate Report No. 156. Serial1279. lames Willard Schultz, Blackleet and Buffalo: Memories 01 Life among the Indians (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1962). , My People the Sioux (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928). M. W. Stirling, 'Three Pictographic Autobiographies of Sitting Bull," Smith• sonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 95, no. 5 (Washington: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1938). Stanley Vestal, ed., New Sources 01 Indian History, 1850-1891 (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1934). W. Raymond Wood and Thomas D. Thiessen, eds., Early Fur Trade on the Northern Plains: Canadian Traders among the and Indi• ans, 1738-1818 (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1985).

SECONDARYSOURCES lanet Catherine Berlo, "Wo-Haw's Notebooks: 19th Century Kiowa Indian Drawings in the Collections of the Missouri Historical Sodety," Gateway Heritage 3 (Fall 1982), 5-13. Alfred W. Bowers, "Hidatsa Sodal and Ceremonial Organization," Bureau 01 American Ethnology Bulletin 194 (Washington, D.C.: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1965). H. David Brumble, III,AmericanIndianAutobiography (Berkeley: Vniversity of California Press, 1988). Colin G. Calloway, '''The Only Way Open to Vs': The Crow Struggle for Survival in the Nineteenth Century," North Dakota History 53 (Summer 1986), 25-34. lohn C. Ewers, The Blackleet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1958). Dan Flores, "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains, 1800-1850," Journal 01American History 78 (1991),465-85. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 215

Carolyn Gilman and Mary Jane Schneider, The Way to Independence: Memo• ries 0/a Hidatsa Indian Family, 1840-1920 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1987). FrederickE. Hoxie, Parading Through History: The Making o/the Crow Nation in America, 1805-1935 (N ew York: Cambridge University Press, 1995). J oseph J ablow, 'The Cheyenne in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795-1840," Monographs 0/ the American Ethnological Society 19 (1966; reprinted Lin• coln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994). Douglas C. J ones, The Treaty 0/ M edicine Lodge: The Story 0/ the Great Treaty Council as Told by Eyewitnesses (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966). Evan M. Maurer, et al. Visions o/the People: A Pictorial History o/Plains Indian Li/e (Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 1992). James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem (Iincoln: University of N ebraska Press, 1965). Karen Daniels Peterson, Howling Wolf.· A Cheyenne Warrior's Graphie Inter• pretation 0/ His People (palo Alto, Cal.: American West Publishing, 1968). James P. Ronda, Lewis and Clark among the Indians (Iincoln: University of NebraskaPress, 1984). Frank R. Secoy, "Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains," Mono• graphs 0/ the American Ethnological Society 21 (1953; reprinted Iincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992). Joyce M. Szabo, Howling Wolf and the History 0/ (Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1994.) Russen Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987). Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier 0/ 1846-1890 (Albuquerque: University of N ew Mexico Press, 1984). Robert M. Utley, The Lance and the Shield: The Li/e and Times 0/ Sitting Bult (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1993). James Welch, Fools Crow (NewYork: Penguin, 1987). Richard White, 'The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," Journal 0/ American History 65 (1978),319-43. 216 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

(Continuedfrom page ii) Little Bear, 'The , 1864." From Li/e 01 George Bent: Written from His Letters, by George E. Hyde. Copyright © 1968 by the University of Oklahoma Press. Lone Man, 'The Death of Sitting Bull, 1890." From New Sources 01 Indian History, 1850-1891: A Misceltany, by Stanley Vestal. Copyright © 1934 by the University of Oklahoma Press. Old Lady Horse, 'The Last Buffalo Herd." From American Indian Mythology, by Allce Marriot and Carol KRachlin, pp. 173-77. Copyright © 1968 by Alice Marriot and Carol K Rachlin. Reprinted with permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. Saukamappee, "Memories of War and Smallpox, 1787-1788." From David Thompson's Narrative, 1784-1812, edited by Richard Glover. Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1962, pp. 240-47. Sweezy, Carl, "Learning the White Man's Ways" and "On Taking 'the New Road.' "From The Arapaho Way, by Althea Bass. Copyright © 1966 by Althea Bass. Reprinted by permission of Crown Publishers, Inc. Two Leggings, 'The Dream and Reality of a Raid." From Two Leggings: The Making 01 a Crow Warrior, by Peter Nabokov, pp. 122-26. Copyright © 1967 by Peter Nabokov. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. Wooden Leg, "A Cheyenne Account of the Battle" and "Serving asJudge." From Wooden Leg,A Warrior Who Fought Custer, byThomas B. Marquis. Minneapolis: Midwest Co., 1931, pp. 217-21, 366-69. Reprinted by permission ofthe University ofNebraska Press.

IllUSTRATIONS Figure 2. A Great Battle. Courtesy of the Southwest Museum, . Photo N.34650. Figure 3. Lone Dog's BujJalo Robe. Courtesy of the National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution, N ew York. Figure 5. Trading Gunsfor Horses. Courtesy oUoslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska. Figure 7. Four Bears, as Painted by Karl Bodmer in 1834. Courtesy of Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska. Figure 8. BujJalo Robe. Courtesy of the Bernisches Historisches Museum, Bern, Swit• zerland. Figure 9. Four Bears's Drawing Depicting His Kilting 01 a Cheyenne Chief Courtesy of JoslynArtMuseum, Omaha, Nebraska. Figure 10. Crow Indians Pursue Sioux in a Running Battle. Courtesy of State University, Billings, Montana. Figure 11. PieganArtist George Bult Child's Hide Painting olthe Massacre on the Marias (ca. 1930). Courtesy ofthe Art Museum, 1985.106. Figure 12. Council with Army OjJicers. Courtesy of the Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Figure 13. A Drawing 01 BujJalo Hunting in the Old Days by Howling Wolf and Soaring Eagle. Courtesy of Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin College, Oberlin, . Figure 14. Seizing a Soldier's Gun at the Battle 01 the Little Big Horn. Courtesy of the Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, Crow Agency, Montana. Figure 15. The Indian Village in the Valley olthe Little Big Horn. Courtesy ofthe National AnthropologicalArchives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Figure 16. Soldiers Charging the Indian Village. Courtesy ofthe N ationalAnthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Figure 17. Repulsing Reno's Attack, as Indicated by the Cavalry Being Forced Back Over Their Own Hoofprints. Courtesy of the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution,Washington,D.C. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 217

Figure 18. The Sioux Fighting Custer's Command. Courtesy of the National Anthropo• logicalArchives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Figure 19. The Dead Soldiers and Indians. Courtesy of the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Figure 20. The Indians Leavingthe Battlejield as They Hearthat RelielColumns olInlantry Are Approaching. Courtesy of the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institu• tion, Washington, D.C. Figure 22. Kiowa Husbands and Wives Going to a Dance. Courtesy of the Moming Star Gallery, Santa Fe, . Figure 23. U.S. Indian Agent and Chiel 01 Police Take a Child to School. Courtesy of Montana State University, Billings, Montana. Figure 24. Wohaw's Self-Portrait. Courtesy of the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, Missouri. Figure 25. Sitting Bult's Drawings olScenes/rom His Li/e as a Warrior (1870). Courtesy ofthe National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Figure 26. Sitting Bult. Courtesy of the Montana Historical Society, Helena, Montana. Figure 27. The Ghost Dance. Courtesy of the National Museum of Natural History, Department ofAnthropology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Index

Afraid of Hawk, Charles, 195 resistance to, 13-14 Agents See also speci/ic campaigns cooperation of Indians with, 20 Art reservation life and, 150-52 decoding conventions in, 27 role of, 15 reservations and, 27-28 AJcoholuse,5, 14,19, 153 traditional use of, 27 AJlotmentAct (DawesAct), 17-18, 19, 187 , 42 American Fur Company, 68 and smallpox, 69 , 13 Autobiographies, 24-27 American Horse, Robert (N akpa Kesela), 174,178 Baker, Colonel Eugene M., 106 (AlM), 206 Baker, Hiram, 108 Another Language (Eatoka), 93 Bald Eagle, 138 Indians, 49 Bautista de Anza, Juan, 122 competition among tribes and, 6 Bear Head, 107 guns and tribai expansion and, 38 on the Massacre on the Marias, 108-10 loss ofterritory and, 11 Bear That Catches, 192, 193 reservation life and, 19 Bear's Tooth, 122 Spaniards and, 5 BearTongue, 104 Treaty ofMedicine Lodge and, 111, 112 Beef, and food customs, 159-66 warfare between the Army and, 14 Bent, George, 103 Arapaho Indians, 49 Bent, William, 10-11 competition among tribes and, 72, 76, Benteen, Captain Frederick, 134 85,87 Big Eagle, ]erome, 90 Ghost Dance religion and, 198 account of the Great Sioux Uprising by, location of, 3, 4 (map) 91-96 loss ofterritory and, 11 Big Foot, 20, 199, 200 smallpox and, 40-41 Big Head, 104 trading and, 38-40 Big Lake, 82, 106 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111, 112 Black Beaver, 22 warfare between the Army and, 9, 103 Black Elk, 13, 123, 200 Arapooish (Rotten Belly) , 76 interviews with, 26 describes Crow country, 77 on reservation lite, 150-52 Arikara Indians, 61 on the Ghost Dance religion, 196 BattIe of the LittIe Big Horn and, 135- on the W ounded Knee massane, 200-03 37 Blackfeet Indians location of, 3, 4 (map) buffalo hunting and, 123 smallpox and, 40, 68, 69 cholera and, 40 speech of Four Bears to, 68-69 guns and tribai expansion and, 40 trading and, 7, 38 location of, 3, 4 (map) Army Massane on the Marias and, 105-10, campaigns conducted by, 9-13 107 (illus.)

218 INDEX 219

smallpox and, 42, 69, 105 Buffalo Bird Woman, 155, 169 trading and, 7,40 on child-rearing, 168 , 41, 72 on life before reservations, 156 Blackfoot Sioux (Sihaspa), 6 on smallpox, 69 Black Head, 80 Buffalo Calf Road, 84 , 10, 12, 23, 87 , 15 , 9, 11, 103, 104 Buffalo robes Black Shield, 74, 75 of Four Bears, 64-67, 65 (iBus.) Black Short Nose, 198 Pawnee Indians and, 60 , 135 Bullhead, Lieutenant Henry, 191-94 Boarding schools, 16--17,20,168-81,205 Bureau ofAmerican Ethnology, 33,186 "American" values emphasized in, 16- Bureau ofindian Affairs, 15, 24, 106 17,168 Burleigh, Agent, 97, 98, 99, 100 difficulties of students after leaving, 178-80 California, settlement of, 8 hair cutting in, 169, 174-75 Carlisle Industrial School, Pennsylvania, as a haven from difficult conditions, 16,171 171 difficulties of students after leaving, literacy and, 24 178-80 Standing Bear on life at, 168, 169, 171, founding of, 169 172-78 Standing Bear on attending, 168, 169, taking of children for, 169, 170 (iBus.) 172-78 visits by parents to, 178 visits of parents to, 178 Board ofIndian Commissioners, 16 Carson, Kit, 103 Bobtail Wolf, 81 Catlin, George, 61, 62, 64, 66 Bob-tailed BuB, 135, 136 Chardon, Francis, 61, 68 Bodmer, Karl, 62, 63 (illus.), 64, 66 Cherokee Indians Boils His Leggings, 80-81 competition among tribes and, 6 Bonin, Gertrude, 205 warfare and, 102 Bourke, Captain]ohn, 49 Cheyenne Indians Boy Chief, B6 Battle of the Little Big Horn and, 1:15, Bozeman Trail, 9-10 137-40, 139 (illus.) Brings Plenty, 145 competition among tribes and, 6, 72, Brule Indians 76,84,85,87,135 competition among tribes and, 6 epidemie diseases and, 41 trading and, 39 Ghost Dance religion and, 198 warfare between the Army and, 9 killing of, by Four Bears, 64, 67 (illus.) winter count mention of, 35 ledger art and, 27 Buffalo, 121-32 location of, :1, 4 (map) current revival of populations of, 207 loss ofterritory and, 10 eating beef in place of, 159-66 reservation life and, 18 estimates of population of, 121 trading and, 7, :18-40, 47-49, 48 (illus.) expansion westward and, 122-23 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111, farming as alternative to, 121-22 112 impact of slaughter of, 9, 12, 13, 102, tribaI judges and, 156--59 121 warfare between the Army and, 9, 13, Kiowa Indians and, 123, 128-30 103 OId Lady Horse on, 129-30 winter count mcntion of, 34 Pawnee Indians and, 56, 59-60 Chief.T oseph, 13 Piegan Indians and, 206 Chinook Indians, 7 Pretty Shield on, 130-32 Chippewa Indians, 93. See also Ojibwa In- railroads and, 123, 129 dians Sioux Indians and, 94, 121,122 Chiricahua Indians, 14 Standing Bear on, 125-26 Chisholm, J esse, 22 Sweezy on, 126-28 Chivington, Colonel John, 9, 103 220 INDEX

Cholera, 8, 40, See also Diseases CurlewWoman,110 Christianity, 15, 17 Custer, George Armstrong, 85 Civil War, 9, 111, 122 Indian expeditions led by, 11, 12, 103 Clark, Ben, 49 Little Big Horn and, 13, 18, 133, 144, Clark, Malcolm, 106 147, 148, 157 ,14 Sioux counts on, 31 Cody, , 183 Cut-Lip-Bear, 104 Collier, John, 205 Co manche Indians Dakota Indians cholera and, 40 location of, 89 competition among tribes and, 6, 76 winter count mentions of, 33, 34 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 See also Great Sioux Uprising; Mdewa- location of, 3, 4 (map) kanton loss of territory and, 10 Darlington, Brinton, 160, 161, 163 reservation life and, 19 Dawes, Henry, 17, 187 smallpox and, 8 DawesAct (AllotmentAct), 17-18, 19, Spaniards and, 5 187 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111, DeMallie, Raymond J., 22, 23, 26 112,115-16 Diseases Comes In Sight, 84 American expansion and spread of, 8 Coolidge, Sherman, 205 impact of, 7-8, 37, 40-41 Coronado, Francisco de, 3-5 Pawnee Indians and, 56 Courts ofIndian Offenses, 15, 159 winter count mentions of, 33 Wooden Leg on being ajudge in, 156- See also Cholera; Measles; Smallpox 59 Dog Chief, 202, 2m Crazy Horse, 10 Doolittle, J ames R., 96 Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 133, Dorman, Isaiah, 135 148 Drawings pacification campaign and, 12-13 decoding conventions in, 27 Cree Indians reservations and, 27-28 competition among tribes and, 6 traditional use of, 27 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 in winter counts, 32-36, 32 (illus.) trading and, 42 DuBray, Fred, 207 Crook, General George, 13, 133 Dull Knife, 13 Crooked Arm, 78, 84 CrowDog,19 Eastman, Charles, 24, 157,205 Crow Foot, 191, 19:1, 194 education of, 20, 169, 171 Crow Indians on reservation life, 152-53 alliance between the United States and, Wounded Knee massacre and, 200 86-87 Eddy, Agent, 157, 159 Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 135 Edson, Casper, 198, 199 buffalo hunting and, 130-32 Education, 16-17,20 competition among tribes and, 6, 72, "American" vaIues emphasized in, 16-17 84, 135 government policies on, 16 location of, 3, 4 (map) literacy and, 24, 205 reservation life and, 20 See also Boarding schools smallpox and, 50, 69 Evans, John, 103 trading and, 7, 40 Ex Parte Crow Dog, 19 Two Leggings's quest for power and, 78-84, 83 (illus.) Farming, 18, 121-22 warfare and, 76, 77 Fetterman, Captain William, 10 winter count mentions of, 33, 35-36 Films, Hollywood images of Indians in, 1, Crow King, 148 2,8,56 Crow Neck, 104 Firearms. See Guns Cuerno Verde, 122 First Worker, 76 INDEX 221

Fishermore, 22 Harney, General William S., 9, 35, 111, Flathead Indians, 7 114 trading and, 40 Hawk High Up, 80 wariare and, 76 Hawkman, 194 Forsyth, ColonelJames, 199 Heavy Runner, 106, 107, 108, 109 Fort Berthold reservation, North Dakota, Henderson, John B., 111, 112 69 Hidatsa Indians, 24, 61 Fort Laramie competition among tribes and, 6, 72 Treaty of 1851,9 location of, 3, 4 (map) Treaty of 1868, 10, 12, 121, 133 smallpox and, 68, 69 Fort Marion, Florida, 12,27,47 trading and, 7, 40 Four Bears (Mato Tope) , 61, 66--68,108 Higheagle, Robert, 191 buffalo robe of, 64-66, 65 (illus.) Historical records combat with a Cheyenne chief, 67 oral tradition and, 21-22, 50 (illus.), 66 winter counts as, 31-36 death of, 69 Horses portrait of, 62, 63 (illus.) Arapooish on, 77 smallpox and, 61, 68 intertribaI competition and, 37-38 speech of, to the and Saukamappee on, 44 , 68-69 trading in guns and, 38-40, 39 (illus.), Four Dancers, 73 42,47-50 on Three Coyotes leading a skirmish, transformation of Indian life and, 3, 5, 73-76 7,37 Four Horns, 183 winter count mentions of, 33 France, explorers from, 5, 23,42 Howling Wolf Fremont, J ohn C., 86 buffalo hunting illustrated by, 124 (illus.) Gerard, Frederick, 135 drawings of, 27, 28, 47 Ghost Dance religion, 179, 196 trading guns for horses illustrated by, origin of, 20 47-49,48 (illus.) Sitting Bull and, 183 Hudson Bay Company, 6 W ovoka letter on, 198-99 Hump,148 Yellow Nose drawing of, 197 (illus.) Indians (Uncpapa), 6, 35 Goes Ahead, 85, 135 Hunting, 123, 124 (illus.), 127-28 Goes First, 81, 82 Arapooish on, 77 Gold, discovery of, 8, 12, 87 Pawnee Indians and, 56, 59-60 Goodbird, 155 Sioux Indians and, 90, 91 Grant, Ulysses S., 15-16, 153 treaties on, 121 Grattan,John,9 wariare and, 71 Gray Eyes, 106 Greasy Grass, Battle on the. See Little Indian Removal Act (1830), 6 Big Horn, Battle of the Indian Reorganization Act (1934),205 Great Plains Indian Rights Association, 16 Arnerican expansion and settlement of, Inter-tribal Bison Cooperative, 207 1,8-14 Iroquois Indians, 102 geographie area of, 2 Iron Hawk, 144 Great Sioux Uprising (1862), 33, 89 on Battle ofthe Little Big Horn, 144-45 krome Big Eagle's account of, 90-96 GreatSpirit, 57,58,60, 76,154 Johnson,Andrew,l11 Gros Ventre Indians, 40 Jumping Bull, 183 Guns impact of, 7, 37, 38-40 Ketumse, 14, 15 trading in horses and, 38-40, 39 (illus.), Kingfisher, 104 42,47-50 Kiowa Indians Guts (Hidatsa), 73, 74, 75 boarding schools and, 179 222 INDEX

Kiowa Indians (cont.) Looking Glass, 13 buffalo hunting and, 123, 128-30 Loud Hawk, 82 ledger art and, 27 location of, 3, 4 (map) McChesney, Dr. Charles E., 140 loss ofterritory and, 10 Mackenzie, Charles, 5 reservation life and, 19, 152 (illus.) Mackenzie, Ranald, 12, 13 smallpox and, 50-53 McLaughlin, Major James, 146, 183, 187, trading and, 38-40, 47-49, 48 (illus.) 195 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111, Major Crimes Act, 19 112,113-15,116-19 Mallery, Colonel Garrick, 33, 140 Indians, 40 Mandan Indians, 61 location of, 3, 4 (map) Lake Mohonk, NewYork, conferences, speech of Four Bears to, 68-69 16 trading and, 7, 61 Lakota Indians warfare and, 61-62, 64-66, 65 (illus.), competition among tribes and, 6 67 (illus.) Ghost Dance religion and, 196 , 1,8 smallpox and, 56 Massacre on the Marias (1870), 105-10, warfare between the Army and, 9 107 (illus.) See also Sioux background to, 105-07 Languages, Indian, 22-23 Bear Head on, 108-10 Laws, proteetion of Indians under, 18-19 Mato Tope. See Four Bears Ledger art, 27-28 Maximilian ofWied, Prince, 62, 67 Left Hand, 103 Mdewakanton Indians, 89, 90 Legends Measles,8 buffalo hunting in, 207 boarding schools and, 170 spread of smallpox depicted in, 50, 51- winter count mentions of, 31, 34 53 See also Diseases Lewis and Clark expedition, 1,2-:3,5,7, Medicine Bottle, 93 39,42,61,64,105 Medicine Cow, 96 Lincoln, Abraham, 91, 9:3, 115 speech before the Special loint Commit• Linderman, Frank, 26, 50, 130 tee, 98-100 Little Bear, 103 Medicine Lodge, Treaty of (1867),11,22, on the Sand Creek Massacre, 104-05 111-20 Little Big Horn, Battle of the, 13, 18, 133- buffalo hunting under, 121 49, 157 Satank's speech at, 116-19 Arikara premonitions of, 135-37 Satanta's speech at, 113-15, 123 background to, 133-34 Ten Bear's speech at, 115-16 Iron Hawk, 144-45 Mexico, Warwith (1846-48),8 Mrs. Spotted Horn Bull on, 146-48 Miles, lohn, 160, 161 Red Horse's pictorial record of, 140, Miles, General Nelson, 122-23 141-44 (illus.) Indians, 6 Sitting Bull's vision before, 134-:35 Battle of the Little Big Horn and, 140, Wooden Leg on, 137-40, 139 (illus.) 141-44 (illus.) Little Bird, 140 Wounded Knee massacre and, 196 LittIe Crow (Taoyateduta), 89, 90, 92, 93, 95 Missionaries, and Pawnee Indians, 56, 57, Little Eagle, 194 . 60 Little Sh

Neihardt, John G., 26,123,144,150 languages of, 22-23 Indians, 7, 13 legal protection for, 18-19 N orthwest Company, 5 oral histories of, 21-22 reservations and, 12, 14-19 Oglala Indians resistance to paeification among, 13-14 competition among tribes and, 6 responses to govemment policies warfare between the Army and, 9 among, 19-21 Ojibwa Indians, 38, 93 slaughter of the buffalo and, 9, 12, 13 Old Lady Horse, 128 smallpox and, 5, 7-8, 40 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 129-:~O Spanish explorers and, 3-5 Old Tobaceo, 82 trading by, 5, 7, 22, 41-50 Old White Bull, 157 treaty council records of, 22, 23 Omaha Indians triballegends of, 3 loeation of, 3, 4 (map) visits to capital cities by, 23-24 smallpox and, 40 See also specijic tribes One Blue Bead, 80, 81 Plenty Coups, 20, 86,152 Oral histories, 21-22, 50 interview with, 26 Oregon, settlement of, 8 on alliance with the Uni ted States, 86- Owl Child, 105, 108 87 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 123 Paints His Body Red, 80 Plenty Horses, 179-80 Parker, Quanah, 159 Plenty Kill, 171 Passing Hail, 96 Pockmark, .Tim, 115 speech before the Special Joint Commit• Polygamy, 157 tee, 100-01 Potawatomi Indians, 6 Pawnee Indians, 56-60 Pratt, Captain Richard H., 12,47 competition among tribes and, 72 Carlisle Industrial Sehool and, 16, 169, guns and tribai expansion and, 38 171,176,178,179 loeation of, 3, 4 (map) Pretty Shield, 84, 130 Sharitarish speech on, 57-59 interview with, 26 smallpox and, 53 on changes to her way of life, 19 warfare between the Army and, 13 on child-rearing, 168 Penateka Indians, 14-15, 112 on horses, 37 Petalesharo, 57 on reservation life, 153 Peyote religion, 20 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 130-32 Piegan Indians, 41 on smallpox, 50 importance ofbuffalo to, 206 on war, 85 Massacre on the Marias and, 105-10, Primeau, Louis, 194 107 (illus.) Pueblo Indians, 5 smallpox and, 46-47 warfare and, 43-46, 85 Quaker missionaries, and Pawnee Indians, Plains Indians, 1-28 56,57 a1cohol and, 5, 14, 19 American expansion and loss oflands Railroads, 12, 123, 129 by,I,8-14 Red Bear, 136, 192 Army campaigns and, 9-13 Red Cloud, 23, 153, 203 autobiographies composed by, 24-27 Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 133 broad groups of, 3, 4 (map) on the Black Hills, 12 competition among tribes and, 6-7, 72 on literacy, 24 drawings by, 27-28 on reservation life, 150 edueation policies and, 16-17, 20, 24 speech to the secretary of the interior, geographie area inhabited by, 2 154-55 gunsand, 7 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111 Hollywood images of, 1,2,8,56 war (1866-67) with the United States, horses and, 3, 5, 7 Army, 9-10 224 INDEX

Red Cloud War (1866-67), 153 speech at the Treaty of Medicine Red Horn Buffalo, 145 Lodge,117-18 Red Horse, 140 trading guns for horses and, 47-49, 48 drawings of Battle of the L1ttlt Big (illus.) Horn, 141-43 (illus.) Satanta (White Bear), 113, 115, 119, 123 Red River War (1874-75), 119 speech at the Treaty of Medicine Red Star (Strikes the Bear), 135 Lodge,114-15 Red Tomahawk, 192, 193, 194 Saukamappee,41,42 Religious beliefs on war and smallpox, 43-47 Christianity and, 15 Saynday (hero), 50, 51-53 government attack on, 17 Scarletfever,8 missionaries and, 56, 57, 58, 60 Schools. See Boarding schools Pawnee Indians and, 58 Schultz, james Willard, 107 peyote religion and, 20 (Seeathl), speech of, 24 tribaliegends of, 3 Senate select committee, Sitting Bull's warfare and, 71-72 meeting with, 189-90 See also Ghost Dance religion Sharitarish, 57, 59, 122 Reno, Major Marcus, 134, 137, 147 ''We Are Not Starving Yet" speech of, Reservations, 12, 14-19,150-67 57-60 agents and, 15, 20, 150-52 Shavehead, 192, 193,194 allotment policy and, 17-18 Shawnee Indians Army campaigns for movement to, 12- competition among tribes and, 6 14 warfare and, 102 attack on Indian religions and, 17 Sheridan, General Philip, 11, 106, 123 Black Elk on, 150-52 Sherman, General William Tecumseh, boarding schoollife and, 16-17, 20, 24 35,119,123 Buffalo Bird W oman on life before, 156 Short Bull, 196 buffalo herds on, 207 Shoshoni Indians, 20 eating habit changes on, 159-66 competition among tribes and, 6, 72, 76 farming on, 18, 121-22 game depletion and, 8 govemment hierarchy and, 15 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 legal proteetion and, 18-19 origins of, 41-42 polygamy prohibition in, 157 smallpox and, 42, 50 recent policies on, 205-06 trading and, 7,41-42 Red Cloud on, 154-55 warfare between the Army and, 13 reform of government policies and, 15- Sibley, General, 94 16 Sicangu Indians (Brule), 6 Shanaco on,14 Sihaspa Indians (Blackfoot Sioux), 6 sociallife on, 152 (illus.) Silver Brooch (fooshaway), 112 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 112 Sioux Indians, 89-101 W ooden Leg on life as a judge on, 156- account of Four Dancers of a skirmish 59 with, 73, 74-76 Rosebud, Battle ofthe, 13,84,133 Battle of the Little Big Horn and, 135, Rosebud reservation, 171 139-40,144-48 Rotten Belly. See Arapooish (Rotten Big Eagle's account of uprising and, 90- Belly) 96 Royer, Daniel, 199 boarding schools and, 179-80 Running Hawk, 194 buffalo hunting and, 94, 121, 122, 207 competition among tribes and, 6, 72, Sanborn,johnB., 111, 114 76,84,135 Sand Creek Massacre (1864), 96, 102-05 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 background to, 102-03 loeation of, 3, 4 (map), 89 Iittle Bear on, 104-05 loss of territory and, 12 Sans Arc Indians, 6 mass executions of, 90 Satank (), 116, 118, 119 pacification campaign against, 12-13 INDEX 225

Sand Creek Massacre and, 96, 102-05 Standing Bear, Henry, 205 smallpox and, 40, 56, 69 Standing Bear, Luther (Plenty Kill), 1,2, speeches before the Special Joint Com• 24, 125 mittee on, 96--101 on attendingschool, 168, 169, 171, 172- trading and, 7 78 warfare between the Army and, 9, 12- on the slaughter of the buffalo, 125-26, 13,20,89-90 207 warfare between Crow Indians and, 78- Stands in Timber, John, 137 84, 83 (illus.), 86--87 Stanley, Henry Morton, ll3-14, ll5 white men and abuse of, 90-91, 92 Strike the Ree, 96, 97 Sitting Bear. See Satank (Sitting Bear) speech before the Special Joint Commit• Sitting Bull, 10, 1:3, 182-95 tee, 97-98 Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 134- Strikes the Bear. See Red Star (Strikes ;)5,1;)6 the Bear) on the Hlack Hills, 12 StrikesTwo, 136 death of, 20, 191-95, 196 Strong Arms, John, 193-94 on his way of life, 183-86 Students. See Boarding schools on the slaughter of the buffalo, 123 Sullivan, General John, 102 photograph of, 188 (illus.) Sully, General Alfred, 35, 106 report to the Senate select committee Sun Dance by,189-90 buffalo sacrifice in, 129 scenes from the life of, 183, 184-85 government suppression 0[, 17, 196 (illus.), 187 Supreme Court decisions, 19 Senate select committee report of, 189- Sweezy, Carl, 126, 159-60 90 on attending school, 171 Sioux winter count mentioning, 35 on reservation life, 160-66 spirituality of, 182 on the slaughter ofthe buffalo, 127-28 surrender song of, 187 Sword Bearer, 20 Wooden Leg on, 182 Smallpox,5 Taoyateduta. See Little Crow Blackfeet Indians and, 105 (faoyateduta) impact of, 7-8, 40, 68 Tappan, Samuel F., III Kiowa Indians and, 50-53 Taylor, Nathaniel G., III Mandan Indians and, 61, 68 , ll5, ll9 Pawnee Indians and, 56 speech at the Treaty of Medicine Saukamappee on, 46--47 Lodge, ll6 spread of, 39-40, 42, 50 Terry, GeneralAlfred H., 35, III vaccination program for, 68 The Other Magpie (Craw) , 84 winter count mentions of, 31, 33, 50 Thompson, David, 44 (illus.) Three Bears, 110 See also Diseases Three Coyotes, 73-76 Snake Indians. See Shoshoni Tirawa,57 Society of Arnerican Indians, 205 Tomahawk, 104 Soldiers' Lodge, 94 Tooshaway (Silver Brooch), 112 Spain To-pay, 159 explorers from, 3-5 Trade Indian policy of, 23, 38 guns and horses in, 38-39, 40 (illus.), Special Joint Committee on the Condition 42,47-50 ofthe Indian Tribes, 97-101 languages used in, 22 Spotted Cow. See Wohaw (Spotted Cow) Mandan Indians and, 61 Spotted Horn Bull, Mrs., 146 Piegan Indians and, 105 on the Battle of the I jttle Big Horn, among Plains Indians, 5, 7, 4[-50 146-48 warfare and, 71 Spotted Tail, 19, 153, 178 winter count mentions of, :1:1 Standing Bear, 178 Traveling Hail, 92 226 INDEX

Treaties status and success in, 7 Fort Laramie (1851, 1868), 9, 10, 12, Two Leggings's quest for power and, 121,1:13 78-84 Medicine Lodge (1867), 11, 22, 111-20 visions and, 71, 72, 78, 79 protection of Indians under, 19 woman's view of, 84, 85 Traverse des Sioux (1851, 1858),89,91, War with Mexico (1846-48), 8 92 Washakie, 8, 19-20 Treaty councils, 22, 2:1 Wa-sui-hi-ya-ye-dan,92 Two Belly, 78, 84 Welch, J ames, 206 Two Kettle Indians, 6 Whistler, 174 Two Leggings, 78-79, 130 White Antelope, 103 on the dream and reality of a raid, 79-84 White Bear. See Satanta (White Bear) on oral tradition, 21-22 White Bird, 192 on reservation life, 152 White Buffalo Woman, 207 on war preparations, 71-72 Whitewolf, Jim, 12:1, 169-70 recording of autobiography of, 25, 78 Whooping-cough, 34 , 134 Wichita Indians, :18 Wilson, J ack. See W ovoka 0 ack Wilson) Uncpapa Indians (Hunkpapa), 6, 35 Winnebago Indians, 93 Ute Indians Winter counts, guns and tribai expansion and, 38 buffalo robes used in, 31 warfare between the Army and, 13 cvents mentioned in, 31-32 limitations of, 32 Villasur, Pedro de, 5 Lone Dog's example of, 32-36, 32 Visions, and warfare, 71, 72, 78, 79 (illus.) smallpox in, 50 (illus.) Warfare, 71-88 Wohaw (Spotted Cow) , 179 Warfare (cant.) self-portrait of, 180 (illus.) account of Four Dancers of a skirmish Wolf Chief, 24, 155 in, 72-76 on training men for war, 72-73 alliance with the Uni ted States and, 85- Wooden Leg, 19, 121, 137, 157 87 drawings of Battle of the Little Big Army campaigns and, 9-12 Horn, 139 (illus.), 144 Big Eagle's account of Sioux uprising on serving as ajudge, 157-59 and,90-96 Wounded Knee massacre (1890),20-21, causes of, 71 196 competition among tribes and, 6--7 Black Elk on, 200-203 concepts of, 10-11 (illus.) Wounded Knee siege (1973),206 Crow Indians and, 76--77 Wovoka 0ackWilson), 196, 199 horses and, 37-38 on the Ghost Dance religion, 198-99 Mandan Indians and, 61-62, 64~66, 65 (illus.), 67 (illus.) YaSlo, 174 Massacre on the Marias and, 105-10, Yellow Bird, 202-03 107 (illus.) , 122 as a sacred activity, 71-72 Young Hawk, 136 Sand Creek Massacre and, 96,102-05 Young Mountain, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84 Saukamappee on, 43-46