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Great Plains Quarterly Great Plains Studies, Center for

Summer 1982

Regional Differences In Plains Indian

Mary Jane Schneider University of North Dakota

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Schneider, Mary Jane, "Regional Differences In Plains Indian Painting" (1982). Great Plains Quarterly. 1666. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1666

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING

MAR Y JANE SCHNEIDER

It may seem but a short leap from the earliest current differences in regional art styles.1 The red, white, and black markings on rock walls reasons for this neglect are many, but perhaps to the sophisticated abstract expressionism of the greatest is a belief that modern Indian art contemporary Native American art, and only a is so Euro-American in form and content that small· step from geometric designs painted on it has lost its distinctive identity as Indian.2 hides to hard-edge geometric forms on canvas, Certainly, Native Americans who have moved but the development of Plains Indian painting into the national urban art scene produce pic­ from prehistoric times to the twentieth century tures that are almost indistinguishable from the is a journey from the Stone Age to the Nuclear work of their non-Indian contemporaries, but Age, from tribal to urban society. Plains Indian these individuals represent only a small pro­ painting reflects the historical and geographical portion of Indian artists. Contemporary paint­ diversity of the region as well as the pluralistic ing, as it is practiced by artists who live on culture of modern Native Americans. It is an or near reservations in the Great Plains, is a interesting commentary on American attitudes complex synthesis of tribal traditions, Euro­ toward Indians, however, that more attention American influences, and individual visions has been paid to produced and used that cannot be categorized simply as modern. in tribal society than to contemporary Indian Although general trends in Plains Indian paint­ art. Differences in tribal painting styles have ing can be identified, different events and been identified and described, but little atten­ varied traditional cultures have produced an art tion has been directed toward documenting with considerable temporal and geographical diversity.

Mary Jane Schneider is associate professor and chairperson of the Department of Indian TRIBAL DIFFERENCES IN Studies at the University of North Dakota. PAINTING STYLES Among her recent publications is "Plains Indian Art," in Anthropology on the Great Plains Rock art, consisting of painted or engraved (1980). She is a former editor of Plains Anthro­ human, animal, and symbolic figures dating pologist. from prehistoric to early historic times, is

131 132 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982 found throughout the periphery of the plains, on shirts, covers, tipi linings, robes, and wherever there are boulders or rock surfaces shields. Most of these works were produced and large enough to serve as easels. It is difficult to utilized under ceremonial or sacred circum­ date rock art with any accuracy, but compari­ stances, and each tribe had its own style of sons to hide paintings, analysis of overlapping ornamentation. 6 figures, observation of weathering and erosion, The oldest known representational paintings and the presence of horses and guns in some on hide are the robes and shirts collected by works help to provide some idea of the tempo­ explorers who visited the northern plains in the ral progression of styles. One rock art motif, late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. the shield, which occurs from prehistoric to In 1805, Lewis and Clark collected an example historic times, shows changes in size and of a buffalo robe that recorded a battle fought decoration, and the way in which the human by the Mandans and Hidatsas against the allied figure is depicted becomes more skillful with forces of the Arikaras and Sioux.7 These exam­ the passage of time. 3 ples show stylistic characteristics similar to For the most part, studies of rock art have those seen in rock painting. There is no attempt been concerned with recording examples and to treat the hide as a unit, nor are the figures establishing relative chronologies, but a few portrayed realistically. Human figures are scholars have noticed that rock art painting triangular or rectangular with narrow waists styles differ from place to place. A particular and straight or slightly bent legs. The heads are form of human figure with a V-shaped body circular with no features, although hair styles from which a long neck topped by a round may be indicated. Within a very short time, head emerges is widespread in the northern. however, this "stick-figure" approach was plains, while the shield-bearing warrior motif abandoned in favor of greater accuracy and has a more limited distribution in Montana detail.8 and northern Wyoming.4 Euro-American traders and artists were Some characteristics of rpck art, such as a responsible for introducing new media, new lack of perspective, the treatment of the rock colors, new tools, and European concepts of surface as a series of individual canvases with perspective and realism. Karl Bodmer, a Swiss figures superimposed on each other, little con­ artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian of cern with relative size or scale, and an emphasis Wied-Neuwied up the Missouri in 1932, made on a.ctivity, continued into recent times. The a copy of one of Chief Mato-Tope's painted purpose of these paintings is not known, but it robes that showed some war exploits of the seems likely that some were religiously moti­ chief. This robe illustrates the changes that vated and others served as a means of com­ had taken place in the years between Lewis and munication. Abstract forms may relate to Clark and Maximilian. Mato-Tope and other vision quests or hunting magic, while some of men are distinguished by details of clothing, the animal scenes may indicate places where body paint, blood, weapons, and other items. game could be found or the location of hunting The figures are fleshed out, although the hide camps.5 In later plains art, the message-bearing is still not treated as a unit; the various events aspect was very important. are done as a series of vignettes; and there is Rock painting offers intriguing possibilities still little concern with perspective.9 for the study of temporal and regional dif­ Tribal differences have also been noted in ferences, but works done on hide provide figurative designs used on . All tribes orna­ greater opportunities for documenting changes mented their tipis with animals symbolic of in time and for stylistic and tribal attribution. supernatural guidance and protection. Un­ Tribal use of paint ranged from elaborate geo­ fortunately, few examples of these sacred, metric designs on robes, , and sacred ornamented tipis have survived. The best bundle containers to representational paintings known are from the and Kiowa-Apache REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 133 tribes of and the Blackfeet of Mon­ central plains, anthropologists who found the tana; animal figures relating to the spirit guard­ Plains Indian culture worthy of preservation, ian of the tipi owner occur most frequently on and officials from the Bureau of Indian Affairs tipis that have painted areas along the bottom who promoted art work as a way for Indians and top. Among the Kiowa, these areas are to earn money. The practice of selling their usually solid colors or simple stripes, while work represented a real change from the pro­ the Blackfeet used compositions of geometric duction and utilization of painting by the mem­ designs. The Kiowa animal figures are set on the bers of a tribe. No longer was the artist free to upper edge of the colored area, while the Black­ paint as he felt or to describe his supernatural feet more often centered their figures in the or mystic experience; now he was painting to light-colored space between the top and bottom satisfy the needs of an alien audience. Among bands.lO the elements these artists carried over from With the extermination of the buffalo and traditional painting were a naive approach to the military success of the u.s. Army, the old perspective, the use of symbols to depict move­ way of life was permanently altered. Many ment, and little concern with facial features or tribes were resettled on reservations, some far background details. A major change, however, from their original homeland. Along with the was an emphasis on identification and recogni­ reservations came traders' stores and a cash tion of individual artists. In tribal society, the economy, the distribution of rations and artist was known and there was no need to sign annuities, and the influence of missionaries or otherwise identify a work, but when non­ and educators. Bound books of lined and Indians wanted to know who the artist was and numbered pages, used by army men, traders, learn his tribal origin, a painting was likely to and others, were bought or picked up on battle­ be signed or marked with a symbol that identi­ fields or received as gifts by Indian men, who fied a specific creator-the beginning of indi­ used them to make a visual record of a way of vidualism in Indian painting. From its inception life that was gone forever. These paintings and in the interest and support of the white patrons drawings, done primarily by Kiowa, , of these artists, the modern practice of studio and Sioux men, are known as ledger or sketch­ or easel painting developed in a variety of ways book art and represent a transition from tribal among Indians in different parts of the plains. to modern art. These sketchbooks have been Trends in modern Plains Indian painting studied as records of individual and tribal appear to reflect regional differences between histories and as examples of the last "true" artists of the southern, central, western, and Indian art, but little attention has been given Canadian plains.12 The suggestion that these to the paintings in terms of stylistic analysis. regions may be identified with different styles A brief comparison of the Sioux paintings with of painting should not be taken as conclusive, Kiowa ledger art suggests that the Sioux were because much more attention needs to be given more likely to depict large action scenes, partic­ to the study of contemporary Plains Indian art ularly battles, and to run the action off the before the parameters of the styles can be edge of the paper, than were the . Kiowa definitively established. Inevitably, the work of paintings more often illustrate a single event, artists within a particular region shows indi­ with emphasis on the details of dress and en­ vidual variations, and artists also change their vironment, while the Sioux often show multiple styles over time. On the regional or local level, events on the same page. Sioux painting tends however, the pressures to produce a work to be less concerned with details than the within a certain style in order to be acceptable southern plains ledger painting.ll to one's peers or to consumers can override a Many of these pieces were made for non­ desire for individuality. For example, one local Indian purchasers, including army men who Sioux artist whose work was almost rejected were stationed at the various forts on the from an Indian art show because it did not have 134 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982

ground details. Characteristically, the figures do not fIll the canvas, although they are intricately detailed and busy, which gives the viewer a sense of being removed from the scene. The medium is usually watercolor or tempera in pale or muted tones on cardboard, often on a background of colored illustration or mat board (Fig. 1). The content of Oklahoma style painting is a romanticized tribal culture; dancers, warriors, and ceremonies are typical subjects. Most In­ dian artists of the southern plains have followed this trend, even those whose origins are outside the region. Some artists, like , Enoch Haney, and Jerome Tiger, who are descended from tribes originating in the South­ east, have chosen to depict the way of life and events in the history of their own people, but others of the same background have adopted the more common themes from plains culture. All of these paintings are similar in that humans are the primary subject matter. Rarely is the content of southern plains paintings totally symbolic or abstract. Many paintings with strong symbolic mean­ ings are associated with the Native American FIG. 1. Doc Tate Nevaquaya (), Church, or peyote religion, which began in Straight Dancer, 1971; watercolor on illustra­ Oklahoma and to which Oklahoma Indians tion board, 14 x 19 in. Private collection. have maintained a strong commitment (Fig. 2). Numerous symbols, including the tipi, the an obviously Indian theme now paints tradi­ waterbird, the waterdrum, the feather fan, the tional culture or symbolic pieces that are much crescent, and the staff, are associated with the more acceptable. Another factor in maintain­ church. Many artists utilize them in their work, ing regionalism is that many local artists are although symbolism is not as popular a subject totally or partially self-taught and they paint as dancers and warriors. The development of in the manner of others around them. peyote paintings in Oklahoma and some parts of the Southwest is probably due to the work of , a Kiowa artist who pub­ INDIAN ART OF THE lished a small book, illustrated by his paintings, SOUTHERN PLAINS on peyote.14 The success of the book and of The southern plains are the locus of the so­ Tsatoke's other peyote paintings probably called Oklahoma style of Indian art.13 This stimulated other artists in the area to employ realistic, two-dimensional style is reminiscent the symbols of the Native American Church in of illustration techniques; heavy outlines define their work. Another reason for the localization blocks of flat colors that have no textural or of peyote art may lie in negative attitudes ex­ tonal variations. With some exceptions, paint­ pressed by the missionaries who served the ings in this mode tend to be small in size, and central and northern plains. there is little concern for perspective or back- The Oklahoma style is part of a tradition REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 13S

southern plains to study at her school.16 The success of the Kiowa and southwestern artists has maintained and refined the traditional manner of painting to its present form. Many self-taught artists continue to use this mode in works produced for traders and local art gal­ leries. Although there is no doubt that the south­ ern plains style originated through non-Indian influence, it also has strong roots in tribal cul­ ture. The Kiowa artists and the others who followed their lead had been introduced to tra­ ditional painting techniques by their relatives, and they had seen the ledger books done by men who were imprisoned at Fort Marion in Saint Augustine, Florida, as punishment for their part in raids on white settlements. In addition, traditional painting is reminiscent of the delicate beadwork done by Kiowa and Comanche women. Thus the appeal of the Oklahoma style and its popularity among southern plains artists may be due in part to its echoes of traditional aesthetic ideals. White patrons have also contributed to the popularity of southern plains painting by pro­ FIG. 2. Robbie McMurtry Aquasu (Comanche), viding a market for the work. Tourist demands Peyote Painting. 1971; tempera on illustration support a large number of painters who sell board, 14 x 18 in. Private collection. their work through galleries and shops, and these have helped to maintain the Oklahoma that extends from Oklahoma westward into form. Until 1959 the Annual National Exhibi­ and Arizona. In the 1920s five tion of American Indian Painting, sponsored Kiowa men-Steve Mopope, Monroe Tsatoke, by the Philbrook Art Institute, rejected any , James Auchiah, and Jack paintings that were not done in the flat, two­ Hokeah-were admitted to the University of dimensional, traditional technique, including Oklahoma for art instruction. IS The university works by Patrick Desjarlait (Chippewa) and teachers of these students encouraged them to Oscar Howe (Yanktonai)~7 Winners in the con­ develop an "Indian" style based on the ledger test received prestige and cash prizes; thus, and earlier forms. This became the "Oklahoma," by controlling the art style and rewarding those or "traditional," style. A similar school of art who were most accomplished in it, the museum developed in the Studio at Santa Fe and was helped to foster the development of regional later taught at in Muskogee, differences. Oklahoma. Few artists from places other than Current trends in southern plains Indian Oklahoma and the Southwest attended these painting are toward greater diversity in style schools. mentions only Oscar and content. Some of the younger artists have Howe, Wilmer Dupree, Oscar Bear Runner, studied at the Institute of Indian Arts in Santa Tony Guerue, Dan Quiver, Calvin Tyndall, Fe, where they have been exposed to a wide Victor Pepion, and Calvin Larvie as plains variety of techniques and media. These artists, scholars who came from areas outside the however, continue to focus on the human 136 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982 figure and on traditional culture as subject mannerisms of the southern plains, central matter. Parker Boyiddle, Kiowa, who has plains work tends to be vigorous and dramatic, painted in the traditional two-dimensional employing a vivid palette, heavy contrasts, and style, also paints in western style. Bennie textured surfaces. The usual medium is oil or Buffalo has moved away from the typical acrylic on canvas, masonite, or other sturdy southern plains style into modern painting. surfaces, although mixed media and collages Some artists have pushed the Oklahoma style are also seen. Ordinarily, the canvas is filled in new directions while retaining the basic from edge to edge by the picture, which some­ idiom. Backgrounds have been added, more times appears to continue beyond the edge of figures are included, and some of the work has the canvas-a technique that actively involves taken on a mystical theme. Elements of mysti­ the viewer in the work. Humans are the domi­ cism are prominent, for example, in the paint­ nant subjects, but they are more often placed ings of Enoch Haney, Gary White Deer, Bert in a larger setting or form part of an elaborately Seabourn, Mirac Creepingbear, and Sherman conceived central motif, illustrated here by the Chaddlesone. This trend may represent the work of Yanktonai Sioux artist Oscar Howe younger artist's interest in traditional Indian (Fig. 3). Howe has achieved an international religion and values, which is experiencing a reputation as an Indian artist. Traces of the renaissance on the plains, or it may reflect a flat, two-dimensional, traditional southern recognition that knowledge of the past is dis­ plains style in which he was trained are ap­ appearing into a mythical dream world that parent in his work, but he developed an indi­ can be known only vaguely to young Indians. vidual approach employing elements of Also new in Indian art is the rise of Indian that more nearly reflects his tribal heritage. women artists. When Lois Smoky was admitted The shades of red, yellow, and blue-black and to the program with the geometric forms that he often uses in his the Kiowa men in 1927, she broke numerous paintings can be related to the colors and taboos surrounding the role of Indian women geometry of Sioux beadwork.20 as artists. She later stopped painting, partly Native artists of North and because of pressure from traditional members utilize two major themes: the traditional life­ of the tribe, but her lead made it possible for style and traditional religion. Most of the artists oth er women to ac hleve· success ..m pamtmg. . 18 paint scenes of everyday activities of tribal Today, Jean Bales, Jean Hill, Virginia Stroud, times; camps, village scenes, buffalo hunting, Ruthe Blalock Jones, Blanche Wahney, and moving camp, butchering buffalo, tanning many others are being acclaimed as artists of hides, and warfare are popular themes. Rennard great talent and originality. Strickland notes that only one painting in the philbrook collection of Indian art has a theme of Indian-white conflict, a situation that con­ TRENDS IN THE ART OF THE trasts highly with the art of the central plains, CENTRAL PLAINS where Indian heroes, battles, and the demoral­ The central plains style, which has also been izing impact of white culture are common called "Sioux" style as practiced by people of topics. 21 The influence of the landscape is Sioux, Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara, and Turtle apparent in the work of Arthur Amiotte and Mountain Chippewa descent, ranges from real­ other artists of the region who have produced istic western landscapes to abstract symbolic abstract or impressionistic paintings of central works.19 Although there appears to be less plains geomorphology. To the Sioux, presently homogeneity in paintings of the central plains, engaged in a legal battle for the return of the it is possible to identify some basic character­ sacred Black Hills, the land remains an impor­ istics that distinguish the art of this region from tant physical force. Arniotte and others have southern plains work. In contrast to the refined also been influenced by traditional media- REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 137

FIG. 3 (above). Oscar Howe (Sioux), Woman Seed Player, 1974; casein on paper, 34 x 31 in. Courtesy of the University of South Dakota, Vermillion. FIG. 4 (lower right). Donald Mon­ tileaux (Sioux), Leggings Design, 1969; oil on canvas, 27 x 40 in. Indian Arts and Crafts Board Co Uection; photograph courtesy of Sioux Indian Museum and Crafts Center. beads, paint, hide, and fur-and create hard­ edge geometric designs (Fig. 4) or make collages using them as subjects. More recently, Arniotte has turned to rock art as inspiration for a series of works dealing with traditional religious beliefs. In comparison with other regions, the Indian art of the central plains reveals a greater emphasis on objects, more abstract art, and more frequent use of religious themes, partic­ ularly the circle, feathers, eagles, pipes, and smoking. Symbolic paintings have become more popular in recent years as younger artists return to traditional teachings or seek to understand their Indian heritage. 22 138 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982

The origins of the central plains style are houses, and sad people. Other artists have con­ varied and complex, and can be related to the centrated on civil rights issues; in representing bead work of the region, to hide and ledger Indians as victims, they often depict persons paintings, and to non-Indian influences as well. who have become symbols of white oppression The presence of Indian artists such as Oscar to Native Americans. In Indian Pain, shown Howe is also a significant factor. At the Uni­ in an exhibition at the Sioux Indian Museum in versity of South Dakota, Howe not only taught 1974, Donald Montileaux uses the case of Yel­ art classes but held a special session each sum­ low Thunder, beaten to death by white men, to mer for Indian artists. The non-Indian influ­ make a statement about Indian rights and the ences on the art of the region may be traced legal issues that eventually culminated in the to a variety of sources. The Catholic church confrontation at Wounded Knee in 1973.24 strongly encouraged painting, and still sponsors Another trend that is emerging in the central the Red Cloud Indian Art Show each summer, plains is the participation of Indian women but it has been more interested in content than artists. Until recently, women were involved in style. Between 1879 and 1918, many young with beadwork, quill work, quilt making, and Indian men and women went to Carlisle Indian other traditional arts, but painting was con­ School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, where some sidered a masculine art form. Indian women were exposed to the grandiose landscape paint­ from this area have not yet achieved national ings of the Rocky Mountain School and other acclaim for painting as they have for other arts, Euro-American painting styles. One of these but young women are beginning to submit men, Moses Stranger Horse, achieved success their work to art shows and will undoubtedly in this style and encouraged others to follow serve as role models for others. his example; his work has influenced present­ day "western" painters.23 Historical events INDIAN PAINTING IN THE have made a strong impact on the Sioux, and WESTERN STYLE these also provide subject matter for paintings. Indian battles such as the Little Big Horn and "Western" style painting (Fig. 5) is less Indian leaders, especially Crazy Horse, Sitting regional than other styles. Although it tends to Bull, and Red Cloud, have served as reminders be most common in Montana, Wyoming, and of days when the Sioux were strong and bold. the northwestern plains, it also occurs in the Wounded Knee constantly reminds Indians of central and Canadian plains.25 Western painting their mistreatment by whites. Paintings treat­ also differs from the other regional Indian ing these events have been well received by styles in that it is part of a distinctive school of Sioux purchasers and are appreciated by non­ American art. Recent followers of the school Indian collectors as well. have focused on cowboy and Indian life, usual­ One of the newer trends in Native American ly in realistic and historically accurate action painting is social commentary. Growing out of scenes, and for this reason the style is also the civil rights movement of the late 1960s known as "cowboy" art. and early '70s and heavily influenced by the Native Americans who follow the western Wounded Knee crisis of 1973, the trend is sup­ tradition produce realistic, panoramic paintings ported today by the work of the Institute of in which scenery and background details almost Indian Arts in Santa Fe. Social commentary dominate the human subjects, and the influ­ art focuses on the theme of injustices done to ence of nature, particularly the mountains, Indians by whites. In the central plains, some prevails. Even for a western artist like King artists have attacked the stereotype of the Kuka (Blackfoot), who most often paints tribal Indian, as presented in many paintings, watercolors of Indians engaged in traditional by making realistic scenes of contemporary activities, the mountains are a source of inspira­ Indian life, showing abandoned cars, dilapidated tion.26 oil on canvas is the preferred medium, REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 139

FIG. 5. Raymond Arrow (Sioux), How Koda (Salute to the Traders), 1972; oil on canvas, 24 x 36 in. Indian Arts and Crafts Board Collection; photograph courtesy of Sioux Indian Museum and Crafts Center. although and pen and ink drawings recalled or derived through research. Back­ are also part of the western tradition; many grounds are often painted from life or from Indian artists work in several different media. photographs before the human figures in their The realism of western painting demands atten­ historic activity are added. Some Indian artists tion to detail, but without intrusive and jarring have done pictures of traditional Indian life, aspects of daily life. Most of the paintings particularly camp scenes, but much painting is tell a story, and many artists provide descrip­ devoted to hunting, fighting, trading, range tions of the activities represented in a work. work, and other masculine pursuits. Women, Although most artists attempt to be as realistic symbolism, and religious subjects are rare. The as paint will allow, some have adopted impres­ few Indian women artists from the northern sionistic techniques in order to deal with the plains have concentrated on landscapes or minute variations in the natural environment. abstract art rather than western-style painting. Prairie grass takes on orange, purple, and blue The origin of western-style painting can be hues as well as more natural brown and greens; traced directly to non-Indian influence. The mountains are purple, turquoise, and green. artists who visited the northwestern plains and Male-oriented actiVIties of the frontier were captivated by its rugged grandeur and the provide the content of western-style painting. active, masculine life-style of the region passed Once painted from experience but now historic, their enthusiasm on to their Indian friends. the material is based on scenes observed and In search of historical accuracy, many artists 140 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982 lived with Indian people or established homes ART STYLES IN THE or studios in Montana or Wyoming; some, like CANADIAN PLAINS Win old Reiss at Glacier, established art schools in which young Indians received lessons. The Canadian plains Indian painting is an emerg­ railroads hired artists to paint pictures that ing art with strong local differences. John would attract tourists, and the success of this Anson Warner has identified, particularly for endeavor led to the opening of art galleries Saskatchewan, a northern plains school char­ and museums and created a market for paint­ acterized by realistic depiction of Indian life ings by Indians as well as non-Indians. One on Canadian reserves. 29 Another group of center of such activity was the Blackfoot reser­ painters have employed abstract forms to ex­ vation in Montana, where the establishment press Indian values and beliefs, while still other of the Museum of the Plains Indian in Brown­ artists paint in the western tradition. In the ing provided opportunities for artists to see eastern part of the plains, Native Americans art and to exhibit their own work. Victor have adopted the commercially popular Algon­ Pepion, who painted murals for the museum, kian legend painting that originated with Norval studied with Win old Reiss and attended art Morrisseau.30 schools in California, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Although it remains within the framework South Dakota, and Montana, studying various of traditional Indian painting and bears a rela­ styles before settling on one that enabled tionship to western painting, the northern him to relate traditional activities and art plains style is distinctive in its emphasis on forms to modern media. Pepion's work, al­ realism and accuracy (Fig. 6). Unlike western though not in the western tradition, encour­ art, the paintings tend to be of average size and aged many Blackfoot Indians to become to portray the quiet, gentle life that once artists-some in the western tradition and existed on Canadian reserves and prairie farms. others, like Neil Parsons, following different The paintings are always representational, trails. 27 although slightly impressionistic, imparting the One result of the increased interest in In­ dreamlike, gentle quality for which the work dian art is that many young people attend is known. Somber tones with flecks of color art school, either at the Institute of Indian and an absence of harsh contrasts add to the Art in Santa Fe, New Mexico, or in programs gentleness of the paintings. The subject matter at state universities and colleges. These younger is always life on the reserve-people at work, artists are exposed to many different styles engaged in social events, relaxing, or sleeping. of painting, and some, like Neil Parsons, have Although realism is strong in these paintings, developed highly individual styles. However, the negative aspects of reservation life are western painting remains the preferred style presented in a positive way. The most ac­ among young artists of the region because claimed representative of this school is Allen of public demand, which seems to be grow­ Sapp, recently elected to the Royal Canadian ing rather than diminishing, and because Academy of Arts. A number of other young of their interest in preserving traditional In­ artists are following in his path.31 dian culture. Artists such as wilbur Black The western tradition on the Canadian Weasel, Chuck No Runner, and William Day­ plains, as in the United States, stems from the child find it a satisfactory means of depicting presence of non-Indian artists who employed past and present tribal life, although it de­ the form to present the history and culture of mands great ability to visualize and requires the plains. One of the best known native research on the subject matter.28 It is likely painters in this manner was Gerald Tailfeathers that western-style painting will continue (Fig. 7), who studied with Win old Reiss at his to be popular in the northwestern plains studio in Glacier Park. Tailfeathers achieved for many years to come. international renown, but he chose to live with REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 141

Allen

FIG. 6. Allen Sapp (Crf!e), Mary Nicotine and Her Little Dog; acrylic on canvas, 24 x 36 in. Photograph courtesy ofJohn Anson Warner/Allen Sapp Paintings. his tribe rather than give up his status and light-colored background provide a negative become a nontreaty Indian.32 painting effect that causes the eye to move in A third type of visual expression on the and out of the painting. All of Janvier's work is northern plains-a non-objective, abstract style marked by the use of circles, small and large, -is very different from the others. The paint­ as exclamation points representing the circle ings done in this mode are devoted to pre­ of life, the relationship of all living creatures senting Indian beliefs and ideals rather than to each other and to. the universe.33 The late depicting activities or events. The leading repre­ Sarain Stump carried Janvier's style of flowing sentative of this movement is Alex Janvier, who, lines in a different direction. Stump's work is unlike most self-taught Canadian plains Indian more representational; it is possible to identify artists, graduated from the Southern Alberta human faces, animals, and birds, although he College of Art. Like expressionist paintings, J an­ still aims to present ideas rather than reality. vier's works have no focal point; he utilizes ele­ Some of Stump's work has multiple focal ments of cubism to make statements about man's points, which he uses to illustrate progression relationships to man, to animals, and to the from one point to another. In Stump's paint­ environment. His most abstract works are ings the colors are brighter and the contrasts composed of radiating lines that twist, curve, heavier than in Janvier's. Some younger artists, and swirl across the canvas, forcing the eye to such as Maxine Noel and Bob Bayer, also work travel along the lines, to become involved in the in an abstract or semiabstract manner when it painting, and eventually to realize how the seems appropriate to move from genre painting parts are related to the whole. Large areas of to an ex pression of ideas and values.34 142 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982

FIG. 7. Gerald Tailfeathers (Blood), On the Move, 1960; tempera on illustration board, 15 x 19 in. Courtesy of Glenbow Museum, Calgary, Alberta.

The origins of these diverse styles are related or her descendants. Until recently, Indian to the isolation of the Canadian reserves, the status was not conducive to recognition as an scant attention paid to Indian art, the status of artist. Both Alex Janvier and Allen Cree found Indian and government relations, traditional it difficult to make a living in this way. Indian cultures, and Canadian painting in gen­ In Canada as in the United States, young eral. Few of the native artists who are well Indian artists are being exposed to a wide known in Canadian art had formal training. variety of styles and are finding many more Some were given basic instruction in the tech­ commercial outlets and greater acceptance of niques of painting, but the various styles their work. Indians are attending art school in developed out of the artist's exposure to art increasing numbers, some even going to Santa and from what the artist wished to say in his Fe to the Institute of Indian Arts, and art work. Most of the Native Canadian artists have galleries that support exhibits and sell Indian chosen to remain in their tribal society, because art are becoming more numerous. Exhibitions in Canada, giving up one's status as a treaty of modern Indian art sponsored by the Cana­ Indian means that one gives up legal claims to dian government have · encouraged many young Indian identity, relinquishes all rights accorded artists to paint.35 One current trend appears to to Indians, including living on the reserve, and be toward multimedia works. Sarain Stump determines forever the nontreaty status of his had begun to combine hide, sculptured forms, REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 143 and paint to create emotional statements about NOTES contemporary Indian life. The art program at the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College 1. The classic works on Indian painting teaches the use of a wide variety of locally have generally ignored the central and northern available materials. It also appears that the plains. Dorothy Dunn, American Indian Paint­ popularity of the northern plains school will ing of the Southwest and Plains Areas (Albu­ attract more followers. Abstract art should also querque: University of New Mexico Press, become more popular as young Indians move 1968) and J. J. Brody, Indian Artists and White toward expressing ideas rather than depicting a Patrons (Albuquerque': University of New Mexico Press, 1971) discuss tribal art styles traditional culture they have not fully known. from the plains and the development of modern painting in Oklahoma, but refer only briefly SUMMARY to contemporary paintings and artists from the other plains states and Canada. Plains Indian art is not a homogeneous body 2. Rosalind Constable, "The Vanishing In­ of work that is easily classified; rather, it com­ dian," Art in America 58 (January-February prises numerous styles that have developed out 1970): 45; Brody, Indian Painters and White of the interaction of many variables. The south­ Patrons, p. 187; Christian F. Feest, Native Arts ern plains region is known for a decorative of North America (New York: Oxford Uni­ style that features detailed figures set in two­ versity Press, 1980), pp. 15-16;John C. Ewers, dimensional space. The Sioux and other tribes "plains Indian Painting: The History and Development of an American Art Form," of the central plains have employed an active, American West 5 (March 1968): 14. colorful style of painting to memorialize their 3. The reader interested in rock art should history and traditional culture. Western paint­ consult the many state archaeological journals ing also depicts Indians engaged in traditional and reports by archaeologists that describe the activities, but emphasizes historical accuracy rock art of specific states or locations. Mon­ and realism. The northern plains school differs tana, Wyoming, and Texas are well known for from other Indian art styles in its technique and the rock paintings found in their mountain and its tendency to focus on more recent Indian rugged areas. David Gebhard, "The Shield Motif culture, rather than attempting to immortalize in Plains Rock Art," American Antiquity 31 a magnificent past. Another Canadian trend is (July 1966): 721-31. the development of an abstract or semiabstract 4. George Frison, Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains (New York: Academic Press, style of painting in which the principle themes 1978), p. 413; James D. Keyser and George C. are relationships between humans, the environ­ Knight, "The Rock Art of Western Montana," ment, and the unseen. Plains Anthropologist 21 (February 1976): 3. Among the variables that have influenced 5. Keyser and Knight, "Rock Art of West­ the evolution of these different styles are the ern Montana," pp. 9-10; David Gebhard, "Rock education of the artists, the presence of non­ Art," in American Indian Art: Form and Tra­ Indian role models and teachers, the nature of dition (Minneapolis: Walker Art Gallery, 1972), institutional involvement in Indian art, geo­ p.28. graphical factors, traditional Indian art styles, 6. Many authors have written about tribal historical events, and federal Indian policy. differences in Plains Indian painting, usually in This article has begun to trace the impact of connection with a description of the traditional culture of a specific tribe. The works cited here these variables on twentieth-century Plains will direct a reader to more specific sources. Indian painting. A more detailed analysis of the John C. Ewers, Plains Indian Painting (Stan­ art of each region will provide further clarifica­ ford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1939); tion of the interaction of these influences and Ted J. Brasser, "plains Indian Art," in Ameri­ lead us closer to an understanding of the variety can Indian Art: Form and Tradition (Minne­ of styles in Plains Indian painting today. apolis: Walker Art Gallery, 1972), p. 56; Father 144 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 1982

Peter J. Powell, "Beauty for New Life: An recognized in the three publications on con­ Introduction to Cheyenne and Lakota Sacred temporary Plains Indian painting sponsored by Art," in The Native American Heritage, ed. the Indian Arts and Crafts Board. Rosemary by Evan M. Maurer (Chicago: Art Institute of Ellison, Contemporary Southern Plains Indian Chicago, 1977), p. 33; Ted J. Brasser, "The Painting (Anadarko, Okla.: Museum of the Pedigree of the Hugging Bear Tipi in the Black­ Southern Plains Indian, 1972); Myles Lib hart , foot Camp," American Indian Art Magazine 5 Contemporary Sioux Painting (Rapid City, (November 1979): 32; Gary Galante, "The S.D.: Sioux Indian Museum, 1970); Ramon Painter: The Sioux of the Great Plains," in The Gonyea, Contemporary Indian Artists: Mon­ Ancestors: Native Artisans of the Americas, tana, Wyoming, Idaho (Browning, Mont.: ed. by Anna Curtenius Roosevelt and James Museum of the Plains Indian, 1972). G. E. Smith (New York: Museum of the Amer­ 13. Brody, Indian Painters and White ican Indian, 1979), p. 8. Patrons, pp. 175-87. This style has also been 7. American Indian Art: Form and Tradi­ classified as "traditional Indian style" by such tion, pp. 4, 132; Ewers, "plains Indian Paint­ authors as Rennard Strickland, "The Changing ing," p. 5. World of Indian Painting and Philbrook Art 8. Ewers, "Plains Indian Painting," p. 7; Center," in Native American Art at Philbrook Howard D. Rodee, "The Stylistic Development (Tulsa, Okla.: Philbrook Art Center, 1980), p. of Plains Indian Painting and Its Relationship 12; Jamake Highwater, Song from the Earth: to Ledger Drawings," Plains Anthropologist American Indian Painting (Boston: New York 10 (November 1965): 222. Graphic Society, 1976), p. 96; idem, The 9. Davis Thomas and Karin Ronnefeldt, Sweetgrass Lives On (New York: Lippincott People of the First Man (New York: E. P. and Crowell, 1980), p. 24. Dutton, 1976), p. 220. 14. Monroe Tsatoke, The Peyote Ritual 10. Brasser, "Pedigree of the Hugging Bear (San Francisco: Grabhorn Press, 1957). Tipi," p. 35; John C. Ewers, Murals in the 15. Ellison, Contemporary Southern Plains Round: Painted Tipis of the Kiowa and Kiowa­ Indian Painting, p. 18; Dunn, American Indian Apache Indians (Washington, D.C.: Smith­ Painting of the Southwest and Plains Areas; sonian Institution Press, 1978). Brody, Indian Painters and White Patrons, p. 11. These comments are based on a compar­ 120. ison of the ledger paintings in Karen Petersen, 16. Dunn, American Indian Painting of the Plains Indian Art from Fort Marion (Norman: Southwest and Plains Areas, p. 358. University of Oklahoma Press, 1971) with 17. Strickland, "Changing World of Indian paintings in Galante, "Sioux of the Great Painting," p. 13. Plains," and in Leslie Tillett, Wind on the Buf 18. Jeanne O. Snodgrass, American Indian falo Grass (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, Painters: A Biographical Directory (New York: 1976). Many other works on ledger and sketch­ Museum of the American Indian, Heye Founda­ book art should be carefully studied in order tion, 1968), p. 177. to develop this idea further. These include 19. Libhart, Contemporary Sioux Painting. Helen H. Blish, A Pictographic History of the 20. Robert Pennington, Oscar Howe: Artist Sioux (Lincoln: University of Nebraska of the Sioux (Sioux Falls, S.D.: Dakota Terri­ Press, 1967); Karen Petersen, : tory Centennial Commission, 1961). A Cheyenne Warrior's Graphic Interpretation of 21. Strickland, "Changing World of Indian His People (Palo Alto, Calif.: American West Painting," p. 20. Pub. Co., 1968); Cohoe, A Cheyenne Sketch­ 22. Paintings by Donald Montileaux (Rapid book (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, City, S.D.: Sioux Indian Museum and Crafts 1964); Zo-Tom, 1877: Plains Indian Sketch Center, 1970); Paintings and Wall Hangings by Books of Zo-Tom and Howling Wolf (Flagstaff, Donald Montileaux (Rapid City, S.D.: Sioux Ariz.: Northland Press, 1969); Father Peter J. Indian Museum and Crafts Center, 1974); Powell, People of the Sacred Mountain (New Wall Hangings by Arthur Amiotte (Rapid City, York: Harper and Row, 1981). S.D.: Sioux Indian Museum and Crafts Center, 12. These divisions have been implicitly 1973). Other exhibition catalogs published by REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAINS INDIAN PAINTING 145 the Sioux Indian Museum and Crafts Center Art Magazine (Summer 1978): 59-69, 76, provide a good survey of contemporary central 78-79. plains Indian painting. 31. John Anson Warner, "Allen Sapp," 23. Libhart, Contemporary Sioux Painting, Beaver (Winter 1973): 4-8; idem, "Allen Sapp, p.20. Cree Painter"; John Anson Warner and Thecla 24. Paintings and Wall Hangings by Donald Bradshaw, A Cree Life: The Art of Allen Sapp Montileaux. (Vancouver, B.C.: ]. J. Douglas, 1977); John 25. Gonyea, Contemporary Indian Artists, Anson Warner, "An Artist Remembers," Beaver p.22. (Summer 1980): 25-29;]. W. Grant MacEwan, 26. Highwater, Sweetgrass Lives On, p. 130. "Allen Sapp: By Instinct a Painter," in Por­ 27. Dorothy Harmsen, Harmsen's Western traits from the Plains (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Americana (Flagstaff, Ariz.: Northland Press, Co. of Canada, 1971), pp. 280-87. 1971). 32. J. W. Grant MacEwan, "Tailfeathers, 28. Paintings by Wilbur Black Weasel Blood Artist," in Portraits from the Plains, (Browning, Mont.: Museum of the Plains In­ pp. 273-79; Nancy-Lou Patterson, Canadian dian and Crafts Center, 1978); Paintings and Native Art: Arts and Crafts of the Canadian Ceramics by Chuck No Runner (Browning, Indians and Eskimos (Toronto: Collier-Mac­ Mont.: Museum of the Plains Indian and Crafts millan of Canada, 1973), pp. 83-85. Center, 1979); Paintings by William Daychild 33. Olive Patricia Dickason, Indian Arts in (Browning, Mont.: Museum of the Plains Indian Canada (Ottawa: Department of Indian Affairs and Crafts Center, 1979). and Northern Development, 1972), p. 95; 29. John Anson Warner, "Allen Sapp, Cree Jacqueline Fry, "Treaty Numbers 23, 287, Painter," American Indian Art Magazine 1171," Artscanada 29 (Autumn 1972): 72-77. (Winter 1976): 40. 34. "Sarain Stump," Tawow 4 (1974). 30. John Anson Warner, "Contemporary 35. Kay Woods, "Art Amerindian Contem­ Algonkian Legend Painting," American Indian porary Tradition," Artswest (November 1981): 32-36.