VIEWS AFIELD EDITED BY LYNN DIRK Scientific Literacy, Ignorance Studies: Reflections from Science Communication [Editor’s note: Welcome to the new column tent, of scientific method, and of the impact “Views Afield”, which focuses on journals Literacy, which was originally linked to of science on society. The greatest problem and journal articles likely to interest science knowledge about language, is usually dis- in basing scientific literacy on the “quasi- editors. For more information, please see cussed in terms of shortcomings and con- encyclopedic” approach of science content page 119.] notes an obligation to learn rather than an is that “even scientists who agree with the activity to enjoy. Concern about scientific approach do not agree with the specific Science Communication (Sage Publications literacy was born in the post-Sputnik era items” that should be known. Pointing to Inc) “is an international, interdisciplinary from programs aimed at moving students a link between pseudoscience and scien- social science journal that examines the toward scientific careers and at increasing tific illiteracy, a proponent of the methods nature of expertise, the diffusion of knowl- public support for science to keep abreast approach thinks that understanding of sci- edge, and the communication of science and of the Russians. C P Snow’s “Two Cultures” entific methods will give the public the abil- technology among professionals and to the lecture nurtured that concern. ity to recognize pseudoscience and to under- public” as explored by persons from all disci- Today, concern about scientific literacy stand the foundation of scientific debates plines and organizations. The journal began leads to regular “scoldings” of particular that may arise about public-policy issues. The in 1978 under the title Knowledge: Creation, third type of literacy, the impact-on-society Diffusion, and Utilization and changed to At any time, only the roughly 5% approach, is based on the programs in sci- the current title in 1994. In the issue intro- ence, technology, and society at universities: ducing the name change, the editor, Marcel of the public who are continuously The public can know all the ways that science LaFollette, discussed the scope of the field using science can ever be considered affects society without knowing the content of science communication, which ranged or the method of science. from concerns about communication among scientifically literate. The author describes two other types of scientists to the problems in communicating literacy. One occurs spontaneously when science information to the public. About the nonscientific persons become extremely latter, LaFollette stated that it is “neither an groups for not ensuring that others are knowledgeable about some issue that affects experiment nor a technical procedure. It is a “studying, teaching, attending, planning, their lives, for example, health. In these responsibility.” or communicating hard enough.” Some cases, which can be considered “situational In the September 1998 issue (vol 20, nr maintain, however, that a truly scientifically scientific literacy” as opposed to the “norma- 1), the journal celebrated its 20th anniversary literate public is impossible to attain, because tive” literacy of the 3 other types, laypersons and the passing of the editorship from Dr unless knowledge is used regularly, it will not make discoveries that experts missed or LaFollette to Carol Rogers with a collection persist. Thus, at any time, only the roughly did not consider. The author also identifies of articles by its editorial board members on 5% of the public who are continuously using an “episodic literacy”, which comes from their views of the most interesting question science can ever be considered scientifically repeated exposure to particular topics in the related to science communication. Again, Dr literate. mainstream media due to controversy, such LaFollette provided an excellent summary of Inasmuch as support for a scientific or as HIV; due to accidents, such as Chernobyl; the various views. She noted that the domi- public program depends less on its own or due to a dramatic finding, such as cold nant topic was a knowledge gap between the merits than on public support, the claim of fusion. Thus, scientific literacy may occur in source of information and those it is aimed specialized groups on the public’s attention unexpected forms that go unrecognized by at. The problem is no longer distribution of and understanding has manifested in the those who think it is lacking when it is mea- information, but access to and understanding proliferation of “topical literacies”: At least sured in conventional ways. of it. Furthermore, research in science com- 45 types have been proposed in US journals munication has previously focused primarily and popular media from 1960 to 1995, from Stocking HS. On drawing attention on content more than process. What is still A (aesthetic, agricultural, and artistic litera- to ignorance. Sci Commun 1998;20: lacking is a workable theoretical framework. cies) to U (urban) and V (video and visual). 165-178. Two of the articles from the special 20th The most common references to literacy as anniversary issue are summarized below. documented from Magazine Index Online Forms of ignorance have lately come under are, in descending order, computer literacy study in fields ranging from mathematics Paisley WJ. Scientific literacy and the (1123 citations), cultural (268), and scientific (fuzzy set theory) to psychology (cognitive competition for public attention and (241). bias). Ignorance is now also becoming a sub- understanding. Sci Commun 1998;20: Three types of scientific literacy have ject of concern in science studies. The cul- 70-80. been proposed: knowledge of science con- ture of science since Galileo and Descartes

124 ♦ CBE VIEWS ♦ VOL 22, NR 4, 1999 VIEWS AFIELD

has fostered pride in knowledge. According Other work has begun to explore cer prevention would require changes not to science historian J R Ravetz, however, “at “ignorance arrangements”, social arrange- only in research priorities, but also in per- a time when ‘ignorance swamps knowledge ments whereby individuals or groups sonal lifestyle and the business sector, which in the face of global problems that are cre- may lead to “structural apathies”. ated by science-based technology’, this pride Journalists presumed that readers One subject needing work in ignorance in scientific knowledge and ignorance of studies is the cataloging of different ways ignorance is deeply dangerous.” Studies to judged the significance of that scientists refer to the unknown—such explore the unknown and unknowable are a news story from its length: A ignorance-laden terms as “knowledge gaps”, growing in number, and many argue that “rejected knowledge”, “lost knowledge”, ignorance is socially constructed. Indeed, short story would be considered less “surprises”, “anomalies”, “mysteries”, scholars in “ignorance studies” have begun important by readers and have less “uncertainties”, “errors”, “ambiguities”, to make the case that scientific ignorance, and “confusion”—and the social contexts much more than scientific knowledge, may influence on them. for the use of various terms. be subject to social processes. Unfortunately, those who work in Some scholars with interests in public intentionally deprive themselves or oth- ignorance studies have encountered social science, for example, have argued that sci- ers of scientific knowledge. For example, pressures to speak in conventional terms of entists’ claims of what is irrelevant, biased, through interviews, cleanup workers at the “uncertainty” rather than “ignorance”, even inaccurate, incomplete, absent, or uncertain Chernobyl accident site revealed that they when what is meant is the more limited are modified by corporations and special- did not seek out risk information about sense of outright absence of knowledge. interest groups and by journalists to express, their work, because they thought that would One author was pressured by his publisher advance, or protect particular interests. In a signal mistrust in those who were making to add the word “uncertainty” to the title of study of how different news magazines arrangements to protect them. Thus, scien- his book about ignorance (Ignorance and reported on the same new medical find- tific illiteracy in some circumstances may be Uncertainty: Emerging Paradigms). Found- ing, it was found that short news stories functional, not simply a cognitive deficit or ers of the Curriculum on Medical Ignorance contained few warnings about the limita- the result of poor public schooling, as it is at the University of Arizona encountered tions of the research. This was not simply often portrayed to be. similar resistance. because there was less space for such infor- In other research, a historian of science One of the most valuable effects of mation, however. Journalists presumed that has suggested that what does not get stud- studying ignorance of all sorts may be a readers judged the significance of a news ied by scientists may be due to social forces, fostering of humility. In art, a technique for story from its length: A short story would such as the absence or neglect of interested learning how to draw involves looking at the be considered less important by readers parties, lack of funding for particular fields spaces around an object in order to draw it. and have less influence on them. Therefore, of study, or censorship. For example, the In the same way, thinking about what we do journalists included fewer warnings on the emphasis on biologic mechanisms of cancer not know about something may improve limitations of the research in short stories obscures social causes of cancer that society the act of knowing. than in long stories. might otherwise work to prevent. Also, can-

Advertising Manager CBE Views

CBE Views seeks an advertising manager. Activities include recruiting new advertisers, answering inquiries about advertising in CBE Views, and overseeing communication with continuing advertisers. If interested, please contact Barbara Gastel, editor, CBE Views, telephone 409-845-6887, e-mail [email protected].

CBE VIEWS ♦ VOL 22, NR 4, 1999 ♦ 125