POWER ON YOUR PLATE

All-Africa Summit on Diversifying Food Systems with African Traditional Vegetables to Increase Health, Nutrition, and Wealth 25-28 January 2021 Gran Meliá Arusha Arusha, Tanzania

PROGRAM / ABSTRACTS

Ensuring a healthier Africa now The time is right to advance and into the future demands a knowledge and expand the use smart, sustainable food system of traditional vegetables to to deliver diets rich in nutritious, help bring about this goal. plant-based foods. DONORS

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2 The POWER of Traditional Vegetables

With more than 20% of Africa’s population undernourished and close to one-third food insecure, it is clear that food systems must change—to nourish people, not merely feed them.

Africa is home to a large number of plant species with the potential to invigorate the continent’s horticultural value chain -- yet whether consumed as nutritious food or used as the foundation for natural health products, these traditional vegetables remain untapped and underutilized. From an estimated 6,400 species of useful indigenous plants, about 300 are traditional vegetables and about 126 species are widely known and used throughout the continent.

Traditional vegetables support nutrition-sensitive agriculture under climate change because they generally are more nutrient-dense than most commercial vegetable crops, they have lower water requirements, are adapted to poor quality soils, and have higher resistance to pests and diseases.

The biodiversity of traditional vegetables is endangered by displacement with high- energy staple crops, the fact that most traditional vegetables are not registered in national catalogues, lack of promotion and support for their use, lack of human resources capacity focusing on traditional vegetables, and lack of conservation infrastructure.

Because of their relatively low commercial value, no significant research investment has been made for traditional vegetables; crop improvement options have not been fully explored and genetic resources are poorly conserved.

Only a very few African traditional vegetables have become widely adopted across the continent. African eggplant and okra are now grown on large areas and improved varieties are successfully commercialized. In some regions, amaranth is about to turn from an underutilized vegetable to a mainstream grain and vegetable crop.

These success stories show that research and breeding can convert underutilized traditional vegetables into commercially successful crops. Other traditional vegetables could take a similar path if research would help to unlock their potential for income generation and nutrition for the benefit of local resource-poor populations.

Power on Your Plate is a call for action: for increased investment, regional R&D programs, and policies to promote traditional vegetables at national and regional levels and fully integrate traditional vegetables into Africa’s food systems.

3 ABSTRACTS

4 Session 1: DIVERSITY, BREEDING and SEED SYSTEMS page

Exploiting the diversity of African vegetables for improved nutrition: action plan for Prof. Enoch Achigan-Dako 11 stakeholders with specific agenda for plant breeders University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin

Dr. Roland Schafleitner The World Vegetable Center Amaranthus core collections 12 World Vegetable Center, Taiwan

Dr. Winnie Nyonje Nutritional phenotyping and association between morphological and nutritional traits in Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and 13 vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) lines Technology (JKUAT), Kenya

Dissecting genetic variation and linking crop functional traits to iron, zinc and carotenoids Mr. Eliel Sossou 14 contents in amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) genetic resources University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin

Performance of African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum) entries across environments, and Dr. Fekadu Dinssa 15 hints for selection environment in northern Tanzania World Vegetable Center, Tanzania

Recovery response of three contrasting genotypes suggests a “pre-defense” mechanism for Dr. Godfrey Sseremba 16 highly drought tolerant genotype in Solanum aethiopicum Shum group Uganda Christian University

Heritability of drought resistance in Solanum aethiopicum Shum group and combining ability Dr. Godfrey Sseremba 17 of genotypes for drought tolerance and recovery Uganda Christian University

Impacts and sustainability of farmer seed production activities: a case of the Good Seed Dr. Monica Kansiime 18 Initiative (GSI) project in Tanzania CABI, Kenya Dr. Remi Kahane Seed is the natural entry point to agroecology for small scale vegetable farmers in Africa 19 CIRAD, France Mr. Robert Mattera III The history of breeding for basil downy mildew resistance in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) 20 Rutgers University, USA Agrobiodiversity, nutrition, and policies: Where are we with the conservation and utilization Dr. Sognigbe N’Danikou 21 of African vegetable biodiversity? World Vegetable Center, Tanzania Collection of genetic resources of selected traditional African vegetables in agroecological Mr. Mouizz Salaou 22 zones of Benin University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin Diversity and use of traditional vegetables in two regions of Madagascar: Itasy and Dr. Tendro Radanielina 23 Vakinankaratra. University of Antananarivo, Madagascar Ms. Mildred Julian Nakanwagi Differential response of two cultivar groups of Solanum aethiopicum to water deficit stress 24 Uganda Christian University Dr. Jean Baptiste De La Salle Tignegre Bulb yield stability study of onion lines over locations and seasons in Ghana and Mali 25 World Vegetable Center, Mali Mr. Herbaud Phanuel Fortunat Andromonoecy in Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq.(Cleomaceae) and effects on fruit and Zohoungbogbo 26 seed production World Vegetable Center, Tanzania Session 2: VALUE CHAINS and SCALING

Mr. Elijah Mwashayenyi Catalyzing the strengthening of vegetable value chains in Africa East-West Seed Knowledge Transfer, 27 Tanzania

Prof. Jane Ambuko Value addition of vegetables for increased access and consumption by urban consumers 28 University of Nairobi, Kenya

Dr. Gundula Fischer Traditional vegetable value chains: A gendered analysis of perceptions of labour, income and International Institute of Tropical Agriculture 29 expenditure in producers’ and traders’ households (IITA), Tanzania Ms. Ritha Luoga Production and utilization of traditional African vegetables in Madagascar 30 World Vegetable Center, Tanzania

Farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding production, preservation and utiliza- Ms. Charity Muchoki 31 tion of African leafy vegetables in Western Kenya University of Nairobi, Kenya

Promotion of traditional African vegetables (TAV) in Cameroon: the need for a post-harvest Ms. Regine Kamga 32 loss reduction strategy. World Vegetable Center, Cameroon

5 Session 3: AGRONOMY and PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Dr. Francis Muthoni Extrapolation suitability for improved vegetable technology packages in Babati and Karatu International Institute of Tropical Agriculture 33 districts of Tanzania (IITA), Tanzania Prof. Isaac Aiyelaagbe Adapting fluted pumpkin for greenhouse cultivation: How much water do the plants need? 34 Federal University of Agriculture, Nigeria Dr. Bodovololona Rabary Participatory evaluation of introduced traditional African vegetables by women farmers in Centre Régional de Recherche FOFIFA, 35 Madagascar: opportunities and challenges Madagascar

Session 4: FOOD ENVIRONMENTS

A Renaissance on the Plate: A look back at Bioversity International’s research and promotion Dr. Danny Hunter 36 of African leafy vegetables Bioversity

Dr. Bronwen Powell Evolution of culturally-bound preferences for traditional vegetables in East Africa 37 The Pennsylvania State University, USA

Pathways to improved food and nutrition security of the poor: the promise of African Dr. Sijmen Schoustra 38 indigenous foods and technologies NWO-WOTRO, Netherlands

Dr. Koen Dekeyser A sustainable food systems approach to integrate traditional African vegetables in Nakuru, European Centre for Development Policy 39 Kenya and Arusha, Tanzania Management, Netherlands

Session 5: NUTRITION and HEALTH

Dr. Oluwasesan M. Bello Bioactive compounds from Ceratotheca sesamoides: A neglected vegetable from Nigeria 40 Federal University Dutsin-Ma, Nigeria

Ms. Jemima Djah Traditional vegetables in Ghana: Distribution and consumption patterns 41 SNV, Ghana

Dr. Winnie Nyonje Enhancing the nutritional quality of amaranth vegetable through specific food preparation Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and 42 methods Technology (JKUAT), Kenya

Providing year-round affordable, nutritious foods for low income consumers through Mrs. Mercy Mwende 43 commercialization of dried African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) Sweet and Dried Enterprises Limited, Kenya

Dr. Martins Odendo Factors influencing consumption patterns of African leafy vegetables in Western Kenya Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research 45 Organization (KALRO)

Identifying culturally specific nutrition interventions in Kenya to increase consumption of Ms. Emily Merchant 46 African indigenous vegetables Rutgers University, USA

Session 6: BEYOND FOOD

POSTERS

Mr. Emmanuel Vicent Laswai Yield, nutrient content and release of improved amaranth varieties in northern Tanzania Tanzania Agriculture Research Institute - 47 Tengeru

Establishing a technical guideline for agroecological production of baobab leaves at seedling Mr. Guillaume Hounsou Dindin 48 stage in Benin (West Africa) University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin

Mr. Md Golam Azam Development of high yield and nutritious mungbean lines (Vigna radiata L. WILCZEK) using Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute 49 heterosis and combining Ability Analysis by Diallel Method (BARI) Prof. Willis Owino Metabolite diversity in fruits of selected African eggplant accessions for improved health and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and 50 nutrition Technology (JKUAT), Kenya

Understanding molecular mechanisms of seed dormancy for improved germination in Mr. Silvère Fernand Sohindji 51 traditional leafy vegetables: An overview University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin

6 Dr. Tatiana Luciano Rakotoson Agro-morphological characterization of traditional African vegetables cultivated in the Centre Régional de Recherche FOFIFA, 52 highlands of Madagascar Madagascar

A review of taxonomic inventory of vegetable amaranths in Ghana and an outlook on Mrs. Mildred Osei-Kwarteng 53 characterization of local amaranth species for farmers University for Development Studies, Ghana

Mrs. Aisha Muhammad Aliyu Effects of cutting height on nutritional components of vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus Kano University of Science and Technology, 54 cruentus L.) in savannah zone of northern Nigeria Nigeria

Mr. Md. Faruk Hossain Identification of superior brinjal parents based on qualitative and quantitative traits Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute 55 (BARI) Agronomic and yield performance of Amaranthus varieties based on common farmers’ Ms. Digna Swai 56 practices. East-West Seeds, Tanzania

Dr. Sognigbe N’Danikou World Vegetable Center’s genebank of traditional African vegetables in Tanzania supports World Vegetable Center, 57 better income and healthier diets for smallholders Tanzania

Seed yield and quality of jute mallow (Corchorius olitorius L.) as affected by cutting frequency Dr. Hamdino Ahmed 58 and salicyclic acid foliar application Horticulture Research Institute (HRI), Egypt

Lusala (Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth. subsp. pedicellata Milne-Redh): a wild edible tuberous Mr. Donald Zulu vegetable which supports rural livelihoods in southern Zambia, shows considerable genetic 59 University of Reading, UK diversity, and can be propagated for conservation and domestication

Phytochemistry and biological activities of new secondary metabolites from the leaves of Dr. Oluwasesan M. Bello 60 Vitex grandifolia Federal University Dutsin-Ma, Nigeria

Ms. Rahel Heruy Enhancing women’s economic empowerment through the sustainable scaling of spices and Damascene Essential Oil Processing PLC, 61 herbs sourcing scheme in southwestern Ethiopia Ethiopia Prof. Dianah Walubengo Postharvest quality characteristics of fruit derived from intra and intergeneric grafted tomato Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and 63 Technology (JKUAT), Kenya

An ethnobotanical survey on the traditional uses and medicinal perceptions for domesticated Mrs. Maurine Eyokia 64 and wild gathered vegetables of the Lugbara community in Arua District, Uganda Kyambogo University, Uganda

Role and responsibility of international development agencies to promote and incorporate Mr. Bryan Pride consumption of indigenous vegetables in agriculture and nutrition programs throughout 65 Rise Against Hunger, USA Africa

Ms. Noémie David-Rogeat Phenotyping African eggplant growth and nutritional quality under abiotic stresses 67 University of Nottingham, UK Dr. Dorah Mwenye Research and development in traditional vegetables in Zimbabwe: A review paper 68 Agritex, Zimbabwe Dr. Bodovololona Rabary Traditional African vegetables strengthen food and nutrition security in Madagascar Centre Régional de Recherche FOFIFA, 69 Madagascar Dr. Ray-Yu Yang Overviews of functional properties and folk medicinal use of indigenous vegetables in Taiwan Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, 70 Taiwan

The contribution of less documented indigenous leafy vegetables to total micronutrient Dr. Hadijah Mbwana intake of children below five years in a rural semi-arid area in Tanzania: Implications for policy 71 Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania and nutrition interventions

Diversification and tackling malnutrition in cocoa communities in Cameroon through Mrs. Regine Kamga 73 traditional African vegetable home gardening World Vegetable Center, Cameroon

7 Mrs. Christine Ndinya Effect of chicken manure on leaf yields of selected African leafy vegetables in western Kenya Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research 74 Organization (KALRO)

Dr. Peter Hanson Nutritional quality of traditional African vegetables as affected by drying methods 75 World Vegetable Center, Benin

Ms. Margareth Makauki Growth characteristics and yield of jute mallow when intercropped with common cereal The Nelson Mandela African Institution of 76 crops in Tanzania Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tanzania

Ms. Amina Ahmed Effect of pH and cooking time on shelf life of African nightshade leafy-based sauces Mbeya University of Science and 77 Technology, Tanzania

Mr. Samuel Owolade Effect of germination periods on proximate and antinutrient composition of grain amaranth National Horticultural Research Institute, 78 flour Nigeria

Performance and release of two African nightshade lines from World Vegetable Center Mr. Omary Mbwambo 79 germplasm in Tanzania World Vegetable Center, Tanzania

Ms. Marynurce Kazosi Effects of drying technologies on the nutrition and anti-nutritional factors of African The Nelson Mandela African Institution of 80 nightshade (Solanum nigrum complex) species in Tanzania Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tanzania

How can ‘limited - space’ growing alleviate food insecurity of displaced people groups in Mr. Philip Newcombe 81 sub-Saharan East Africa The Royal Horticultural Society, UK

Processing methods and nutritional quality of dried amaranth (Amaranthus spp. L.) leaves: A Mrs. Mildred Osei-Kwarteng 82 review University for Development Studies, Ghana

Ms. Hsin-I Wang Taiwan indigenous vegetables in current agri-food systems 83 World Vegetable Center

Characterization of amaranth germplasm in response to bacterial wilt disease caused by Ms. Judith Honfoga 84 Ralstonia solanacearum World Vegetable Center

Effect of moisture on yield and quality of amaranth Ms. Halima Daffa 85

Mr. WS Jansen van Rensburg The participatory evaluation of Amaranth germplasm for leaf yield in South Africa Agricultural Research Council, Vegetable 86 Ornamental Plants

Dr. Adam Akinloye Impact of storage conditions and packaging materials on seed germination and field National Centre for Genetic Resources and 87 emergence of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) at different seasons Biotechnology, Nigeria

Ms. Eunice Minyatta Perception of youths on consumption of African indigenous vegetables in western Kenya Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research 88 Organization

Dr. Francesco Rampa Pathways to improved food and nutrition security of the poor: the promise of African European Centre for Development Policy 89 indigenous foods and technologies Management, Netherlands

Microscopic observations of the ultrastructure of Kersting’s groundnut (Macrotyloma Azon Christel 90 geocarpum (Harms) Maréchal and Baudet) flowers University of Abomey-Calavi

8 Ms. Alice Makala- Kavishe Overview of African Traditional Vegetables Germplasm Collection, Characterization and Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute 91 Conservation in Tanzania (TARI -Tengeru)

The contribution of neglected Oyster nuts (Telfairia pedata) to Biodiversity Conservation and Ms. Philipina Shayo The Nelson Mandela African Institution of 92 Improved Community Livelihoods in Northern Tanzania Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tanzania

9

Exploiting the diversity of African vegetables for improved nutrition: action plan for stakeholders with specific agenda for plant breeders

Enoch G. Achigan-Dako

Laboratory of Genetics, Horticulture and Seed Sciences, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey- Calavi, BP 2549 Abomey-Calavi, Republic of Benin

Abstract The sustainable use of plant genetic resources is a prerequisite for human food and nutrition security, a major concern in Sub-Saharan Africa that needs to be urgently addressed to insure the economic growth of the continent. Those resources include African vegetables that encompass tremendous diversity. In recent years several interventions have tackled the production, commercialization, consumption of African vegetables to increase the utilizations in urban and rural areas. Despites those interventions, African vegetables still lag behind in terms of resources allocated to develop their value chains. To accelerate the pace of the utilisation of African vegetables in sub-Saharan Africa the following actions need to be undertaken: 1) developing market and value chains for African vegetables (e.g. Amaranthus cruentus, Solanum macrocarpon, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Brassica carinata, Corchorus olitorius, Abelmoschus esculentus, Lagenaria siceraria, Gnetum africana, Colocasia esculenta, Gynandropsis gynandra, Citrullus mucosospermus, Momordica charantia), 2) creating conducive home gardening strategy for increased consumption of fresh products, 3) intensifying transition to agro-ecological production of African vegetables in urban and peri-urban areas (e.g. bio-fertilization, biological control of pest and diseases, micro irrigation, weed control with biodegradable materials, capacity building, 4) generating accurate statistics for informed policy development and decision making, 5) designing new technologies to upscale low-cost production and processing of African vegetables (e.g. drying/blanching versus freeze conservation). Specific agenda for breeders includes six steps: 1) understanding the reproductive biology and mating systems that increase genetic gains, 2) inventory of available genetic resources and re- assessing genepool and germplasm for additional collections to increase geographical coverage; 3) phenotyping and genotyping of germplasms for added value traits; 4) genomic selection and molecular breeding of cultivars to increase accuracy and reduce selection cycle; 5) multi-environmental testing and end-users’ evaluation; 6) setting up quality seed system sectors. Breeders and agronomists should capitalize on progress achieved so far in cultivar development and deployment to set forward a breeding agenda for target products in line with farmers and consumers’ needs.

Keywords: leafy vegetables; research and development programs; value chains; agro-ecological transition; micro-irrigation; capacity building; breeding program; cultivars; seed systems.

11 The World Vegetable Center Amaranthus Core collections

Roland Schafleitner, Fekadu Dinssa, Richard Finkers, Jean Lin, Tien-hor Wu, Sognibe N’Danikou, Maarten van Zonneveld

World Vegetable Center

Abstract The World Vegetable Center harbors Africa’s largest amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) collection in its genebank in Tanzania. The collection currently includes over 1,000 accessions of 18 Amaranthus species, too many for breeders to evaluate. A smaller number of biodiverse accessions (core collection) would be more amenable for germplasm characterization and screening for favorable traits and subsequent mobilizing crop diversity for breeding and selection. WorldVeg has developed two core collections for amaranth, one representing the diversity of the whole collection, and another one containing only the four Amaranthus species with greatest importance for vegetable production in Africa (African core, consisting of A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus, A. caudatus and A. dubius accessions). The core collections were chosen from the whole collection based on diversity analysis using high throughput genotypic data. Comparing the Shannon Index and Nei’s expected heterozygosity between the whole and the core collections demonstrated that the diversity of the whole collection was maintained to at least 90% on the genomics level. The diversity of nine quantitative traits was conserved to about 80% in the core collections compared to the whole collection. Agronomic evaluation and drought stress tolerance screening in the African core demonstrated important variation in leaf yield under stress as well as non-stress conditions and accessions with favorable traits are forwarded to amaranth breeding programs.

12 Nutritional phenotyping and association between morphological and nutritional traits in vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) lines

Winnie Nyonje1, Mary Abukutsa-Onyango1, Ray-Yu Yang2,3, Anselimo Makokha1, Willis Owino1, Roland Schafleitner2*

1Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya 2World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan 3 Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Taiwan *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is an important leafy vegetable and grain crop which belongs to the Amaranthaceae family. It is a good source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, and is widely consumed in several parts of the world. However varieties of different Amaranthus species show great phenotypic variation and also may have different nutritional attributes. This study aimed to phenotypically characterize vegetable amaranth lines of five different species (A. hypochondriacus, A. cruentus, A. tricolor, A. dubius and A. blitum) by measuring morphological parameters and relating these data to the nutritional attributes of the leaves. Ten selected amaranth lines drawn from World Vegetable Center, Arusha and Taiwan were used in the study. The study involved the use of a high throughput phenotyping system to determine digital biomass, greenness, plant height and hue of the leaves using 3D scanning and correlating these data with the nutritional traits including carotenoids, flavonoids, vitamin C, minerals and oxalate contents of the various lines. The analysis of variance for both morphological traits and nutritional traits showed significant (푃 ≤ 0.05) difference for most traits recorded between the lines. Amaranth line 8 (A. tricolor) and line 10 (A. dubius) had highest content of most nutrients, while line 2 (A. hypochondriacus) and line 3 (A. hypochondriacus) had lowest nutrient content. Significant correlations were observed between greenness with oxalate and vitamin C contents; as well as between hues with carotenoids. We conclude that only a few morphological traits of amaranth are associated to their leaf nutrient contents.

Keywords: Phenotypic variations, 3D scanning, nutrients, bioactive compounds

13 Dissecting genetic variation and linking crop functional traits to iron, zinc and carotenoids contents in amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) genetic resources

Eliel B. Sossou1, 2, Enoch G. Achigan-Dako1*, E. O. Deedi Sogbohossou1, 3, Herbaud P. F. Zohoungbogbo1, 4, Nicodeme H. Fassinou1, Happiness O. Oselebe2

Correspondence: [email protected]

1 Laboratory of Genetics, Horticulture and Seed Science, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey- Calavi, BP 2549 Abomey-Calavi, Republic of Benin. 2 Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria. 3 Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, the Netherlands. 4 World Vegetable Center, West and Central Africa, Coastal & Humid Regions, Cotonou, Benin.

Abstract The evaluation of germplasm collection is a prerequisite for the development of vegetable amaranths breeding program. The present study examined the variation in carotenoids, zinc and iron content as well as plant architecture, and leaf-yield related traits for 25 accessions of amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) from various origins. Experiments were conducted during the early planting season (April-June) and the late planting season (August-October) 2019 in the experimental field of the Department of Crop production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi State University, Nigeria and the extraction of nutrients content in the Laboratory of Biochemistry of Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Nigeria. All horticultural traits showed significant differences among all the accessions except the survival rate after cutting. For the nutrient content, significant variation was only found among accessions for carotenoids and zinc levels. Seasonal variation significantly affected all the traits. The broad-sense heritability estimate for 19 quantitative traits ranged from H2 <0.05 for carotenoids content in the leaves to 0.85 for length: width leaf ratio. The Pearson correlation matrix and genetic correlation indicated significant and strong positive correlations between most of the yield-related traits, the total yield, and the marketable fresh vegetable yield. A moderate to strong significant correlation was noticed between the horticultural traits and all the nutrients except total carotenoids levels. Overall, the accessions were grouped into three clusters based on only the horticultural traits. These results confirmed the hypothesis that selection can be made for leaf yield; other related traits, and zinc content. The study provides information on the variation for traits of interest to enhance breeding for leaf yield and nutrient content in A. cruentus.

Keywords: Amaranth, Nutrient content, Leaf yield, horticultural traits, Breeding

14 Performance of African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum) entries across environments, and hints for selection environment in northern Tanzania

Dinssa F.F1., P. Hanson2, M. Matovolwa1, R. Mallogo1, M. S. Mushi1, O. Mbwambo1 and G. P. Munuo1

1World Vegetable Center, Eastern and Southern Africa 2World Vegetable Center, Cotonou, Benin

Abstract African eggplant (Solanum spp.) is a widely used fruit and leafy vegetable in Africa. The crop grows in various agro-ecological zones and most farmers grow unimproved local cultivars. In general, African eggplant breeding is in early stages although farmer interest in improved cultivars is growing. Information on Genotype (G) x Environment (E) interaction would help guide breeders in cultivar development strategies, and whether the emphasis should be placed on specific and/or wide adaptation. The objective of this study was to determine the extent of G, E, and G x E interaction (GEI), and identify major production environments for breeding programs. A total of 21 African eggplant entries were evaluated for fruit yield and horticultural traits in two locations in 2017, and five locations in 2018 targeting two agro-ecologies in northern Tanzania. Trial locations ranged in altitude from 866 masl in the Kilimanjaro region to 1235 masl in Arusha region. Location and year were considered as independent environments so entries were evaluated in seven environments. Entries were arranged in a randomized block design with three replications. Highly significant differences among entries were found for fruit yield and other traits in each environment. G, E, and GEI effects were highly significant in an Additive Main Effect and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) analysis. Environment explained about 34% of the sum of squares of treatments (G+E+GEI) while G and GEI accounted for 14 and 52%, respectively. The AMMI analysis partitioned the GEI sum of squares into three significant Interaction Principal Component Axis (IPCA). The G and GEI (GGE) biplot analysis clustered the seven environments into two mega-environments. The results of the study and its implication on African eggplant selection strategy will be discussed.

Keywords: AMMI analysis, genotype x environment interaction, GGE biplot, mega-environment, stability

15 Recovery response of three contrasting genotypes suggests a “pre-defense” mechanism for highly drought tolerant genotype in Solanum aethiopicum Shum group

Godfrey Sseremba1,2,3*, Pangirayi Tongoona1, John Eleblu1, Eric Yirenkyi Danquah1, and Elizabeth Balyejusa Kizito2

1West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, University of Ghana, PMB LG30, Accra, Ghana 2Department of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Uganda Christian University, P.O. Box 4, Mukono, Uganda 3National Coffee Research Institute, National Agricultural Research Organization, P.O. Box 185, Mukono, Uganda

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Drought stress is known to interrupt plant function but the underlying behavior of contrasting genotypes in Solanum aethiopicum Shum group had not been investigated. This study was aimed at determining the relationship among selected leaf traits of S. aethiopicum Shum under drought recovery; and comparing the response of contrasting genotypes (G) under watering resumption. Three genotypes (E17GP=susceptible, E14GP=moderately tolerant and E6=highly drought tolerant) were subjected to two watering regimes (WL) over time (DAR); and leaf traits namely leaf wilting score (LWS), leaves per plant (LPP), leaf relative water content (LRWC), gas exchange (STC) and chlorophyll content (CHL) were measured. Strong linear relationships were observed between trait pairs: CHL and LPP (R2=0.75), CHL and STC (R2=0.56), and STC and LPP (R2=0.53); offering an alternative to use of any of the three traits for drought phenotyping. Generally, significant WL, G, DAR, WL x G, G x DAR, WL x DAR and WL x G x DAR responses for all measured traits were obtained at 1% error margin. The susceptible genotype recovered the slowest and maintained STC irrespective of WL which predisposes it to severe drought effects. The moderately tolerant genotype maintained better overall leaf health (high CHL) irrespective of WL than other genotypes. Based on both STC and CHL, the highly drought tolerant genotype is suggested to exhibit a “pre-defense” mechanism by functioning at reduced gas exchange and moderate CHL as a mitigating strategy against drought.

Keywords: African indigenous vegetables; differential variety response; drought recovery; gas exchange; leaf functional traits; leafy vegetables

16 Heritability of drought resistance in Solanum aethiopicum Shum group and combining ability of genotypes for drought tolerance and recovery

Godfrey Sseremba1,2*, Pangirayi Tongoona1*, John Eleblu1, Eric Yirenkyi Danquah1, and Elizabeth Balyejusa Kizito2*

1West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement, University of Ghana, PMB LG30, Accra, Ghana 2Department of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Uganda Christian University, P.O. Box 4, Mukono, Uganda

*Corresponding authors: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Drought tolerance is a complex trait whose inheritance had not been investigated in Solanum aethiopicum L. Shum group. This is partly because of perceived cross incompatibilities in the crop. This study relied on 24 successful crosses from an incomplete 9x4 North Carolina II mating design, evaluated under five watering conditions based on plant growth stage and watering level in order to determine the heritability of drought resistance and combining ability. Subsequent data analyses were based on restricted maximum likelihood. Overall, specific combining ability (SCA) effects were significant across and within watering environments for all study traits. The most highly heritable traits (in the narrow-sense) were identified as leaves per plant, chlorophyll content (CHL), leaf fresh yield and leaf dry yield while leaf area (LA), leaf relative water content (LRWC) and leaf mass area (LMA) were least heritable. However, the broad sense heritability (H2) was over 0.80 for seven of the traits, indicating that dominance gene action surpasses additive gene effects for drought resistance in S. aethiopicum Shum. Further analysis showed that LA is suited for selection of best combiners under well-watered and drought-stress (DS) treatments. The LRWC served best in separating the SCA effects of crosses under DS. The CHL produced clear separations of SCA effects under both DS and drought recovery while LMA served best under the latter.

Keywords: Specific combining ability; optimum watering; drought tolerance mechanisms; breeding traits; hybridization; African eggplant

17 Impacts and sustainability of farmer seed production activities: a case of the Good Seed Initiative (GSI) project in Tanzania

Monica K. Kansiime1; Mary Bundi1; Jacqueline Nicodemus2, Justus Ochieng3, Damus Marandu4, Silvestri Samali Njau4, Frances Williams1; Daniel Karanja1, Justice Tambo5 and Dannie Romney1

1CABI Africa - Nairobi, Kenya 2Inades Formation - Dodoma, Tanzania 3World Vegetable Center - Arusha, Tanzania 4TARI Tengeru - Arusha, Tanzania 5CABI - Delmont, Switzerland

Abstract This study assessed impacts and sustainability of CABI’s Good Seed Initiative (GSI) work (2013-2016) in Tanzania. The project aimed to strengthen the seed system for African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) through training and promotion of farmer seed production under two systems – contract farming (in the North) and Quality Declared Seed (QDS) (in the South). Data were collected during August 2019 through focus group discussions (64 men, 73 women), and interviews with seed sector stakeholders. Results show that farmer seed enterprises under both models continued to thrive, creating avenues for income diversification and substantially contributing to household incomes (>50%). Farmers reported an increasing demand for seed particularly in the south of the country, and as a result, farmers trained in the project continued to train other farmer seed producers in order to be able to satisfy the demand. Farmers also reported expanded markets for QDS, including entry of more agro-dealers and seed merchants. As a result of various advocacy initiatives, QDS seed could be sold outside local wards, which presumably had a major impact on markets for local farmers in Dodoma. The quality of farmer produced seed rated as being of good quality by local users and agro-dealers, however, this was not ascertained due to the reported breakdown of seed inspection services and lack of access to foundation seed. Farmers who were trained in contract farming in Arusha continued to engage in contractual arrangements with seed companies for bulking seeds of AIVs, including exotic vegetables, building on farmers’ experience in producing AIV seed. Reported contracted seed quantities for two interviewed companies increased from 14tons (2016) to 41tons (2019), as well as number of farmers contracted. Noted challenges at producer level that need addressing were; farmers’ inability to appropriately negotiate contracts with seed companies, especially women; weak seed inspection and access to early generation seed for QDS growers; fragmented markets for QDS; and lack of innovative agronomic technologies to adapt seed production to current environmental risks. The companies mentioned the increased inspection fees and multiple licenses levied on them as major challenges, which subsequently affects the prices paid for seed to contracted farmers. Farmer seed production proved to be a viable strategy for providing quality seed to farmers less served by the formal sector, and contributing to improved livelihoods for smallholder farmers engaged in seed production. The sustained relationship and linkage to formal sector, and stimulation of local demand through nutritional awareness campaigns were strong contributory factors to the survival of farmer seed businesses.

Keywords: contract farming, gender, quality declared seed, seed business

18 Seed is the natural entry point to agroecology for small scale vegetable farmers in Africa

Kahane R. 1, Thomas M. 2, Bazile D. 3 and Clavel D. 2

1HortSys 2Agap 3Green research units of Cirad, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France

Abstract Farmer seeds and agroecological practices share the same goal: sustainable food and nutrition security through sovereignty. However, whereas seed autonomy and diversity at the local level are easy to understand but difficult to achieve, agroecological sovereignty is not so easy to conceive because of its holistic approach, and farmers consider the transition phase at economic risk. The present paper underlines how seed can practically help small scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa enter the agroecological transition, in particular in their vegetable farming activity, while preventing them from food and financial risks.

The kind of vegetable seeds used is often not a choice in most African family farms, influencing then the cropping system and at a larger scale, the food system of rural communities. Improved varieties sold by retailers are costly, not locally bred or produced, and not always adapted to the needs or the environmental conditions; and in most cases, they do not valorize the still present diversity of varieties and species for the local markets. Farmers’ seed is often available on the informal market, with little information on its quality but locally adapted and cheap, reason for its wide use for many species. Since emphasis has rarely been put on these plant species, genetic and phenotypic diversity exists that can be used to (re-)discover relevant nutritional and agroecological characteristics of these plants, like their positive interactions as bioprotectant or biofertilizer, in crop association, rotation, or application of extracts. Developing participatory plant breeding program in vegetable seed systems with farmers’ organizations would contribute to select well-adapted variety populations and add value to their various quality and agroecological traits. Such improvement would be a reasonable way to limit the financial failures and increase the socio-cultural adoption of agroecology.

19 The history of breeding for basil downy mildew resistance in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Mr. Robert Mattera III1, Ms. Lara Brindisi1, Dr. Robert Pyne2, Dr. Yariv Ben Naim3, Dr. Yigal Cohen3, Dr. C. Andrew Wyenandt1, Dr. James Simon1

1Rutgers University 2VDF Specialty Seeds 3Bar Ilan University

Abstract Ocimum spp. is one of the most important herb genera in the world and contains over 60 different species, many originating in sub-Sahara Africa, including several economically important ones. Sweet basil (O. basilicum), one of these species, is ubiquitously grown throughout the world as a popular culinary herb. In the past two decades, basil downy mildew (BDM), discovered in Uganda in 1933, has spread throughout the basil growing world devastating basil crops and forcing growers to adopt costly control measures. Until recently no commercially grown sweet basils have had resistance to BDM resulting in major losses due to most pesticide regimes having little efficacy. After screening hundreds of basil accessions including exotic basil species, most from sub-Sahara Africa procured from the USDA GRIN and commercial sources multiple basils with resistance were identified. No resistance was found in sweet basils and attempts at crossing exotic resistant basils with sweet basils generally resulted in lack of fertility and breeding dead- ends. One exotic accession with resistance, named MRI, was identified only as O. basilicum after we conducted a genetic diversity analysis of the germplasm collection at Rutgers and when crossed with sweet basil resulted in fertile crosses. MRI, purportedly from Zanzibar, was crossed with the Rutgers breeding line SB22 and resulted in four downy mildew resistant sweet basil cultivars that are now commercially available. Other exotic sources of downy mildew resistance have been successfully introgressed into sweet basil by using embryo rescue to overcome the F1 infertility issues. This technique allows new sources of disease resistance from exotic basils to be introgressed into more widely grown sweet basils. Using indigenous wild relatives from other Ocimum spp. has been effective in the search for sources of genetic disease resistance, new aromas and flavors.

20 Agrobiodiversity, nutrition, and policies: Where are we with the conservation and utilization of African vegetable biodiversity?

Sognigbe N’Danikou1*, Maarten van Zonneveld2

1World Vegetable Center, East and Southern Africa. P.O. Box 10 Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania 2World Vegetable Center, Headquarters, P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 74199 Taiwan *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract SDG Target 2.5 aims, by 2020, to maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed. However, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is lagging behind on this target. About 70% of SSA countries have no proper and functioning genebank infrastructure, and agricultural biodiversity is shrinking. While effort is made to conserve genetic diversity of staple crops such as cereals and pulses in genebanks, there is critically low investment for ex-situ conservation of African vegetables. Also, confusions are emerging with the implementation of international agreements, preventing timely action to safeguard African vegetable biodiversity. This situation is putting many African vegetable landraces and their wild relatives at risk, which are important sources to breed nutritious crops. Therefore, Intra-Africa cooperation, institutional and policy support, and commitment of African governments are critical to safeguard and sustainably use the genetic diversity of African vegetables to meet SDG targets on food and nutrition.

Keywords: SDG Target 2.5, traditional African vegetables, genebanks, nutrition security, resilient food systems

21 Collection of genetic resources of selected traditional African vegetables in agroecological zones of Benin

A.M. Salaou1, N. Soulemane1, E.B. Sossou1, G. Bodjrenou1, H. Nouletope1, N. Akita1, C. Korogone1, M. Vigninou1, C.A.O. Adje1, Pamela Afokpe1, N.V. Fassinou-Hotegni1, S. N’Danikou1,2, and E.G. Achigan-Dako1*

1 Laboratory of Genetics, Horticulture and Seed Science, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 01 BP 526 Tri Postal, Cotonou, Republic of Benin.

2 World Vegetable Center

*Corresponding email address: [email protected]

Abstract Traditional African vegetables contribute to the reduction of food and nutrition insecurity and strengthen of human health in urban and rural communities in Africa. They occupy a prominent place in people’s livelihoods as food, medicine and source of income. However, this diversity needs to be conserved, made available to users and improved to avoid any loss of variability within and among these species so as to save them for future generations. In this perspective, the Laboratory of Genetics, Biotechnology and Seed Science in agreement with the World Vegetable Center organized a germplasm collection of 20 traditional African vegetable crops and wild relatives in 24 districts covering all the eight agroecological zones of Benin. Passport data were recorded for each collected accession. This activity generated a total of 1,479 accessions for 19 species that are currently stored at the genebank unit of the laboratory. Abelmoschus esculentus, Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum macrocarpon and Lagenaria siceraria were the top five species collected. Around 73% of seeds providers used previous harvest seeds. Moreover, the collected species are all used by local communities for multiple purposes; the use as food being common to all of the species. Other uses include for income generation, medicines, forage, arts, rituals and firewood. This collection provides insights into the existing variability within traditional African vegetables and opens the doors for more investigations and improvement of the targeted species.

Keywords: Underutilized crops, germplasm, variability, utilization, improvement.

22 Diversity and use of traditional vegetables in two regions of Madagascar: Itasy and Vakinankaratra

Radanielina Tendro1, Razanameharizana Juvet Henrinet1, Randriamampionona Denis2

1 DBEV-Faculté des Sciences, University of Antananarivo 2AT2D –ESSA – University of Antananarivo. BP 906 – Antananarivo, Madagascar

Abstract In Madagascar is the fourth most malnourished country in the world, more than 50% of children under 5 years of age suffer from chronic malnutrition. In order to assess the diversity and use of traditional vegetables on regional scale, an inventory has been carried out in two Regions: Vakinankaratra and Itasy. These regions are found in the Central Highland of Madagascar, a densely populated area where main activity is based on family farming with little agricultural area. Peasant farmers in these regions are faced with the challenge to provide food for their family. Sampling was done at two levels: four villages per region representing the main agroecological zones and 10 farmers per village representative of the three main farm types: small and poor, medium–size, and rich. Focus group discussions were carried out in each selected village with meeting with males and females held separately to collect information about food crops, food use of wild and semi-wild species, and the abundance of each harvested species. Farm surveys were conducted to collect data on the use of wild species. Results show a high diversity of traditional vegetables in the two regions: 32 species. Amaranthaceae and Asteraceae were the main used botanical family, on average, each family has eight species as traditional vegetables. One species starts to be grown in field, others are harvested as wild species. Eight species from four botanical families are also traded. This diversity is important in supporting food and nutritional security particularly in the diversification of diets in both regions. Traditional vegetables are mostly available and useful during the rainy season, when staple foods are scarce.

Keywords: Amarantaceae, Asteraceae, Traditional vegetables, Malnutrition, Madagascar

23 Differential response of two cultivar groups of Solanum aethiopicum to water deficit stress

Mildred Julian Nakanwagi*, Godfrey Sseremba*, Nahamya Pamela Kabod, Elizabeth Balyejusa Kizito*

Department of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Uganda Christian University, P.O. Box 4, Mukono, Uganda *Corresponding authors: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Two groups of Solanum aethiopicum were evaluated for drought stress under screenhouse conditions in a factorial experiment laid in a completely randomized design with four replications. The evaluation was done at three stages of growth (seedling, vegetative and flowering). Watering was done until a desired stage was reached respectively. Data was collected on different yield parameters (leaf length, leaf width, number of green leaves) and plant status parameters which included, chlorophyll, stomatal conductance and visual wilting score. Soil moisture content per pot was also routinely monitored. Results from the general analysis of variance exhibited significant differences between groups, stage and well-watered vs stressed. There was a significant decrease (p<0.01) in number of green leaves, leaf length, leaf width, stomatal conductance and soil moisture content with increasing stress. On the other hand, a general increase (p<0.01) was recorded in chlorophyll content and leaf wilting score was observed with increasing stress. At all evaluated developmental stages, water deficit stress negatively affected both Shum and Gilo groups of Solanum aethiopicum. However, the vegetative stage was greatly constrained as compared the other stages. Despite the significant constraint for both groups under water deficit stress at vegetative stage, different drought tolerance mechanisms are exhibited. Furthermore, The Shum group depicted a relatively higher degree of drought tolerance as compared to Gilo thereby providing a more reliable source of drought tolerant genes which could be transferred to other Solanum species.

Keywords: Drought tolerance mechanisms; plant growth stage; plant health status; Solanum aethiopicum Gilo; Solanum aethiopicum Shum

24 Bulb yield stability study of onion lines over locations and seasons in Ghana and Mali

Dr. Jean Baptiste De La Salle Tignegre1, Dr. Peter Hanson1, Dr. Victor Afari-Sefa1, Dr. Paul Zaato1, Dr. Moussa Kanoute1, Dr. Mamadou Kabirou N'Diaye1, Dr. Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon2, Dr. Fred Kisisto2, Dr. Birhanu Zemadim3

1 World Vegetable Center 2 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture 3 International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

Abstract Onion is one of the most economically and nutritionally important crops in West Africa. However, few high-yielding varieties are available to farmers. Onion lines from the World Vegetable Center’s Allium program were evaluated during the cool and dry season from September to March for three years to identify adapted onion lines suitable for sustainable intensification of production systems in the Africa RISING project intervention zones of Northern Ghana and South Mali. The trials were implemented in the Upper East and Northern Regions of Ghana and in two districts in the Sudan savanna zones of Mali (Bougouni and Koutiala). Nine onion lines, including check varieties, were assessed for yield stability. The trials were carried out in ‘technology parks under the joint management of farmers and researchers. Onion bulb weight was recorded for each plot after harvest. Separate analysis of variances were performed for each location and season in a complete randomized design. Analysis of variance of combined locations, seasons and lines was made to determine the most stable varieties using the line- superiority measure (Lin and Binns, 1988) and ecovalence stability coefficients (Wricke, 1962). Results indicated that lines AVON1310 and AVON1325 were most stable for yield performance over locations and seasons. From the genotype main effects and genotype-by-environment interaction (GGE) biplot, the best performing lines were AVON1310 (33.32 t/ha), AVON1308 (28.81 t/ha) and AVON1325 (31.68 t/ha). These lines are potential candidates for sustainable intensification in Ghana and Mali.

25 Andromonoecy in Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq. (Cleomaceae) and effects on fruit and seed production

Herbaud Phanuel Fortunat Zohoungbogbo World Vegetable Center

Abstract Spider plant (Gynandropsis gynandra) is a traditional leafy vegetable widespread in sub-Saharan Africa and tropical Asia that is also valued for its medicinal properties. Developing a breeding program for the species requires detailed knowledge of its phenology, floral morphology and pollination system. This study investigates the effects of floral morphology and pollination mechanisms on the reproductive success in G. gynandra. The experiments were conducted in two locations in Benin. A split-plot design was used with four randomized complete blocks. Three accessions were randomly assigned to the whole plots and five treatments including natural self-pollination, hand self-pollination, geitonogamy, open pollination and hand cross-pollination were randomized over the sub-plots. We observed that individual plant exhibited 70% of staminate (male) flowers and 30% of hermaphrodite flowers. G. gynandra was andromonoecious representing functionally staminate short gynoecium floral type and functionally hermaphrodite medium and long gynoecium floral types. All of the flowers need one week from the bud’s appearance to the blooming flowers. Anthesis occurred during the night. Open pollination and hand cross-pollination led to higher fruit and seed set. Natural self-pollination and hand self-pollination resulted in lower fruit and seed production. G. gynandra is a self-compatible and predominantly out-crossing species. Cross-pollination resulted in a significant increase in fruit set. This study set the ground for the development of improved cultivars in G. gynandra.

Keywords: Andromonoecy, Anthesis, Gynandropsis gynandra, Hermaphroditism, Pollination systems.

26 Catalysing strengthening of vegetable value chains in Africa

Elijah Mwashayenyi* and Stuart Morris*

*Head of East-West Seed Knowledge Transfer in Africa **Director of East-West Knowledge Transfer

Abstract East-West Knowledge Transfer supports smallholder farmers in the vegetable sector with extension services. By providing long-term technical support, East-West Seed Knowledge Transfer catalyses the uptake of improved production practices in communities struggling with low yields. Over the past few years East-West Seed and its partners went into Tanzania, Uganda and Nigeria to support smallholder farmers with training to increase their knowledge and skills. In Northern Uganda, it was to re-invigorate vegetable production and marketing in communities previously displaced by war. In West Nile (Uganda) it was to work with communities that included a large population of refugees from South Sudan, whose livelihoods solely depended on UN handouts. In Nigeria the focus was has been to work with communities in Northern Nigeria (especially of Kaduna and Kano) which are relatively fragile but produce 60% of Nigeria’s vegetables. In Tanzania it has been to strengthen existing vibrant vegetable value chains. While this work is not exclusive to traditional vegetables, they form a significant component of the company’s seeds with African eggplant, pumpkin, Amaranthus, Nightshade, Ethiopian Mustard, watermelon and okra being among the list. They are also among the menu of vegetables found in the fields, backyard gardens and markets of these three countries. Serious engagements were done and are still being done with farmers, agro-dealers and markets. A few years down the line, the effort is beginning to bear fruit. Over 100,000 farmers have been reached in three countries Knowledge Transfer plans to train a further 100,000 farmers in Africa by the year 2022.

27 Value addition of vegetables for increased access and consumption by urban consumers

Jane Ambuko

Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection, University of Nairobi E-mail: [email protected] OR [email protected]

Abstract Consumption of African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) in Kenya has grown exponentially over the years due to increased consumer awareness on the vegetables’ health benefits. In the last two decades, the AIVs have moved from the rural farms and markets to the urban markets including supermarkets. Although the some AIVs are now more accessible in urban grocery stores, their uptake and consumption is still low. Consequently, the desired pull effect that would spur increased production and incomes for smallholder farmers has not been maximized. Preparation of AIVs is generally more laborious compared to most of the exotic vegetables, a factor that could contribute to lower uptake and consumption of AIVs despite their availability. A random survey of grocery shops in major cities shows a significant increase in value-added products of exotic vegetables including kales, spinach, carrots, peas and salad vegetables. The value added to the exotic vegetables includes plucking, shredding, dicing, packaging, mixed vegetable prepacks, drying, freezing, among others. The survey showed that the price of the vegetables increased significantly with every value added. For example, the value of kales increased from KES 20/USD 0.2 (per 400 g bunch) to KES 90 for 250 g of shredded/packaged kales and KES 250 for 100 g of the solar-dried form. The common value-addition option for AIVs such as cowpeas, black nightshades and leafy amaranth, is solar drying. Just like the exotic kales, 100 g of solar-dried AIVs retails for KES 250. Generally, the uptake dried vegetables (AIVs or exotic) is extremely low and this is attributed to the negative consumer perception of dried vegetables. This paper explores various value addition options for selected vegetables to enhance access, availability and convenience for urban consumers. Of importance in the choice and application of the various value addition options is preservation of the nutritional, safety and physical quality attributes of the vegetables. Commercialization of the value-added products, particularly in the case of AIVs, requires a market study to determine the willingness of the targeted consumers to pay.

Keywords: AIVs, Vegetables, Value Addition, Quality, Nutrition

28 Traditional vegetable value chains: A gendered analysis of perceptions of labour, income and expenditure in producers’ and traders’ households

Dr. Gundula Fischer1, Dr. Justus Ochieng2, Mr. Henry Mvungi2, Mr. Nicolas Patt3

1International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA); 2World Vegetable Center; 3Centre for Rural Development (SLE)

Abstract Horticulture is one of the fastest growing subsectors of agriculture in Tanzania. Gender relations in vegetable-producing and -trading households need to be understood to make value chain development equitable. This study, carried out in northern and central Tanzania, is based on data from surveys, focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews. It investigates the perceptions of men and women traders and producers with regard to labour participation in traditional vegetable value chains and gains (income and expenditure) from it. It was found that farmers reported more balanced intra-household labour arrangements paired with less balanced income and expenditure shares, while traders indicated less balanced labour contributions that went hand in hand with more balanced shares of benefits. Farmers related limited household development not only to imbalances in benefits, but also to a lack of trust and cooperation between spouses. We emphasize the importance of gender-transformative approaches in agricultural value chains.

29 Production and utilization of traditional African vegetables in Madagascar

Ritha Luoga*1, Sognigbe N’Danikou1, Justus Ochieng1,2, Pepijn Schreinemachers3, Bodovololona Rabary4, Denis Randriamampionona5, Tendro Radanielina5, Maarten van Zonneveld6, Fekadu Dinssa1

1World Vegetable Center, East and Southern Africa. P.O. Box 10 Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania 2Bayesian Consulting Group (BCG), P.O. Box 44817, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya 3World Vegetable Center, P.O. Box 1010 (Kasetsart University), Bangkok 10903, Thailand 4Centre Régional de Recherche FOFIFA, BP 230, 110 Antsirabe, Madagascar 5Mention Agriculture et Développement Durable (AT2D), Université d'Antananarivo, BP-175, Antananarivo. 101- Madagascar. 6World Vegetable Center, Headquarters, P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 74199 Taiwan *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Traditional African vegetables (TAVs) are nutrient-rich and affordable sources of food contributing to healthier diets in sub-Saharan Africa. Madagascar is home to many TAVs, yet the country has high rates of malnutrition with 48.9% of children having a low height for their age (stunting) and anaemia affecting 36.8% of women of reproductive age. Against this background, the objective of this study was to understand the production and utilization of TAVs in Madagascar. Farm household surveys were conducted in Antsirabe and Itasy, two vegetable producing regions in Madagascar. A total of 396 randomly selected women were interviewed. The most common TAVs were leafy amaranth, African nightshade, blackjack, and African eggplant. On average, 0.16 acre was allocated for vegetable production per household. Household vegetable diversity was low, with an average of five vegetable types for both cultivated and wild species. Households consumed an average of 70 grams of vegetables per person per day which is below the recommendation of the World Health Organization of 3 servings (~240 grams) per day. About 78% of the households ranked TAVs as having a minor contribution to their income. On average, households earned 20 USD per season from selling African eggplant and 25 USD from African nightshade. Pests and diseases and lack of markets were the main constraints to vegetable production. There is a need to raise people’s awareness of the nutritional and economic value of TAVs in the study area. Capacity building on production, handling, and marketing of TAVs could enhance utilization.

Keywords: Underutilized crops, nutrition security, rural economies, smallholder farmers.

30 Farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding production, preservation and utilization of African leafy vegetables in western Kenya

Ms. Charity Muchoki1, Prof. Jasper Imungi1, and Prof. Solomon Shibairo2

1 University of Nairobi; 2 Kibabii University

Abstract Many African leafy vegetables are grown and consumed in the western region of Kenya. The vegetables include spider plant, black nightshade, pumpkin leaves, cowpea leaves, amaranths, jute mallow, slender leaf, and African kale. Though nutritionally superior to the exotic vegetables, people have neglected them in favour of the exotic vegetables. This neglect, coupled with widespread poverty, poor feeding habits, and over-reliance on starchy foods has ensured persistent high cases of malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. In the recent past however, promotion of these vegetables is being undertaken by various organizations. To boost the promotion of these vegetables, a study was conducted with the objective of determining the farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding production, preservation, and utilization of African leafy vegetables in western Kenya. Purposeful and random sampling strategies were used to identify participants from Farmer Groups. Twelve gender-disaggregated Focus Group Discussions were held, six groups in each County. Many sources of knowledge were identified, led by family/neighbours/friends/relatives, followed by various institutions. The participants identified 20 different vegetables, which are consumed in western Kenya. Thirteen vegetables are encouraged for specific individuals mostly for health benefits. Similarly, 12 vegetables are discouraged for specific individuals, mostly due to myths. Participants outlined post-harvest handling of vegetables for the market and for home consumption. Indigenous vegetables which have been domesticated for long are sold as much as they are home consumed, while the wild, are not sold. Few participants described how they preserved vegetables for long periods by drying in the sun. Many challenges and possible solutions were given and should be addressed by organizations based in the area.

Keywords: Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices, Focus Group Discussions, vegetable utilization, cultural aspects, Western Kenya

31 Promotion of traditional African vegetables (TAV) in Cameroon: the need for a post-harvest loss reduction strategy

Regine Tchientche Kamga1, Guillaume Hensel Fongang-Fouepe, Isaac Roger Tchouamo, and Victor Afari-Sefa1

1World Vegetable Center

Abstract Traditional African vegetables (TAV) receive little research attention despite their economic potential, their role in ensuring food and nutritional security, and their cultural acceptance. The enhancement of TAV system requires the characterization of the different actors involved in the sector and their interaction. The objective of the study is to identify and analyze constraints for innovation in the TAV system in Cameroon. Data on TAV value chain actors was collected through focus group discussions held with a mixed group of producers purposively selected in the South and the Southwest regions of Cameroon. Venn diagram was used to identify actors who have a direct or indirect relation with producers. The actors identified as directly active in the TAV value chain were invited to a one-day multi-stakeholder participatory workshop in each of the sites. The study revealed that TAV value chain is short and still poorly developed. Only five main actors interacting directly were identified: producers, Bayam Sellam (retailers), agro-dealers, consumers and transporters. All the actors identified the ignorance of storage and processing techniques as the main constraint for innovation in the TAV system. One solution to solve the constraint is the value chain based innovation platform which was set up as a result of the research action process. Reduction of TAV post-harvest losses is thus the entry point of this TAV based value chain innovation platform. Being very perishable, TAVs are often sold at loss during the season of availability, hence the need for appropriate postharvest loss reduction strategy.

Keywords: Cameroon, Traditional African vegetables, Innovation platform, Post-harvest losses.

32 Extrapolation suitability for improved vegetable technology packages in Babati and Karatu districts of Tanzania

Dr. Francis Muthoni1, Dr. Justus Ochieng2, Mrs. Inviolate Dominic2, and Dr. Jean-Marc Delore3

1International Institute of Tropical Agriculture-IITA 2World Vegetable Center 3Wageningen University & Research Centre (WUR)

Abstract Land suitability assessment match crop requirements with available natural resources to promote sustainable agricultural productivity. A recent study based on on-farm trials in Babati District of Tanzania demonstrated that improved vegetable cultivars grown under integrated management practices (IMP’s) produced double the yield and net income compared to conventional farmers practice. The challenge for extension agencies is to promote adoption at scale of the proven IMP’s for vegetable cultivars. In this study, biophysical conditions of the trial sites where the improved vegetable technology packages showed low yield gap and high net income were used as reference sites to identify other potentially suitable sites for extrapolating elite tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum; ‘Tengeru 2010’) and African eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum; ‘Tengeru white’). Input variables include remote sensing data representing biophysical conditions that limit productivity of two improved vegetable cultivars. Extrapolation suitability index (ESI) for the two cultivars is generated by comparing the dissimilarity between biophysical conditions encountered at the reference trial sites to those of the wider extrapolation area. ESI maps identify areas where the improved vegetable cultivars under IMP’s can be extrapolated with potentially low risk of failure in Babati and Karatu districts of Tanzania. A map is generated showing the most limiting factor for each cultivar at each grid cell to guide targeting of appropriate management practices especially for areas with sub-optimal biophysical conditions. Maps generated from this study can support setting of multi- location trials to further test adaptability of improved cultivars and management practices at specific biophysical context.

33 Adapting fluted pumpkin for greenhouse cultivation: How much water do the plants need?

Prof. Isaac Aiyelaagbe and Ajoke Oyeniyi

Department of Horticulture, Federal University of Agriculture, PMB 2240 Abeokuta, Nigeria

Abstract Fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook F.) is a traditional leaf vegetable in high demand in urban centres in Nigeria. This necessitates intensification for all-the-year-round production. The possibility of adapting it to greenhouse cultivation has hitherto not been explored. Thus, in a tropical greenhouse at the Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Nigeria (7o 15’N, 3o 25’E), a study was conducted twice to determine its irrigation needs under protected cultivation. Three-week old seedlings of fluted pumpkin potted in sandy soil received 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0 litre water/plant/week for 12 weeks. In the first trial, the effects of irrigating with 1.0 litre water/plant/week did not differ significantly from those of 0.75 litres water/plant/week with regards to vine length and number of leaves, but it elicited significantly higher foliar N and Mg content and total dry matter accumulation than 0.75 litres water/plant/week. In the repeat trial, the effects of irrigating with 1.0 or 0.75 litres water/plant/week on vine length and number of leaves was as in the first trial, however, their effects on root length, dry matter accumulation and foliar phosphorus and calcium content did not differ significantly. In both trials, irrigation with 0.25 litre water/plant/week produced significantly shorter vines, fewer leaves, shorter roots, less dry matter and foliar P than those irrigated with 1.0 litre water/plant/week. Since the effects of 0.75 litre water/plant/week were often at par often with those of 1.0 litre water/plant/week, irrigation rate of 0.75litre water/plant/week is recommended for greenhouse cultivation of fluted pumpkin in southwest Nigeria.

34 Participatory evaluation of introduced traditional African vegetables by women farmers in Madagascar: opportunities and challenges

Bodovololona Rabary1, Tatiana L. Rakotoson1, Lalaina B. Ranaivoson2, Andrianajoro Rakoto1, Andotiana Andrianarivony1, Justus Ochieng3,4, Juvet Razanameharizaka5, Tendro Radanielina5, Herimiamina Andriamazaoro2, Denis Randriamampionona5, Ritha Luoga3, Marteen van Zonneveld6, Sognigbe N’Danikou3

1Centre Régional de Recherche FOFIFA, BP 230, 110 Antsirabe, Madagascar 2Centre FOFIFA, BP 1690, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar 3World Vegetable Center, East and Southern Africa. P.O. Box 10 Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania 4Bayesian Consulting Group (BCG), P.O. Box 44817, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya 5Mention Agriculture et Développement Durable (AT2D), Université d'Antananarivo, BP-175, Antananarivo. 101- Madagascar. 6World Vegetable Center, Headquarters, P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 74199 Taiwan

Abstract Traditional African vegetables (TAVs) are nutritious and generally easy to grow and hardy. In Madagascar, local or wild leafy vegetables are very popular. Some of them, like Galinsoga parviflora and Bidens pilosa remain in the wild, picked and sold when needed. For amaranths, there is no cultivated species. Wild amaranths are only for feeding pigs. The objectives of this study were (i) to assess the adaptation of these new TAVs to the local growing conditions of women and to understand their appreciations for these vegetables, (ii) to estimate their potential in improving nutrition and as a source of income. A participatory survey was conducted in the Itasy and Antsirabe regions. Seed kits of 12 species of TAVs were introduced from the World Vegetable Center in 2019 and shared to 200 women: 4 species of African nightshade, 5 species of amaranth, 1 African eggplant and 2 Ethiopian mustard. The results showed that the introduced vegetables can adapt well to the local growing conditions. The germination rate was fair (76% TAVs have more than 75% germination rate). The mortality rate is low (84% have less than 25% mortality). About 40% of the women, however, had difficulties with poor soil fertility and insect attacks especially on Ethiopian mustard. Watering was also an issue for the 18%. The taste of the TAVs is highly appreciated though the preferences differed. However, only the nightshade species, already familiar are the most sold. These new TAVs have great potential for improving household nutrition and income.

Keywords: Adaptation, adoption, women farmer preferences, new accessions introduction

35 A Renaissance on the Plate: A look back at Bioversity International’s research and promotion of African leafy vegetables

Danny Hunter

Bioversity International

Abstract Bioversity International has a long-standing commitment to promoting the conservation and use of the enormous reservoir of diversity of Africa’s traditional edible plants, going back many decades to the present. African leafy vegetables - extremely important for food security, nutrition and poverty alleviation - represent a significant component of Africa’s traditional food basket and have been a focus of Bioversity International’s work in a number of countries. This has seen the establishment of important partnerships and networks between researchers and development specialists linking the conservation of African leafy vegetables genetic resources to development outcomes. Multisectoral and cross-disciplinary approaches, based on community partnership and combining indigenous and scientific knowledge, have been successful in identifying suitable entry points to better mainstream African leafy vegetables into food systems for improved nutrition and wellbeing. This presentation will focus on the work which Bioversity International has undertaken on African leafy vegetables to: explore their nutritional diversity; link farmers and farmer organizations to markets; reconnect consumers to traditional foodways through revival of traditional recipes and cooking demonstrations; enhance community awareness through diversity and food fairs; promote nutrition and health education; build capacity and strengthen policy advocacy. It will focus on more recent work using schools as a platform to promote dietary diversity and healthy eating habits among schoolchildren by integrating African leafy vegetables into school gardens and school meals.

36 Evolution of culturally-bound preferences for traditional vegetables in East Africa

Bronwen Powell1,2 ([email protected])

1Assistant Professor of Geography and African Studies, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA 2Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia

Abstract While food aversions are largely innate, preferences are strongly shaped by culture. We generally know little of how cultural preferences for foods have evolved over time, exception for a few cases of co- evolution between diets and human genetics. In East Africa, preference for bitter or slimy vegetables is a marker of ethnic group identity. To better understand if and how traditional dietary practices are adaptive for human health and well-being, we examine the factors associated with preference for and use of slimy and bitter vegetables for 73 East African ethnic groups. Ethnic groups with strong preference and consumption of bitter vegetables all live in areas with a high prevalence of malaria. Most ethnic groups who prefer slimy vegetables speak a Nilotic language but are not pure pastoralists (i.e. also practice some form of agriculture). Both slimy and bitter vegetables may have biologically adaptive properties: loss of these culturally-bond traditional foods could have negative implications for health and nutrition. The results of this study should support further inclusion of traditional vegetables in nutrition education and programs.

Contact Information: Bronwen Powell, PhD in Human Nutrition Assistant Professor of Geography, African Studies and Anthropology Pennsylvania State University 302 Walker Building, University Park, PA, 16802 +1 814 865 3433 / [email protected]

37 Pathways to improved food and nutrition security of the poor - The promise of African indigenous foods and technologies

S.E. Schoustra1,2, F. Rampa3, E.G. Lammers4, A.R. Linnemann1, and D. de Winter5

1 Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands; 2 University of Zambia, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, 3 European Centre for Development Policy Management, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 4 Independent researcher, The Netherlands, 5 DBMResearch, The Netherlands

Abstract Local and indigenous foods have a great potential to contribute to improved food and nutrition security, as well as economic empowerment, of poor and marginalised farmers and consumers in Sub Saharan Africa. Better knowledge is needed on the production, processing and marketing opportunities of valuable indigenous crops and foods. In addition, policymakers need to come on board. They play an important role in promoting value chains that are inclusive of poor, rural and female farmers and producers who aspire to bring these nutritious indigenous foods to a wider market. To capitalise on all these opportunities, however, indigenous foods need to become part of policymaking. Local and national policymakers in the project countries showed interest especially when there were positive market prospects. Yet because ’money talks’, the project results stress that in liaising with policymakers, critical questions must be raised about who will benefit from the promotion of indigenous foods - smallholders or commercial producers? Women or men? Rural or urban consumers? - and how this can best be achieved , considering formal versus informal value chains, production for the rural or urban market or or domestic consumption or export. Openly and critically discussing the political and market dynamics and trade-offs is vital to ensuring that the promotion of indigenous foods will first and foremost benefit the food and nutrition security of the poor and marginalised.

Keywords: Local foods; traditional food processing; indigenous crops; development policy; nutritional impact

38 A sustainable food systems approach to integrate traditional African vegetables in Nakuru, Kenya and Arusha, Tanzania

Dekeyser, K.1, D’Alessandro, C.1, Rampa, F.1, Msuya, J.2, Knaepen, H.1, & Bizzotto Molina, P.1

1European Centre for Development Policy Management, Maastricht, the Netherlands 2Food Science and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania

Abstract Food systems worldwide and in Africa particularly face unprecedented environmental, social, and economic challenges and demands. Stronger integration of Traditional African Vegetables (TAVs) in food systems can result in better nutrition, livelihood opportunities, and environmental sustainability. But the crucial role of supporting environments necessary for these benefits to materialise is highly context- specific and less understood. The multidisciplinary Sustainable Agrifood Systems Strategies (SASS) project analysed the potential economic, social, and environmental outcomes of stronger integration of TAVs in Nakuru, Kenya and Arusha, Tanzania. This included agronomic, biologic, anthropologic, nutritional, and political economy analysis based on a food system approach over a two-year period. We present several ‘pathways’ focused on maximising sustainability benefits of better integrated TAVs through governance, production, distribution, and consumption changes. The trade-offs and synergies of each pathway are presented in combination with likely local stakeholder coalitions - based on political economy analysis - and existing policy processes in order to maximise practicality and feasibility. Furthermore, the pathways were co-produced through active involvement of stakeholders, which increases local relevance and ultimately uptake. As such, the SASS project does not only practically ‘test’ the food systems approach, but also described the structure and sustainability features of the studied food systems, explored the conditions necessary for TAVs to materialise their benefits, and developed pathways that informed and mobilised stakeholders.

39 Bioactive compounds from Ceratotheca sesamoides: a neglected vegetable from Nigeria

Bello Oluwasesan M1,2,3, Pius S. Fasinu5, Zulfiqar Ali3, Ahmed A. Zaki3, Khan Iklas3,4, Usman L. Ajao2, and Oguntoye S. Olubunmi2

1Dept. of Applied Chemistry, Federal University Dutsin-Ma, Katsina State, Nigeria; 2Dept. of Chemistry, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria; 3National Center for Natural Products Research; 4Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; 5College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, Campbell University, 143 Main Street Buies Creek, NC 27506 (800) 334-4111, USA.

Abstract

Background: Developing countries are often faced with a grave danger popularly referred to as “hidden hunger” which embraces nutrient deficiencies and non-communicable diseases. Though, many of these countries are host to a great and robust diversity of fruits and vegetables yet poor health, major elements deficient and others are critical issues in these places. Sustainable management of some of these so called neglected vegetable species could make a significant impact to improving health and nutrition. Ceratotheca sesamoides is one of the tagged Neglected vegetables and poor man’s food, it is a delicacy is some West Africa countries and its used in the management of stomach ache, aphrodisiac, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, jaundice, pain, snake bites and skin ailments.

Method: Ten compounds (Three new and seven known ones) were isolated from C. sesamoides plant employing various chromatographic techniques i.e. Vacuum Layer (VL), Preparative Thin Layer (PTL) and Column Chromatographic techniques. Structures of the compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic data analyses including UV-visible, FT-IR, 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS. Schrodinger software was used for docking and different bioassays were employed through in vitro laboratory techniques.

Result: These compounds isolated are 6β- hydroxyloganin, phlomiol, lamalbid, adenosine, 3- methylpentylbenzoate, decaffeoylceratoside, diosmetin-7-0-glucoronide, the new ones named ceratoside b, ceratothecine, vitexoside 2. Ceratothecine, a new pyrimidine displayed a fair selective activity against MAO B (1C50 (μg/mL) of 86.19) to MAO A (1C50 (μg/mL) of ˃100). 6β- hydroxyloganin, this compound showed a good inhibition against kidney fibroblast with IC50 (µg/mL) of 8.9 while Ceratothecine (47) displayed the least activity with IC50 (ug/mL) of 57.90. Vitexoside 2 and 6β- Hydroxyloganin exhibited good antifungi activity against C. albicans with IC50 (ug/mL) of 21.56 and 26.01 while the new pyrimidine Ceratothecine and 6β-Hydroxyloganin displayed good activity against A. fumigatus with IC50 (ug/mL) of 23.50 and 31.52

Conclusion: This study provided insight into the phytochemical profiles and pharmacological importance of C. sesamiodes beyond basic nutritional values. It is recommended that C. sesamoides could play protective role against diseases after thorough clinical examination of the isolates from the plants.

Keywords: Phytochemistry; C. sesamoides; MAO A & B; food system; NMR

40 Indigenous vegetables in Ghana: distribution and consumption patterns

Atuna, R.A., Amagloh, F., Dari, L., Djah, J.1, Bakker, S., Koomen, I., Mahunu, G.K., Osei-Kwarteng, M.

1SNV, Ghana

Abstract Indigenous vegetables (IVs) may make up only a small proportion of the greens consumed in Ghana as the market is mostly dominated by locally produced exotic types. These IVs could be essential sources of nutrients to improve the nutrition security of most rural dwellers usually with relatively high nutritional deficiencies. A cross-sectional descriptive survey (Google forms, n=345; and at community-level, n=1028) was used to assess the types of IVs, their frequency of consumption, preparation preferences and the potential benefits ascribed to them by consumers. The survey included respondents from each of the sixteen regions in Ghana. The most common IVs consumed were cocoyam leaf, corchorus, baobab leaf, garden egg, okro, roselle, and kenaf. Among the vegetables daily consumed, the selected IVs constituted, on average, 46%. The range of respondents consuming IVs on a daily basis varied per the region, from 0.36% (Savannah) to 5.2% (Upper West). Daily consumption of IVs was 33% (teenagers); 36% (youth); 31% (adult) and 37% (aged) per each group. The IVs were generally wet-cooked and consumed as stew (sauce) or soup; and this may have implications on nutrient availability in terms of losses and bioavailability. Some reasons for not consuming IVs were non-availability, lack of (economic) access and non-familiarity. Consumption of IVs was reported to “give blood”, “give energy/strength” and aids in digestion. Generally, the consumption of IVs is relatively low compared with the exotic types. A catalogue of selected IVs will be developed to increase and disseminate knowledge on their nutrition and health benefits.

41 Enhancing the nutritional quality of amaranth vegetable through specific food preparation methods

Winnie Nyonje1, Wan-Jen Wu2, Mary Abukutsa-Onyango1, Anselimo Makokha1, Willis Owino1, Ray-Yu Yang2,3*

1Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya 2World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan 3 Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Taiwan *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Food preparation methods applied to African traditional vegetables varies greatly depending on preferences of various consumers. Amaranth is one of the most preferred vegetable, with high nutritional quality, especially high iron content. The bioaccessibility of iron is however low since it is non-heme, and also in most cases reduced due to the presence of anti-nutrients such as oxalate. This study aimed to evaluate the nutrient retention of amaranth vegetable dishes prepared using selected Kenyan traditional recipes, and also to enhance the iron bioavailability of amaranth dishes using food preparation methods. Nutrient retentions of amaranth prepared by three common food methods were analyzed. In-vitro iron bioavailability of amaranth dishes with and without bioavailability enhancers as well as an amaranth meal including a common staple food_ “ugali” was also studied. The nutrient retentions of the various dishes used in this study was fairly high with at least 85% retention of minerals and an increase of up to 45% in three carotenoids. It can be concluded that incorporating vitamin C, adding an iron rich vegetable and boiling of the vegetable significantly improves the iron bioavailability and hence improves the iron uptake by the body. Incorporating lemon juice enhanced dialyzable iron of the selected recipe by up to 66%. There was also no significant (P≤0.05) effect by the amaranth components on the iron bioavailability of “ugali”. These methods could therefore be incorporated into household recipes to increase micronutrient intakes.

Keywords: micronutrient malnutrition, bioaccessibility, anti-nutrients, ingredients

42 Providing year-round affordable, nutritious foods for low income consumers through commercialization of dried African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs)

Mercy Mwende

Sweet and Dried Enterprises Limited, Kenya

African Indigenous Vegetables play an important role in food and nutrition security in Kenya for both rural households and the urban-poor. Although the benefits of AIVs (for nutrition and household incomes- especially for women) are undisputed, there are several challenges that this value chain faces. Key among them is the seasonality of production and the high post-harvest losses. In Kenya, AIVs are produced mainly during the rainy season. There is a glut which happens for very short periods (less than 2 months in total during the whole year) after which the vegetables are either unavailable or whatever is available is out of reach for majority of the low-income consumers due to their high prices.

Sweet and Dried Enterprises Limited is a woman-owned agro-processing enterprise that specializes in processing of fruits, vegetables, and grains into dried products and assorted flours. The company is based in Tharaka-Nithi County in Kenya and sells its products to wholesale and retail markets. It is expanding its vegetable offering to include AIVs such as nightshade (Solanum spp), spider plant (Cleome spp), amaranth (Amaranthus Spp), cowpea (Vigna Spp), and pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita Spp), among others. The business idea in focusing on AIVs is that cultivation of these vegetables is relatively easy, flexible and suitable for smallholder farmers. AIVs are also potential commercial crops for women in Kenya who lack access to large pieces of land. They are also attractive to young people due to their quick return on investment period.

Sweet and Dried is partnering with 2SCALE (https://www.2scale.org/) program in Kenya. 2SCALE is co- funded by the private sector and by the Dutch government and implemented by a consortium led by the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) and comprising the Base-of-the-Pyramid Innovation Center (BoPInc) and the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV). 2SCALE works together with companies (African, Dutch and other small and medium-sized enterprises - SMEs) and producer organizations (POs) to develop business models and partnership models that promote inclusiveness, develop competitive edge, and have potential for scaling. These partnerships, also referred to as public- private partnerships (PPPs), are the core implementation modality to achieve the objectives of the program. 2SCALE’s partnership with Sweet and Dried Ltd aims to reduce post-harvest losses of AIVs during the high production season through value addition (drying) which will extend the shelf-life to as long as 12 months from a mere 7 days. This, in turn, makes AIVs available throughout the year at relatively stable prices affordable to the bottom of the pyramid (BoP) markets. The reduction in post-harvest losses also guarantees improved incomes to smallholder farmers and provides stable employment opportunities for women and youth employed at the factory.

In this conference, Sweet and Dried will share its ambition for the AIVs value chain and future opportunities for SME’s involved in these value chains. The company will also share its experience on:

 How (through PPPs) to improve access to nutritious and affordable AIVs by BoP consumers. These include product development; distribution to BoP markets; building commercial farm enterprises

43 on AIVs through agribusiness clusters that include women and the youth; and financing mechanisms for smallholder farmers and SMEs.  The usefulness of consumer insight research in developing products aimed at the BoP.  Lessons, challenges and opportunities in the AIVs market.

44 Factors influencing consumption patterns of African leafy vegetables in Western Kenya

M. Odendo1, C. Ndinya-Omboko1, E. Onyango1 and F. Wayua1

1The Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), P.O. Box 169 – 50100, Kakamega, Kenya *Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract In Kenya, as in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, African leafy vegetables (ALVs) contribute significantly to household food and nutrition security by adding diversity to cereal-based staple diets. However, the consumption patterns of the ALVs and factors that influence preference for ALVs in Kenya remain unclear. The objectives of this study were to evaluate frequency of household consumption of ALVs; and assess factors that influence preference for ALVs. Primary data were collected from a random sample of 324 households in western Kenya using a semi-structured questionnaire between June and July 2018. Data were collected on frequency of consumption of ALVs and reasons for preference ALVs and analyzed by descriptive statistics. The results showed that 40-50 percent of the households consumed one or more ALVs per week. Spider plant was the mostly frequently consumed daily by 36% of the households, followed by Amaranth (32%). Cow pea was the most frequently consumed in 3 or more times/week category by 29 percent. The main reasons for low frequency of ALV consumption were seasonal availability on farms (64%), high ALVs prices in the local market (54%) and undesired taste due to recipes used in cooking (42%). However, perception of health and medicinal values of ALVs influenced consumption by 48 and 51 percent of the households, respectively. The findings of this study call for the need to facilitate farmers to access key inputs, especially improved seed and water to minimize seasonal production and conducting of behavior change communication to promote consumption of ALVs.

Keywords: African vegetables, consumption, households, nutrition

45 Identifying Culturally Specific Nutrition Interventions in Kenya to Increase Consumption of African Indigenous Vegetables

Emily V. Merchant1,2, Martins Odendo3, Christine Ndinya3, Naman Nyabinda4, Eunice Onyango3, Norah Maiyo4, Daniel J. Hoffman5, and James E. Simon1,2

1New Use Agriculture and Natural Plant Products Program, Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA 2Center for Agricultural Food Ecosystems, The New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition, and Health, Rutgers University, 61 Dudley Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA 3Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P. O. Box 169, Code: 50100, Kakamega, Kenya 4Academic Model Providing Access to HealthCare (AMPATH), P. O. Box 4606, code: 30100, Eldoret, Kenya 5Department of Nutritional Sciences, New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition, and Health, Center for Childhood Nutrition Education and Research, Program in International Nutrition, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08854, USA

Abstract Malnutrition is an increasing concern in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) can contribute to household food and nutrition security in SSA, including Kenya. The objective of this study, as part of the larger USAID Feed the Future grant Improving Nutrition with African Indigenous Vegetables in Zambia and Kenya was to identify culturally appropriate nutrition interventions to increase household consumption of AIVs. This study utilized a mixed methods approach. Researchers collected quantitative data through a questionnaire-style interview administered by trained field enumerators in the regional language (n=500) and qualitative male and female focus groups (n=7). All quantitative analyses were conducted using the statistical software package IBM SPSS Statistics version 26. The focus group notes were open-coded and organized based on key themes related to the impact pathway using NVivo (Version 12). In Kenya 10% of respondents’ dietary diversity scores fell below the minimum threshold and 13% experienced some level of household hunger. The qualitative and quantitative research tools further identified drivers and barriers for AIV consumption. Respondents noted AIV health benefits (94%) and improved recipes (93%) as a motivator for consuming AIVs in the household. In the focus groups, the participants listed ease of preparation, abundance, affordability, and health as motivators for consuming AIVs. Survey respondents noted nightshade (33%) as their preferred AIV, while cowpea leaves (16%) and spider plant (14%). The Conceptual Pathway between Agriculture and Nutrition was used to identify an intervention package that was delivered at the household and community level. In addition, the culmination of this intervention package led to the development of a culinary skills and recipe book.

46 Yield, nutrient content and release of improved amaranth varieties in northern Tanzania

Laswai, E.1, Dinssa F.F.2, Mbwambo, O. 2

1Tanzania Agriculture Research Institute - Tengeru 2World Vegetable Center - Eastern and Southern Africa

Abstract Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is one of the most commonly produced and consumed traditional vegetables on the Africa continent. It is a nutritious crop with high protein, minerals, and vitamins. Tanzania still lacks improved varieties of amaranth despite the importance of the crop for human health. The objective of the current study was to come up with improved lines for release as commercial varieties. Sixteen amaranth entries (13 test entries plus three check varieties) retained from breeding nurseries of the World Vegetable Center Eastern and Southern Africa (WorldVeg-ESA) were evaluated in replicated trials in three different locations – WorldVeg-ESA, Moshi and Mbuguni – in northern Tanzania in 2015 and 2016. Data collected included vegetative yield and agronomic traits. Farmers’ participatory selection was also conducted in all locations. Significant differences among entries in all locations were found for yield, plant height, leaf sizes and branch numbers per plant. Three lines, AH-TL-Sel (A. hypochondriacus), UG-AM-9- ES13-2 (A. dubius), and Paris (A)-Sel (A. cruentus), were released as a vegetable or dual-type varieties in Tanzania in 2018/19 under commercial variety name ‘Poli’, ‘Nguruma’ and ‘Akeri’, respectively. This paper presents the performances of these varieties in yield and nutrient contents.

Keywords: Amaranth, Nutrient, Release, Improved Varieties.

47 Establishing a technical guideline for agroecological production of baobab leaves at seedlings stage in Benin (West Africa)

Hounsou-Dindin G.1, Salako K. Valère1, Idohou Rodrigue1, Sero Nadejda1, Glèlè Kakaï R.1, Assogbadjo A.E.1,2

1Laboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations Forestières, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 04 BP 1525, Cotonou, Bénin

2Laboratoire d’Ecologie Appliquée, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 01 BP 526 Cotonou, Benin

Abstract Demand for biological vegetables strongly increases. This production requires a reflexion increased on the farming techniques as well as regular observations of the plants and their environment. It requires very broad competences on the techniques and plannings of production. This study aimed to assess the growth of the number of leaves, morphological traits of the leaf and dry weight of yield of baobab seedlings to variation of dose (0, 10, 20, and 30 tons/ha) of organic manure (Compost of organic waste vs organic manure), sowing density (15 × 15 cm, 20 × 20 cm, and 30 × 30 cm) and leaves harvesting frequency (15, 22 and 30 days). The experiment was conducted on-station in the Guineo-Congolese zone of Benin using a split-split plot design with three replicates. Data were analysed using linear, linear mixed effects for longitudinal data with a normal structure for errors and generalized linear mixed effects models for longitudinal data with a Poisson structure for errors models. The results showed that more biomass and greatest number of leaves growth were obtained when A. digitata seedlings were produced applying 30 t/ha of poultry dropping with 15 × 15 cm sowing density and monthly harvests next to sowing. This combination provided the highest production of leaves biomass (41.62 ± 1.16 Kg of dry matter per 100 m2 equivalent to 157.29 ± 4.38 Kg of fresh leaves per 100 m2), a less tapering leaf and the lowest specific leaf area and specific dry weight of A. digitata seedlings. And optimum growth of the number of leaves of A. digitata seedlings for low dose of organic matter (10-20 ton/ha of poultry dropping). Further research is necessary to assess on the protection methods against the bio-attackers and control of adventitious plants.

Keywords: Baobab leaves, density of sowing, compost, organic matter, harvesting frequency

48 Development of high yield and nutritious mungbean lines (Vigna radiata l. Wilczek) using heterosis and combining ability analysis by diallel method

Md. Golam Azam1*, Md. Amir Hossain2, Md. Alatfhossain1, Md. Shahin Iqbal1,3 and Md. Faruk Hossain4

1*Pulses Research Centre, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh; 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BAU, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, 3School of Agriculture and Environment, University of Western Australia, Crawley-6009, WA, Australia; and 4Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh

*Corresponding Author e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek), is a short duration legume crop, it’s also rich source of protein with an essential amino acid profile and unsaturated fats like linoleic and linolenic acid that advances the development and health of humans. Genetic information concerning combining ability and heterosis give some clue for choosing the most suitable donors for hybridization. Thus, the examination has embraced the nature and extent of hereditary effects overseeing yield component behavior and general and specific combining abilities of mungbean utilizing the diallel cross method. Fifteen crosses originated from a half diallel method through six different mungbean parents for heterosis and combining ability investigation. The investigation was conducted at Pulses Research Center, BARI, Ishurdi, Pabna, in a randomized block design with three replications. Results showed highly significant variations within parents and F1 segregates, and demonstrated a wide genetic variability for the studied characters. Thus, the chance of hereditary improvement utilizing genetic pools of mungbean is available. The mean square of general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) were significant for all the characters, except mean square due to (SCA) for days to flowering, days to maturity and pod length showing significant role of both additive and main components in the inheritance of the studied characters. Higher effect of SCA than GCA was observed for plant height and seeds per pod brought up to be the preponderance of non- additive gene effects in the statement of these characters. Based on per se performance and GCA of the parents, BARI Mung-1, PS-7 and BMXK1-14004 were seen as the great general combiners for proteins and yield per plant. In context of SCA, five hybrids viz. BMXK1-14004 × Sonali mung, BMXK1-14004 × PS-7, BMXK1-14004 × BINA Mung-8, Sukumar× PS-7 and BARI Mung-1 × BINA Mung-8 were perceived as promising. The most significant heterosis to the degree of 26.09% over standard variety and 20.20% over better parent for seed yield per plant were observed in the cross BMXK1-14004 × Sonali mung and BMXK1- 14004 × PS-7 respectively which showed high heterosis rate for yield and yield contributing traits with high level of proteins. These parents and crosses could be used for the further breeding program for improvement of the yield and genetic components of mungbean.

Keywords: Combining ability, diallel method, heterosis and mungbean

49 Metabolite diversity of fruits of selected African eggplant accessions for improved health and nutrition

Willis O. Owino1*, Elias K. Mibei1, Grace M. Wacheke2, Jane Ambuko3 and James J. Giovannoni4

*Correspondence to: Willis Owino, Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: [email protected]

1Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya 2Institute of Biotechnology Research, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000- 00200, Nairobi, Kenya 3Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya 4USDA-ARS Robert W. Holley Center and Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Cornell University Campus, Ithaca, New York, 14853

Abstract African eggplants, the wild relatives of cultivated eggplants are among the nutritionally important and valuable crops consumed in Africa. They have been reported to adapt and thrive well under stress conditions. Therefore there is need to identify and characterize these metabolites from the African eggplant fruits. Seeds of the selected accessions were obtained from World Vegetable Centre (AVRDC), Tanzania; grown in the greenhouse and subjected to drought stress. The fruits were harvested at three stages of ripening; mature green, breaker and mature red stages. Metabolite profiling using non-targeted GC-MS metabolomic approach was performed and identification was carried out with the Golm, Germany metabolomics library software. A total of 68 metabolites were detected in the fruits and distributed into major compound classes comprising of amino acids and their derivatives, organic acids, sugars and sugar alcohols and nitrogen compounds. Significant changes (p<0.05) in metabolite contents were observed and potentially important metabolites with respect to stress responses were characterized. Proline, glutamate, 훾-amino butyric acid, 3-chlorogenic acid, glucose, sucrose, myo-inositol, citrate, quinic acid and ornithine increased with stress. Principal component analysis showed a clear discrimination between the different accessions, ripening stages and stress. From the study, it is evident that some metabolites are important in drought stress tolerance. The findings also indicate that harvesting the fruits at mature stages has improved nutritional benefit. In conclusion, these crops are of great significance because of their high nutritional value and may also be necessary in maintaining healthy/proper functioning of the human system.

Keywords: Drought stress, African eggplants, metabolite profiling, fruit ripening

50 Understanding molecular mechanisms of seed dormancy for improved germination in traditional leafy vegetables: an overview

Mr. Silvère Fernand Sohindji

Laboratory of Genetics, Horticulture and Seed Science, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey- Calavi, 01 BP 526 Tri Postal, Cotonou, Benin

Abstract Loss of seed viability, poor and delayed germination and inaccessibility to high-quality seeds are key bottlenecks limiting all year-round production of African Traditional Leafy Vegetables (TLVs). Poor quality seeds are the result of several factors including harvest time, storage and conservation conditions, and seed dormancy. While other factors can be easily controlled, breaking seed dormancy requires a thorough knowledge of the seed intrinsic nature and physiology. Here, we synthetized the scattered knowledge on seed dormancy constraints in TLVs, highlighted seed dormancy regulation factors, and developed a conceptual approach for molecular genetic analysis of seed dormancy in TLVs. Several hormones, proteins, changes in chromatin structures, ribosomes, and quantitative trait loci (QTL) are involved in seed dormancy regulation. However, the bulk of knowledge was based on cereals and Arabidopsis and there is little awareness about seed dormancy facts and mechanisms in TLVs. To successfully decipher seed dormancy in TLVs, we used Gynandropsis gynandra to illustrate possible research avenues and highlighted the potential of this species as a model plant for seed dormancy analysis. This will serve as a guideline to provide prospective producers with high quality seeds.

Keywords: seed dormancy; seed germination; molecular biology; genetics; traditional leafy vegetables; Gynandropsis gynandra.

51 Agro-morphological characterization of traditional African vegetables cultivated in the highlands of Madagascar

Tatiana L. Rakotoson1,4, Bodovololona Rabary1, Andotiana Andrianarivony1, Andrianajoro Rakoto1, Lalaina Ranaivoson2, Herimihamina Andriamazaoro3, Tendro Radaniela5, Juvet Razanameharizaka5, Denis Randriamampionona6, and N’Danikou Sognigbe7*

1 FOFIFA - CRR Antsirabe, BP 230, Antsirabe 110, Madagascar. 2 FOFIFA - Ampandrianomby, BP 1690, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar. 3 FOFIFA - DRA Ambatobe, PO Box 1444, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar. 4 Institut d’Enseignement Supérieur d’Antsirabe-Vakinankaratra, BP 108, Antsirabe 110, Madagascar. 5 Mention Biologie, Écologie Végétale, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar. 6 Mention Agriculture Tropicale et Développement Durable, ESSA, Université d’Antananarivo, Madagascar. 7 World Vegetable Center, Eastern and Southern Africa, PO Box 10, Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania * Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Malagasy agriculture is mainly characterised as a subsistence farming. The smallholder farmers diversify their cropping system as a strategy to cope with yield uncertainty and to ensure their food availability. Traditional African vegetables (TAVs) take an important place in this cropping system. TAVs are easy to grow, have high levels of micronutrients and could be an important income source for the farmer households. The Darwin initiative project introduced several TAVs accessions to the Malagasy farmers to increase income and improve food and nutrition security. The aim of this study was to characterize the TAVs accessions in order to evaluate their adaptation in Madagascar and to multiply these vegetable seed for the household farmers. A total of 12 accessions of African nightshade, Amaranth, African eggplant, and Ethiopian mustard were characterized on-station at Antsirabe for their agro-morphological traits using a randomised complete block design with three replications in 2019/2020. Data was analyzed using R software. The results indicated distinct and wide variations between accessions. Accessions had a significant effect (훼=0.01) on total biomass. Days to flowering, total biomass, stem color, petiole color, leaf blade width and length, stem pigmentation and pubescence, leaf pigmentation and inflorescence color were the parameters to discriminate the accessions. Traditional African Vegetables had potential to be adapted, multiplied and distributed into household farmers in Madagascar.

Keywords: Indigenous vegetables, underutilized crops, African nightshade, amaranth, African eggplant, Ethiopian mustard.

52 A review of taxonomic inventory of vegetable amaranths in Ghana and an outlook on characterization of local amaranth species for farmers

1 2 M. Osei-Kwarteng and D.M. Brenner

1 Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana. 2Department of Agronomy, G212 Agronomy Hall, Plant Introduction Station, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA 50011-1170

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]/[email protected]

Abstract Amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) are popular African traditional leafy vegetables which have almost gained the status in some African markets as a mainstream grain and vegetable crop that were earlier categorized as an underutilized African traditional vegetable. However the characterization of the local varieties in national catalogues and herbaria have received inadequate focus from researchers. This makes it difficult to recommend and supply farmers with accessions that have the desired characteristics needed by farmers. In this review, we aim to achieve two objectives; 1) a preliminary inventory of vegetable amaranth species originating or characterized in Ghana and 2) to review methods of characterizing germplasm of amaranths and summarize their application to enhance local characterization of vegetable amaranths in Ghana. Objective one will be achieved by employing scientific search engines such as Web of Science, Science Direct, Agricola, Scopus and visit websites of germplasm databases such as ECP-GR (European cooperative Programme for plant Genetic Resources and the GRIN-Global (U.S Nation Plant Germplasm System) published floras, and other national catalogues to inventory vegetable and grain amaranths of Ghana. To achieve objective two, we will compile amaranth descriptors from on-line and published amaranth literature, combined with characteristics of interest to amaranth farmers in Ghana.

53 Effects of cutting height on nutritional components of vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus l.) in savannah zone of northern Nigeria

A.M. Aliyu1, A.A. Manga2, A.G. Gaya2

1Department of Crop Science, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, Kano, Nigeria 2Department of Agronomy, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Abstract A field experiment was conducted during the 2015 rainy season at the National Horticultural Research Institute Bagauda Sub-station (NIHORT) Kano located in sudan savannah ecological zone of Nigeria. The aim of the research is to investigate the effect of cutting height on nutritional components of Amaranthus cruentus applied with GA3. Three cutting heights (10cm, 15cm and 20cm) were evaluated on the nutritional components of Amarantus cruentus. The Results showed significant increase on percentage protein and crude fibre. Percentage moisture, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were found to be not significant. These findings suggest based on the results obtained that cutting amaranth shoots at 10cm above the ground have great effect on few nutritional components of the crop.

Keywords: Cutting height, Amaranthus cruentus, Nutritional Components and Savannah

54 Identification of superior brinjal parents based on qualitative and quantitative traits

Md. Faruk Hossain*, Kamal Uddin Ahmed and Md. Golam Azam

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is the second most important vegetable in Bangladesh. For maintaining a healthy germplasm and improvement of brinjal, it is important to document or characterize the existing local genotypes, landraces, cultivars or farmers’ variety. Keeping in view the vast opportunity for improvement of brinjal local genotypes, the study was conducted at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Ishwardi, Pabna during 2017-18 to identify the important traits of brinjal accessions. The experiment involved thirty five brinjal germplasm with BARI Brinjal-6 (as check). Variations among brinjal accessions were observed in different qualitative characteristics. Upright, intermediate to prostrate plant growth were observed. Leaf bade lobing was found weak, intermediate to strong and very acute, acute to intermediate in leaf blade tip angle were observed. Variations were found in number of prickles and leaf hair. Among the accessions different flower colour were observed like pale violet, light violet and bluish violet. Plant growth habit was upright for 20 accessions, intermediate for 5 accessions (17.94%) and strong for 11 accessions (30.56%). Leaf blade lobing was weak for 4 accessions (11.11%), intermediate for 12 accessions (33.33%) and strong for 17 accessions (47.22%) and very strong for 3 accessions (8.33%). Fruit curvature was straight for 26 accessions (72.22%), slightly curved for 2 accessions (5.56%), and curved for 5 accessions (13.89%) and snake shaped for 3 accessions (8.33%). Fruit colour was green for 13 accessions (36.11%), milk white for 5 accessions (13.89%), scarlet red for 2 accessions (5.56%), lilac grey for 3 accessions (8.33%), purple for 8 accessions (22.22%), purple black for 3 accessions (8.33%) and black for 2 accessions (5.56%). Variations among brinjal accessions were observed in respect of days to first flowering, days to first edible fruiting stage, plant height, and number of fruits per plant, fruit weight (g), fruit weight per plant (kg) and 100- seed weight. The first flower initiation was noticed in SM Ish-017 (82 days). The highest fruit weight per fruit (266.38 g per fruit) was recorded from SM Ish-001 and the lowest fruit weight (77.65 g per fruit) from SM Ish-014. The highest fruit weight per plant (5.38 kg) was recorded from SM Ish-015 followed by SM Ish-025 (5.05 kg) SM Ish -010 (4.98 kg) SM Ish-027 (4.95 kg) and the lowest fruit weight per plant (2.09 kg) from SM Ish-032. These selected genotypes may be considered as promising accessions. Promising genotypes can be used as parents in future hybridization programs to develop superior types with high yield.

55 Agronomic and yield performance of amaranthus varieties based on the common farmers practices

Digna Swai1 and Somnath Bhattacharya2

1 East West Seed Tanzania, Moshi Kilimanjaro 2 East West Seed India Corresponding author: [email protected]

Amaranthus is one of the key indigenous and commercially cultivated leafy vegetable in Tanzania. Amaranth grows in adverse conditions and provides high quality nutritional benefits relevant for human health. Commercial farmers usually grow the crop through broadcasting seeds and reap from its harvest once per growing season. The crop’s ability to flower early poses a serious challenge to farmers especially when the crop exceeds 21-24 days. Once Amaranth has developed inflorescences, its consumer quality is reduced and its value is lowered. This leads to low economic returns. Identification of late flowering amaranthus vegetable varieties that aligns with the common practices by the farmers is essential to ensure good crop performance and high economic returns. An ongoing experiment has been established in order to compare agronomic, phenology and yield performance of 3 introduced and 4 local varieties of amaranthus. The experiment has been laid out in a completely randomized design with three replications, and each variety occupies a plot size of 1square meter. The following data will be collected after 25 days on plot bases: Total biomass of the harvested plants of each variety, leaf size, plant height and days to flowering. The results will be subjected to a one-way ANOVA in genstat in order to identify the best performing variety with respect to agronomic, phenology and yield traits. The identification of best performing varieties for cultivation is useful to farmers as they would maximize their return on investment and reduce losses by utilizing good varieties.

56 World Vegetable Center’s genebank of traditional African vegetables in Tanzania supports better income and healthier diets for smallholders

Sognigbe N’Danikou1*, Jeremiah Sigalla1, Omary Mbwambo1, Martha Munisi1

1World Vegetable Center, East and Southern Africa. PO Box 10 Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania *Corresponding author: Sognigbe N'Danikou, [email protected]

Abstract Traditional African vegetables are valuable assets to support nutrition-sensitive agriculture under the climate change because they are generally more nutrient dense than most global commercial vegetable crops, they have lower water requirement, can do better on poor quality soils, and have higher resistance to pests and diseases. However, the biodiversity of traditional African vegetables is endangered by displacement in favor of high-energy staple crops and their seed system is largely informal. The World Vegetable Center – East and Southern Africa genebank maintains about 2,700 accessions of traditional African vegetables, with okra, African eggplant, roselle, amaranth, cowpea being the most represented crops. About 500 accessions (over 10,000 seed samples) are distributed annually to farmers, universities, seed companies, national research institutes. About 45,000 seed kits containing about 189,000 vegetable seed samples to smallholder farmers in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Madagascar from 2013 to 2019. To optimize supply of vegetable diversity, the WorldVeg genebank of traditional African vegetables continues working with partners in both the formal and local seed systems.

Keywords: indigenous crops, vegetable seeds, conservation, regeneration, characterization, distribution, WorldVeg

57 Seed yield and quality of jute mallow (Corchorus olitorious l.) as affected by cutting frequency and salicylic acid foliar application

Hamdino M.I. Ahmed1* & Jean Jacques Muhinda2

1 Horticulture Research Institute (HRI), 9 Gamaa Street, Giza, Egypt 2 The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), Plot 5 Mpigi Road, Entebbe, Uganda * Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Phone: +2 010 10068001 Fax: +2 02 35721628

Abstract Jute mallow (Corchorus olitorious L.) is an important leafy vegetable found in the wild and cultivated in many countries of Africa. To improve its seed yield and quality two field experiemnts were carried to invesitage the eff ect of cutting ferquency (without cutting, one cut and two cutts) and salicylic acid (SA) foliar application at (0.0, 25, 50 and 100 ppm) on growth , seed yield and its quality.

Cutting frequency caused significant increase in number of branches per plant and reduction in plant height. Cutting one time was the most effective treatment in in increasing seed yield by increasing number and weight of pods/plant, number of seeds/pod, seed yield per plant as well as seed index (weight of 1000 seeds). All cutting frequency treatment had not significant effects on germination percentage.

Spraying jute mallow plants with salicylic acid enhanced vegetative growth of plants and increased seed yield and its components as well seed index. Germination percetage and rate were not significantly affteted by different salicylic acid treatments. However salicylic acid at 100 ppm gave the highest values. Generally, cutting plants one time and sparying them with 100 ppm of salicylic acid was found to be the best treatment for the production of highest seed yield and quality.

58 Lusala (Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth. subsp. pedicellata Milne-Redh): a wild edible tuberous vegetable which supports rural livelihoods in southern Zambia, shows considerable genetic diversity, and can be propagated for conservation and domestication

Mr. Donald Zulu, Prof. Richard Ellis, and Dr. Alastair Culham

University of Reading

Abstract Some traditional African vegetables are wild edible plants which are foraged rather than cultivated as crops. Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth. subsp. pedicellata Milne-Redh. (lusala or busala) is a wild tuberous vegetable foraged from the miombo woodlands of Zambia. This local delicacy blends well with groundnuts, eggs, fish, and meat in meals. Its collection, consumption and sale are widespread in southern Zambia. Of rural households interviewed, 83, 96 and 59% collected, consumed and sold lusala, respectively, during the dry season from March to September. In the peak month for foraging (April), each rural household within the respective groups collected 27.9kg, consumed 12.0kg, and sold 35.7kg of tubers on average. Amongst the latter group, the reported household annual income from lusala sales was about 44% of that from their maize crop - and therefore important to household income in the dry season. Lusala also supported market traders’ businesses, each purchasing an average of 899kg valued at USD383 during one month (August) for resale. Lusala populations in the wild are at risk from overharvesting and deforestation. It was propagated successfully from tubers, minitubers, minisetts, and vine cuttings, but high dormancy often delayed stem emergence. Considerable genetic diversity was detected amongst 185 lusala samples collected across Zambia. Analysis of molecular variance showed 65% of the variation between populations and only 35% within populations, with five clusters of samples nationally. Genetic resources conservation combined with more sustainable foraging and/or possible domestication will be needed to sustain livelihoods and reduce the decline of lusala in the wild.

59 Phytochemistry and biological activities of new secondary metabolites from the leaves of Vitex grandifolia

Bello Oluwasesan M1,2,3, Pius S. Fasinu 5, Zulfiqar Ali 3, Ahmed A. Zaki3, Ikhlas A. Khan 3,4, Usman L. Ajao2, and Oguntoye S. Olubunmi2

1Dept. of Applied Chemistry, Federal University Dutsin-Ma, Katsina State, Nigeria; 2Dept. of Chemistry, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria; 3National Center for Natural Products Research; 4Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; 5College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, Campbell University, 143 Main Street Buies Creek, NC 27506 (800) 334-4111, USA.

Abstract Background: Compared with global vegetables such as tomato and cabbage, many local or indigenous vegetables are characterized by a high nutritional quality. Traditional and neglected vegetables such as Vitex grandifolia, may be a source of essential vitamins, micronutrients, protein and other phytonutrients, have the ability to play a significant role in strategies for achieving dietary protection. V. grandifolia, although popular for its ethnomedicinal uses, is a classified as neglected and wild vegetable. ts bark has been used to relieve stomach ache and to manage diarrhea, bronchial symptoms, rickets, sore and fever. Alcoholic drinks are made from its fruits, but they are also edible.

Method: Ten compounds (Three new and seven known ones) were isolated from V. grandifolia plant employing various chromatographic techniques i.e. Vacuum Layer (VL), Preparative Thin Layer (PTL) and Column Chromatographic techniques. Structures of the compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic data analyses including UV-visible, FT-IR, 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS. Schrodinger software was used for docking and different bioassays were employed through in vitro laboratory techniques.

Result: Methanol extract of the leaves of V. grandifolia afforded ten compounds including three new ones: grandifolic A, agnuside, bartsioside, isovitexin, vitexoside 1, grandifoside A, isoorientin, p-coumaric acid, orientin and vitexin. The inhibition of MAO B by Vitexoside 1 a new iridiod isolated from V. grandifolia and agnuside was 11-fold more potent (1C50 (μg/mL) of 9.04 and 9.08) compared to the inhibition of MAO A (1C50 (μg/mL) of ˃100). Vitexoside 1 exhibited the highest activity against Skin melanoma cell line with IC50 (µg/mL) of 6.0. Isoorientin and orientin gave good antioxidant activity with IC50 (ug/mL) of 33 and 41 which were better than the positive control used.

Conclusion: This study provided insight into the phytochemical profiles and pharmacological importance of V. grandifolia beyond basic nutritional values. It is recommended that this vegetable could play protective role against diseases after thorough clinical examination of the isolates from the plants.

Keywords: Phytochemistry; V. grandifolia; MAO A & B; wild vegetable; NMR

60 Enhancing women economic empowerment through the sustainable scaling of spices and herbs sourcing scheme in Southwestern Ethiopia Rahel Heruy

Damascene Essential Oil Processing PLC, Ethiopia

Abstract Ethiopia is home to many spices and herbs including black cardamom, long red pepper, black cumin, turmeric, and ginger. These are cultivated widely in different agro-ecological zones of the country. Spices and herbs play a major role in the diet of most Ethiopians which makes the country one of the largest consumers of these products (more than 90% of its production is consumed locally). Spices are used as flavoring material, source of essential oil and serves as a cash crop for many smallholders. Despite their significance, farmers’ productivity is low due to their limited knowledge of modern methods of producing spices and herbs. Production is also fragmented which makes it difficult to aggregate sufficient quantities for onward supply to processors in a consistent manner. For most processors of spices and herbs, the risks involved in building a reliable supply chain is very high and requires both technical support and financial investment.

Damascene Essential Oil Processing PLC is a woman-led company working in the spices and herbs sector in Ethiopia. Damascene processes and markets edible spices, high-quality essential oils and cosmetic products for the local market. The company mainly sources raw materials (spices and herbs) from women farmers in Kaffa zone in the Southern region of Ethiopia. It is diversifying its product offering to include commonly consumed spices (turmeric, ginger basil, pepper, etc.) for household consumption. The company also seeks to expand its raw material base by reaching out to 5,000 women farmers within four years. To achieve this, Damascene must strengthen its sourcing scheme by establishing and capacitating women cooperatives, develop a loyalty scheme and establish linkages with other big buyers such as Unilever. This envisaged increased scale of operation comes with additional cost which the company must bare. There is also a risk of side-selling as supported women might sell to other buyers.

Through a Public Private Partnership (PPP), Damascene is being supported by the 2SCALE program (www.2scale.org) to overcome these challenges and accelerate progress towards meeting this goal. 2SCALE is co-funded by the private sector and the Dutch government and awarded to a consortium led by the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) and comprising the Base-of-the-Pyramid Innovation Center (BoPInc) and the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV). 2SCALE works together with private companies (such as Damascene) and producer organizations (POs) to develop business models and partnership models that promote inclusiveness, develop competitive edge, and have potential for scaling. For the partnership with Damascene, the joint ambition is to develop a sustainable sourcing scheme that integrates these women as producers and makes nutritious spice and herb products available to Ethiopian consumers. 2SCALE is supporting the capacity building of women cooperatives in improved production practices and a loyalty scheme is being implemented to ensure regular and consistent supply of raw materials to the company.

So far, Damascene has supported 6 women cooperatives with technical assistance to improve their knowledge and skills in spices and herbs agronomy, food safety, and post-harvest management. These women mainly grow approximately 0.125 ha each of spices and herbs as backyard farms. The company is further mobilizing about 1700 women farmers who are being organized into 10 cooperatives. More than 100,000 seedlings of different types of herbs and spices; 27,850kg of turmeric seeds; and 7000kg of ginger

61 seeds have been distributed to over 400 women on credit. An additional 440,000 seedlings are also being distributed. Damascene has sourced over 25000kg of spices and herbs from women cooperatives which have been processed supplied to consumers.

The integration of spices and herbs production as a backyard farming practice by women promotes agroforestry in the targeted communities, contributing to the protection of the environment and sustainable utilization of natural resources.

In this conference, Damascene is looking forward to sharing its experiences in:  how PPP models can minimize the risk companies may face in their quest to integrate smallholder farmers as suppliers while remaining competitive in the market (spices and herbs).  integrating women producers in spices and herbs production; an opportunity to women inclusion in a sustainable and commercial relationship with multidimensional impact in the lives and wellbeing of the women and their cooperatives.  product development targeting low income consumers to improve access to nutritious spices and herbs products.  constraints, lessons and opportunities in the spices and herbs industry.

62 Postharvest quality characteristics of fruit derived from intra and intergeneric grafted tomato

Dianah Walubengo, Willis Owino* and Irene Orina

*Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Tomato is the second most important vegetable in terms of value in Kenya. However, its production is plagued by challenges including disease complexes that lead to poor quality fruit and significant post- harvest losses. While grafting is an incredibly popular technique for tomato production in other parts of the world, it is almost non-existent in Kenya. Grafting is an ideal technique for vegetable production because scions that are susceptible to soil-borne disease can be grafted onto rootstock that are more resistant to these stresses. Tomato grafting studies tend to focus on yields and disease resistance with limited studies on quality characteristics of fruit. The objective of this study was to compare postharvest quality characteristics of bacterial wilt susceptible tomato (Anna F1) grafted on African eggplant (intergeneric) rootstocks and bacterial wilt resistant hybrid tomato (Intrageneric) rootstocks. The grafted tomato was grown under greenhouse conditions in JKUAT and fruit harvested at mature green, turning, and red ripe stages. The fruits were analysed for physical and physiological characteristics. At mature green stage the intergeneric grafted fruits had higher firmness (6.3 N mm-1) compared to control (4.69 mm-1). The respiration rate of intrageneric grafts were (7.12 ml/kg/h) lower than the controls (36.9 to 0.1 ml/kg/h) while the ethylene production rate of the intragenic grafted fruit was lower (0.16 μl/kg/h) at ripe stage compared to control (0.41 μl/kg/h). In general, fruits derived from one intergeneric graft and the intrageneric grafts displayed desirable, superior and better postharvest qualities with prolonged shelf life than the non-grafted controls.

Keywords: African Eggplant, Wilt resistant hybrid, firmness, respiration, ethylene

63 An ethnobotanical survey on the traditional uses and medicinal perceptions for domesticated and wild gathered vegetables of the Lugbara Community in Arua District, Uganda

M. Eyokia1, E. Katuura1, C. Obbo1, and S.M. Asio1

1Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda Corresponding author: Eyokia Maurine [email protected]

Abstract Vegetables are very important for human diet. Having a critical look at the vegetable consumption pattern in the current generation, there is a great decline in the consumption of both domesticated and wild vegetables yet the vegetables play a very great role in the body as far as their nutritional and medicinal values are concerned. But this indigenous knowledge seems to be disappearing due to changes in life style. Therefore this survey was done in 2013 in two sub counties to document the indigenous and introduced domesticated and wild vegetables, how they prepare and preserve them, the medicinal values they attached to them. Considering the roles women play in bringing food on the table, their involvement in maintaining the vegetables throughout the year in the rural settings and income generation activities, both men and women were interviewed. Of the individuals interviewed 15 (21%) were men while 45(79%) were women. The age of the respondents ranged from 15-87 years. The study was carried out in two villages; each village had a total of 35 respondents from randomly selected homesteads.

The study used both primary and secondary sources of data in both quantitative and qualitative methods. Results show that this community had a good number of indigenous and introduced domesticated and wild vegetables. Fifty six (56) vegetable species distributed in nine families were listed. Different preparation and preservation methods were documented. It was realized that communities preferred indigenous vegetables to the introduced and knew about the nutritive and medicinal values of the vegetables. Also noted was the decreased knowledge of the wild vegetables and also medicinal attributes in the younger generation compared to the elderly. Collection or maintenance of the vegetables and cooking was mainly done by women. This information will be used to increase awareness in the communities for improved health through vegetarian diets and also promotion of these vegetables in this community would improve their livelihoods.

Keywords: indigenous, knowledge, domesticated, wild –gathered, nutrition, health

64 Role and responsibility international development agencies have to promote and incorporate consumption of indigenous vegetation in agriculture and nutrition programs throughout Africa

Bryan Pride, M.P.P., Rise Against Hunger, USA Chelsie Kolberg, M.P.H., Global Health

Abstract Africa is losing indigenous vegetables. Research demonstrates that indigenous crops are highly nutritious, however, the consumption and cultivation of leafy green African vegetables is dwindling. There are multiple factors that have caused the loss of indigenous crops. The research presented will address how the loss of indigenous crops is a result of the stigmatization of indigenous crops and the acceptance of “The West Knows Best” development practices.

Through documented interviews, the primary response as to why Africans are not consuming indigenous crops is because traditional vegetation is viewed as “poor man’s food”. In order to eradicate the negative stigma against indigenous crops, there is a need for policies and educational platforms to support the cultivation and consumption of indigenous crops. Additionally, international development agencies need to support African government structures in the promotion of indigenous crops in order to de-stigmatize traditional vegetables.

The presented research analyzes how indigenous crops and traditional African diets help build proper gut health thus leading to a healthy gut microbiome. Many indigenous vegetables provide essential micro- nutrients that allow Africans to maintain proper nutrition. When Africans are unable to eat traditional diets, essential nutrients that maintain a healthy gut microbiome and proper nutrition are lost, thus leading to malnutrition and increased instances of overall poor health among Africans.

Establishing policies that mandate international development agencies to promote and utilize indigenous crops in both agriculture and nutrition sensitive programing will destigmatize indigenous vegetation. Additionally, when international development agencies incorporate indigenous crops in development programs, the nutritional value of indigenous crops is shared with host country nationals; therefore, increasing the understood value of indigenous crops. By increasing knowledge, the desire to consume local vegetation will increase, therefore positively impacting the overall health of Africans.

Work Cited

Abbiw, D.K. 1990. Useful plants of Ghana: West African uses of wild and cultivated plants. Intermediate technology publications, London and royal botanic garden Kew, United Kingdom. Xii +337p.

Bagchi, K. and Puri, S. 1998. Free radicals and antioxidants in health and disease. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 4:350-360.

Bravo, L. 1998. Polyphenols: chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism, and nutritional significance. Nutrition Reviews 56:317-333.

Chen, H.Y. and Yen, G.C. 2007. Antioxidant activity and free radical-scavenging capacity of extracts from guava (Psidium guajava L.) leaves. Food Chemistry 101:689-694.

65 Grubben GJH DentonOA (2004) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa: Vegetables 2: 667 (PROTA-English Edition) Denton, Earth print Limited.

Kuda, T., Tsunekwa, M., Goto, H. and Araki, Y. 2005. Antioxidant properties of four edible algae harvested in the Noto Peninsula, Japan. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 18:625-633.

66 Phenotyping African eggplant growth and nutritional quality under abiotic stresses

Ms. Noémie David-Rogeat1, Dr. Eleftheria Stavridou2 and Prof. Martin Broadley1

1University of Nottingham 2NIAB EMR

Abstract Malnutrition affects approximately one in three people around the world and is particularly prevalent in Africa where more than 40% of all children are being affected by one form of malnutrition. Vegetables have great potential to help reduce this burden due to their current position in the food system and multiple dietetic and nutritive values related to their nutrients content. While climate change is negatively affecting crop production worldwide and increase abiotic stresses prevalence, indigenous vegetables constitute an untapped reservoir of biodiverse and highly nutritional plants adapted to local climates that offer opportunities to improve the nutritional status of local population and resilience of agricultural systems. The African eggplant, Solanum aethiopicum, is one such vegetable, widely consumed within Sub- Saharan Africa but only sparsely researched and promoted, thus not used to its full potential. The objectives of this research were to assess the tolerance of the African eggplant under high temperature and/or drought. As a preliminary step, a description of the African eggplant developmental stages was performed by assessing nutrient dynamics uptake, plant growth, and nutritional quality of fruits during ripening. Then, high temperature and drought were imposed individually and in combination on plants in a controlled environment. Shoot and fruit nutrients and phytonutrients levels, physiological responses, marketable yield, and fruit quality were measured. Results will increase our current understanding of the African eggplant’s responses under climate change and potential role in future food systems. They will be the starting point for the study of agronomic management changes to improve tolerance.

67 Research and Development of Traditional Vegetables in Zimbabwe: A Review Paper

Dorah Mwenye1 and Linda Muusha2

1Department of Research and Specialist Service Email: [email protected] Mobile: +263 772112062 2Horticulture Research Institute- Department of Research and Specialist services Email: [email protected] Mobile: +263 0774162490

Abstract The role of traditional vegetables in food and nutrition security of both rural and urban populations has gained significant prominence in the last two decades. In response interest has grown for research and development to promote production and utilisation among various players including national research and extension services, non-governmental organisations and tertiary institutions. Uncoordinated and disorganised information on properties and uses of traditional vegetables in Zimbabwe exists in various forms. The Horticulture Research Institute conducted research on Cleome gynandra, Amaranthus sp and Brassica carinata and Brassica juncea focusing on fertiliser requirements and harvesting techniques with an aim to improve productivity. Unfortunately this work and similar research from other institutions has been difficult to access. With this in mind this paper reviews research work and related documentation on traditional vegetables with a view of promoting the value chain of traditional vegetables. A desk study will be commissioned and this will be supported with interviews of key informants who will be identified through snowballing. Data analysis will be qualitative, guided by the principles of thematic analysis. This review is of significance as it will inform policy of the role of traditional varieties and identify gaps for future research

Keywords: Traditional vegetables; food and nutrition security; research and development; Zimbabwe

68 Traditional African vegetables strengthen food and nutrition security in Madagascar

Bodovololona Rabary1, Tatiana L. Rakotoson1, Marteen van Zonneveld2, Lalaina B. Ranaivoson3, Justus Ochieng4,5, Herimiamina Andriamazaoro3, Juvet Razanameharizaka6, Tendro Radanielina6, Denis Randriamampionona6, Isabelle Rahetsivololona7, Sognigbe N’Danikou4.

1Centre Régional de Recherche FOFIFA, BP 230, 110 Antsirabe, Madagascar 2World Vegetable Center, Headquarters, P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 74199 Taiwan 3Centre FOFIFA, BP 1690, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar 4World Vegetable Center, East and Southern Africa. P.O. Box 10 Duluti, Arusha, Tanzania 5Bayesian Consulting Group (BCG), P.O. Box 44817, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya 6Mention Agriculture et Développement Durable (AT2D), Université d'Antananarivo, BP-175, Antananarivo. 101- Madagascar. *Corresponding author: sognigbe. [email protected]

Abstract Malagasy farmers still maintain a high diversity of traditional vegetables, but their production and consumption are low. Low usage makes traditional vegetables vulnerable to local or national extirpation under pressure of land-use change and crop replacement. Within the framework of the 3-years Darwin Initiative funded project, the WorldVeg, FOFIFA, University of Antanarivo and SEMANA are working with small-scale farmer families in the Itasy and Antsirabe regions of Madagascar to improve the production of traditional vegetables for income generation and to diversify diets and reduce hidden hunger. The approaches integrate a good understanding of the status of agro-biodiversity in Malagasy food systems; Germplasm collection to rescue landraces of both popular and threatened traditional vegetables in ex- situ; Capacity building of 25 Malagasy extension workers, 200 women farmers and 5 primary schools on seed saving and production of traditional vegetables; and seed business capacity development of 10 progressive women farmers on promising varieties of traditional vegetables. The women farmers receive seed kits for on-farm evaluation. These actions will enhance and protect vegetable genetic resources through increased utilization. The project strengthens existing school garden initiatives with training on seed saving and provision of good quality seeds of traditional vegetables to raise awareness for local food plants. An agro-biodiversity catalogue about Malagasy food plant diversity will be developed and promote the relevance of agro-biodiversity as a biocultural heritage, a source for human diets, and the importance of this diversity for nutrition.

Keywords: Seed saving, seed kits, healthy diets, on-farm evaluation, genetic diversity

69 Overviews of functional properties and folk medicinal use of indigenous vegetables in Taiwan

Ray-Yu Yang*, Hsin-I Wang, and Wan-Jen Wu

Nutrition Laboratory, Healthy Diets Program, World Vegetable Center, Tainan, Taiwan *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Evidence for associations between disease prevention and increased vegetable consumption are generally positive, but studies report weak causal linkages and inconsistent results that vary among different populations with different dietary patterns. Many traditional vegetables highly consumed in the past are neglected in current food systems. It is possible that the health benefits of phytonutrient intake from plant foods may have been underestimated because modern diets include fewer crop types and lower varietal diversity. We conducted literature reviews on reported functional properties (anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, antioxidative, anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory activities and others) for 150 Taiwan indigenous vegetables using keywords of their scientific names and terms related to functional properties and medicinal uses. Information on folk medicinal uses or herbal remedies were retrieved from the open- access “Database of Common Medicinal Plants in Taiwan”. The latest review papers and original research articles on functional properties of one or groups of vegetables evaluated them using a range of methods including in-vitro, cell, animal and human models. About 90% of the listed 150 species were mentioned in one or more studies reporting either one or several functional properties. Anti-oxidant activity was the mostly mentioned, followed by anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-carcinogenic and anti-microbial properties using in vitro and cell models. Functional properties of about 15% of species (eg. Amaranthus, Talinum paniculatum, Oenanthe javanica, Perilla frutescens) have been studied using animal models. Investigations involving human subjects were conducted with a few vegetable species such as bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) for anti-hyperglycemia (anti-diabetes) and Chinese yam (Dioscorea alata) for reduced risks of breast cancer and cardiovascular diseases. About 50% of the listed species were used as both food and herbal remedies according to Traditional Chinese Medicine. Our review summarizes studies on Taiwan indigenous vegetables for functional properties from current research and folk uses that will help to prioritize plant species for further research and future applications. The work was financially supported by Council of Agriculture (COA), Taiwan.

Keywords: anti-oxidant, anti-inflammation, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, chronic diseases, protective effects

70 The contribution of less documented indigenous leafy vegetables to total micronutrient intake of children below five years in a rural semi-arid area in Tanzania: Implications for policy and nutrition interventions

Hadijah A. Mbwana1* and Stephen Ruvuga2

1 Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Food Technology, Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, P.O. Box 3006, Morogoro-Tanzania; 2 Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (MVIWATA) (National Network of Farmers Groups in Tanzania), Morogoro, Tanzania

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Background Indigenous vegetables are known to mark significant contributions to food and nutrition security in rural communities of developing countries but for various reasons they are generally undervalued and hence underutilized. In semi-arid regions of Tanzania, in particular, indigenous vegetables although less documented are part of the culture and have potential for high nutrition impact to the communities.

Objective This study ascertained the contribution of some of the undocumented indigenous vegetables to total micronutrient intake of children below five years of age in two rural villages in the semi-arid region of Dodoma in Tanzania; where production, preservation and consumption of these vegetables were promoted.

Design Exploratory cross-sectional study with a longitudinal 24 hour dietary recall (four repeated one month apart) assessment factor was employed. Household surveys were conducted to elicit information on socio-economic and demographic profile and food consumption patterns at household level. An intervention which combined nutrition education and promotion of production, preservation and consumption was conducted. Vegetables targeted for promotion of production included Corchorus trilocularis and amaranth among many which have been found to increase crop diversity in both diets and production systems, resulting in healthier people, healthier food systems and improved livelihoods.

The study employed stepped-up advocacy, information and community education in changing the attitudes of people by mobilizing champions and role model farmers and demonstration of kitchen gardening and nutrient sensitive cooking demonstrations.

Food intake reported in household measures was converted into weight and nutrient contents were computed by using various food composition tables and literature. The SAS software package was used to convert food intake to macro and micronutrients. For the vegetables commonly consumed, intake was calculated and expressed as a percentage of total intake.

Four types of indigenous vegetables, namely Ipomoea pandurate which is locally known as chiwandagulu, Corchorus trilocularis (ilende), Ipomoea obscura (chipali) and Amaranthus graecizans (fwene) were tested during the study.

71 Setting Households (n=350) with at least one child below five years and a woman caregiver in Mzula and Chinoje villages in Chamwino District, Dodoma Region.

Results With regards to production, reported major constraints were inappropriate crop varieties, infestation by major pests and diseases leading to low quality produce. An impact assessment study showed that nearly 40% of households growing vegetables increased their income, while almost half had increased their consumption of indigenous vegetables.

Total dietary intake of nutrients was significantly improved for children who consumed indigenous vegetables. (Vegetables mostly consumed during 24 hours preceding the dietary surveys were native to the area and included Ipomoea pandurate which is locally known as chiwandagulu, Corchorus trilocularis (ilende), Ipomoea obscura (chipali) and Amaranthus graecizans (fwene). For most vegetables, leaves and stems were common parts consumed. )

The proportion of children who consumed indigenous leafy vegetables during the 4 days recall period ranged from 28% (first survey) to 89% (last survey) after four weeks of promotion, the average number of times that children consumed vegetables ranged from 1.2 (first survey) to 3.1 (last survey).

Dietary recalls revealed very low intake quantities of these vegetables. The average portion size consumed was approximately ¼ of a cup (78 ± 42 g) for Ipomoea pandurate and 78 ± 37 g for Corchorus trilocularis. Among children who consumed these vegetables, their total dietary intake of nutrients was significantly improved. These included calcium (18 to 35% of total intake), iron (21 to 38%), vitamin A (39 to 61%) and riboflavin (7 to 24%) of total intake.

Conclusion The indigenous leafy vegetables significantly contributed to increasing total nutrient intake of children for some of the micronutrients. This positive impact can conceivably be augmented if these vegetables will be consumed more frequently and by a larger quantity and in a larger children population. Implicitly, policies and interventions need to be devised in order to achieve wider consumption through production, conservation, processing, promotion, documentation and effective nutrition education. This can have significant impact on increased micronutrient intakes among children in this community through readily available indigenous vegetables.

72 Diversification and tackling malnutrition in cocoa communities in Cameroon through traditional African vegetable home gardening

Regine Tchientche Kamga, Armel Awah, Lyliane Pousseu, Ronald Chendjou and Victor Afari-Sefa

World Vegetable Center

Abstract Cocoa farmers in Cameroon do not earn sufficient income to meet their household needs and to, ensure their food and nutrition security since they mainly rely on staple crops that lack essential micronutrients to attain a balanced diet. However, diversifying cocoa producers’ production with Traditional African Vegetables (TAV) could contribute to tackling the problem through diet diversification. A rapid assessment study was conducted among 150 Cameroon cocoa producers from four targeted cocoa communities of Barry Callebaut (BC), one of the world’s largest chocolate manufacturers to ascertain the current status of TAV production and utilization. The World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg), the project implementing partner showcased different vegetables crops/varieties and sensitized the target cocoa communities on good agricultural practices for vegetable production using demonstration plots. An in- depth individual hands-on training covering the whole vegetable production process for each of the cocoa farmers who subscribe to BC’s funded individual training program was then conducted. Results show that cocoa farmers apprehend their communities’ health status as critical, with the prevalence of non- communicable disease as a relatively common occurrence. About 200 cocoa producers were sensitized on the importance of TAV consumption for nutrition. Approximately 2.5 t of TAV was produced within the demonstration plots (4000 m2) in one season and distributed to beneficiary farmers. Fifty cocoa farmers who subscribed to the program received vegetable seed kits of four different crops/varieties and established home garden on at least 50 m2 each. The cocoa farmers trained produced roughly 2.2 t of TAV within their homes gardens. Majority of the farmers preferred to consume their produce rather than to sell as earlier anticipated, they appreciated the taste and shelf-life of the produce. Strategies and enabling policies aimed at promoting vegetable diversification can contribute to tackling malnutrition in cocoa communities and enhance the sustainability of the cocoa sector.

73 Effect of chicken manure on leaf yields of selected African leafy vegetables in western Kenya

C. Ndinya*1, N. Makete1, E. Minyatta1, M. Odendo1, F. Wayua1, L.Okitoi1, P. Mudy2, S. Kweyu3

1Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 169-50100, Kakamega, Kenya 2Anglican Development Services- Western Kenya 3AGRO-Kenya

*Corresponding Author: Christine Ndinya ([email protected], [email protected])

Abstract African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are important in western Kenya for food security and income. They require sufficient fertilizer for good yields. However inorganic fertilizers are rarely used for ALVs production because of high costs. Chicken manure can be an alternative cheap source of fertilizer because 90% of households keep chicken. A study was done in Busia, Vihiga and Kakamega Counties in western Kenya among five farmer groups per county, to determine the performance of ALVs when planted with manure. Each group collected chicken manure and planted two sets of trials of spiderplant (Cleome gynandra), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), African nightshade (Solanum spp.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and slenderleaf (Crotolaria brevidense); one set with and the second set without chicken manure. Manure samples collected from farmers were tested for nutrient contents and disease. Data were taken on fresh and dry weight of harvested leaves. Results on disease analysis showed that samples did not have Ralstonia solanaceaurum bacteria, or parasitic nematodes. However non parasitic nematodes and Fusarium spp. fungus were present in 63 and 44 percent of the samples respectively. Leaf yields in plots with chicken manure were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those without manure in spider plant, Amaranth and African nightshade, but not in slenderleaf and cowpea. The lack of difference in the latter could be due to the nitrogen fixing ability of these species. This study shows that locally available chicken manure can be a good inorganic fertilizer alternative for use in spiderplant, Amaranth and African nightshade in western Kenya.

Keywords: Nutrients, Vegetables, Fertilizers

74 Nutritional quality of traditional African vegetables as affected by drying methods

Ray-Yu Yang1, Ngoni Nenguwo2, Tsvetelina Stoilova, Antonio Acedo Jr.2, Didit Ledesma1 and Peter Hanson3*

1 World Vegetable Center, Tainan, Taiwan 2 World Vegetable Center, Arusha, Tanzania 3 World Vegetable Center, Cotonou, Benin *Corresponding: [email protected]

Abstract Traditional African vegetables are inexpensive and high-quality nutrient sources in human diets. Availability of fresh vegetables is seasonal and preservation by drying is a means to extend availability but drying method can affect nutrient contents. Our objective was to assess the nutritive value of popular African leafy vegetables as affected by drying method. Two related studies were conducted at WorldVeg- Taiwan (Study I) and WorldVeg-Tanzania (Study II). The treatment design was a split plot with varieties and drying method as mainplot and subplot factors, respectively. Mainplots were arranged in a RCBD with three replications. Two varieties each of five leafy vegetables were grown in field trials at Taiwan and Tanzania. Vegetable yields were harvested and samples of 3-5 kg were subjected to different drying methods. In Study I, samples were assigned to freeze drying or oven drying. In Study II, samples were subjected to solar drying or direct sun drying. Protein, sugars, fiber, minerals, carotenoids, vitamin C, total phenolics and oxalates were measured. Results from freeze drying method were used as a standard. The five TAVs were high in protein, minerals, carotenoids and vitamin C although significant differences were detected among crops for various nutrients. Spider plant was notably high in beta-carotene. All crops contained oxalate with amaranth as the highest followed by cowpea leaves. Drying method significantly affected contents of most macro-and micro-nutrients. Freeze drying is considered as the best method to retain higher macro- and micronutrients and this was true in this study except for beta-carotene that was sensitive to longer drying even at low temperatures. Solar drying and direct sun drying allowed retention of the heat stable constituents (protein, fiber, sugars, minerals, oxalates) but caused a 100% loss of vitamin C, and 50-90% loss of carotenoids. The solar dryer used in this study did not improve nutritional quality versus direct sun drying in sunny weather.

75 Nutritional variations and economics of jute mallow when intercropped with commonly grown cereal crops in Tanzania

Ms. Margareth Makauki, Prof. Patrick Ndakidemi, and Dr. Ernest Mbega

Department of Sustainable Agriculture and Biodiversity Ecosystem Management, School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania

Abstract In Tanzania, farmers harvest Jute mallow for granted when it grows without being cultivated. This limits its potential production and possibilities for exploiting its full benefit in nutrition and market. This study was conducted to find a better intercropping combination which is agronomically viable with higher yield advantages by integrating Jute mallow in commonly grown cereals in Tanzania. Field experiment was conducted at Hombolo Agricultural Research Centre in Dodoma and the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST) farm in Arusha to assess the growth and yield performance of jute mallow when intercropped with either maize, sorghum or finger millet. The experiment was set in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Results showed that growth parameters of Jute mallow with sorghum and jute mallow with finger millet intercrops such as plant height, number of branches and number of leaves were not affected by intercropping. Jute mallow intercropped with maize suppressed growth and yield performance of Jute mallow. Among intercropped stands, Jute mallow intercropped with sorghum and with finger millet was not affected by intercropping on fresh leaf yield. However, all intercropped stands had yield advantages over mono- cropped stands, jute mallow-sorghum intercrop had the highest yield advantage with a LER of 1.7 and 1.53 in Dodoma and Arusha respectively. If farmers opt for intercropping and maximizing land use, this study recommends jute mallow to be intercropped with sorghum and with finger millet for better yields and sustainable growth.

76 Effect of pH and cooking time on shelf life of African nightshade leafy-based sauces

Amina Ahmed1*, Gudrun Keding1 and Elke Pawelzik1

1University of Goettingen, Division of Quality of Plant Products, Department of Crop Science, Germany *[email protected]

Abstract African nightshade is among the traditional vegetables of high nutritional potential in West and East Africa. However, high postharvest losses minimize consumption. Therefore, sauces formulations of African nightshade leaves with tomatoes, carrots, baobab fruit powder and other ingredients were developed. The sauces were cooked at 87±3°C for either 20, 25 or 30 minutes, filled into screw-top glasses and stored at 22±1°C for 28 weeks. To assess the effect of pH and cooking time on the microbiological status, the sauces were analysed after every two weeks. The sauces with pH 5.5-5.9; 20 and 25 minutes cooking time were stable between 6 to 12 weeks while sauces with pH of 5.9; 30 minutes cooking times were stable for 10 to 12 weeks. Formulations with pH below 4 were stable up to 28 weeks regardless of cooking time. To achieve minimal processing and long shelf life without addition of preservatives, lowering the pH below 4 is recommended.

Keywords: African nightshade, postharvest loss, sauce, cooking time, shelf life

77 Effect of germination periods on proximate and antinutrient composition of grain amaranth flour

*1Owolade, S.O, 1Aderibigbe, O.R, 2 Ezekiel, O.O. and3Korese, J. K.

1National Horticultural Research Institute, Product Development Programme, P.M.B. 5432, Idi- Ishin, Jericho GRA, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 2Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan 3Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Mechanization and Irrigation Technology, University for Development Studies, P. O Box TL 1882, Nyankpala Campus, Ghana *Correspondence: +2348035619552, E-mail address: obfem@ yahoo.com

Abstract Grain amaranth (Amaranthuscruentus), a pseudo cereal, has in recent time been explored as a good source of quality protein and other essential nutrients. Despite its rich nutritional profile, grain amaranth contains antinutrients which reduce the bioavailability of its protein. This study employed germination of grain amaranth at room temperature as a pretreatment method to reduce the antinutrient composition. The grains were germinated at different periods (24hrs, 48hrs and 72hrs). The germinated grains were washed, dried and milled into fine powder for analysis. The effects of varying germination periods on the proximate and antinutrients properties of grain amaranth flour were evaluated. The results showed that protein content (17.37%) was significantly (P<0.05) higher in amaranth grains germinated after 24hrs as compared to 48hrs (16.05%) and 72hrs (16.73%) germination periods and that of ungerminated grains (16.08%). Germination at varying periods significantly (P<0.05) reduced the antinutrient contents. The contents of phytate were 0.19, 0.22, 0.23 and 0.81mg/g, oxalate were 0.21, 0.22, 0.20 and 0.52mg/g, saponin were 0.09, 0.11, 0.10 and 0.41mg/g, tannins were 0.17, 0.33, 0.14 and 0.93mg/g and trypsin inhibitor were 0.46, 0.59, 0.44 and 0.86mg/g for 24hrs, 48hrs, 72hrs and ungerminated grains respectively. Over the range of germination periods, it was found that germinating grain amaranth for 24hrs provided the highest protein content and lowest saponin and phytate contents.

Keywords: Grain amaranth, germination, flour, nutrient, antinutrients

78 Performance and release of two African nightshade lines from World Vegetable Center germplasm in Tanzania

Mbwambo, O.1, F.F. Dinssa1, R. Mallogo1, M. Matovolwa1 and S. Mushi2

1World Vegetable Center Eastern and Southern Africa 2Current address: Mwanza, Tanzania

Abstract African nightshades comprise several species of the genus Solanum in the section solanum. The genus Solanum is the largest and most diverse genus in the family of Solanaceae. African nightshade is reported to be particularly rich in vitamin A, iron and calcium. It is a popular traditional leafy vegetable in many African countries, and leaf yield is the major traits farmers look in an ideal cultivar. Despite the potential of this vegetable crop, most species remain at the level of landraces, with only few improved cultivars released for commercial production. With the effort to bring more improved cultivars, 10 advanced lines, including three checks, were evaluated in three locations (Moshi, Mbuguni and World Vegetable Center Eastern and Southern Africa – (WorldVeg-ESA) in northern Tanzania in 2015 and 2016. The objective of the evaluation was to identify superior lines for release and registration. The lines were developed by single plant selection with a cycle of selfing from germplasm collections available at WorldVeg-ESA. Significant differences among entries in all three locations in both years were found for yield, leaf length, leaf width and number of branches per plant. The line RC10-ES13-3 (Solanum scabrum), gave the highest fresh vegetable yield in the majority of the locations in both years. Line RC18-ES13-3 (S. villosum) gave high vegetable yield at Mbuguni and WorldVeg-ESA in 2016. It has narrow leaves and bitter taste, traits most liked by farmers. The two lines were released in 2018 after passing Distinctiveness, Uniformity and stability test conducted by Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI).

79 Effects of drying technologies on the nutrition and anti-nutritional factors of African nightshades (Solanum nigrum complex) species in Tanzania

Marynurce Kazosi, Frank Sangija, Dr. Haikael Martin, Dr. Athanasia Matemu

Nelson Mandela African institution of Science and Technology

Abstract The African nightshades (ANS) (Solanum nigrum complex) is one of the luminary food plants from the genus Solanum in the Solanaceae family. In Tanzania, ANS is called Mnavu in (Swahili). These ANS are cheap and potential dietary sources for micronutrients and bioactive compounds. The study aimed at assessing the effects of various drying techniques (open sun, direct and indirect solar drying) on nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of S. scabrum and S. villosum. The techniques are expected to reduce post- harvest losses, improve shelf life and ensuring availability of ANS throughout the year. Non-blanching, blanching at 85 °C for 2 minutes with NaCl and without NaCl was conducted. The nutritional content has significant differences (p˂ 0.05) in all the dried samples for the three drying methods. The nutrients retention was; vitamin C (3.69% to 12.73%), Ca (65.46% to 96.57%), Fe (34.96% to 77.88), Mg (23.84% to 80.72%), and Zn (38.02% to 97.64%) for all methods for the species studied. The anti-nutritional factors percent removed were as follows; oxalate (4.66% to 35.24%) and phytate (51.72% to 85.42%), respectively. The open sun and indirect solar drying were found to be the best methods in nutritional retention and removal of the anti-nutritional factors (oxalate and phytate). Likewise, Non-blanched samples resulted in significant retention of micronutrients, while blanched samples proved to be the best in reducing of an anti-nutritional factors. Hence, the dried SS and SV can be consumed as side dishes for improvement of health and suffice for food security.

80 How can 'limited - space' growing alleviate food insecurity of displaced people groups in sub-Saharan East Africa

Mr. Philip Newcombe

The Royal Horticultural Society

Abstract The UN’s second Sustainable Development Goal, Zero Hunger, targets ending hunger and improving nutrition, and has identified challenges of hidden hunger amongst refugees who are denied access to land and rely on limited-space growing for beneficial household food. In response, this study examines limited- space growing techniques, such as utilising sacks to grow edible plants in sub-Saharan refugee camps and other resource-poor populations. It uses a case-study approach to look at how displaced peoples in various settings apply horticultural techniques, and identifies the strengths and nutrition-improving outcomes of these methods, weighing their potential impact on improving local cultivation practices in the fight to alleviate hunger and achieve food security. The outcomes of this study also have implications for other Sustainable Development Goals relating to poverty, health, gender equality, employment, sustainable communities, responsible production and climate action. The study reflects critically on the data available and recommends further research into technical areas including: growing media, water supply, waste and greywater management, and suitable plant selection and availability. It particularly highlights traditional, though underutilised, African indigenous vegetables and discusses their nutrition and health benefits, and their potential to provide food resilience in a way that is both culturally and climactically appropriate. In summary the study suggests that, through the combination of limited-space growing methods and the use of African indigenous vegetables, those in desperate situations can be given the opportunity to contribute towards their local food security.

Keywords: World Hunger, Limited-space Growing, Refugee Camps, African Indigenous Vegetables, Food security

81 Processing methods and nutritional quality of dried amaranth (Amaranthus spp. L) leaves: A review

M. Osei-Kwarteng1, D.M. Brenner 2 and G.K. Mahunu3

1 Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana. 2 .Department of Agronomy, G212 Agronomy Hall, Plant Introduction Station, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA 50011-1170 *Corresponding Author: [email protected] 3 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana.

Abstract Postharvest losses of vegetables are major challenge for the vegetable industry. Postharvest losses of leafy vegetables are as high as 20-50% of production. The use of dried vegetables is a popular, and traditional, but understudied remedy. Vegetable amaranths are popular in African and Asian countries where leaves are mostly bundled fresh; drying is encouraged as an alternative to prolong the postharvest shelf life. Amaranths have excellent nutritional value because of their high essential micronutrients such as beta-carotene, iron, calcium, vitamin C and folic acid. They also have lysine, an essential amino acid in the range of 6 g 100 g-1 DW protein, which is similar to the recommended FAO/WHO standards and is often lacking in human diets. The review highlights drying methods for vegetable amaranths and their effect on the nutritional quality. Literature was sourced from journal articles, reports, books, online library, and extension fact sheets from Universities websites. Dried leaves are preserved to prevent microorganism infestations and to concentrate nutrients for later use. Amaranths are preserved by sun, shade, solar, cabinet, oven, freeze, infrared and vacuum drying methods. Nutrient retention in solar dried leaves is higher than sun and oven dried leaves. We recommend the use of solar and shade drying for longer and shorter period storage of amaranth leaves respectively. However for higher retention of β - carotene and ascorbic acid, cabinet drying should be employed. Drying is advocated for year round supply of nutrient rich amaranth leaves in developing countries.

Keywords: amaranths, drying methods, malnutrition, nutritional value, postharvest losses.

82 Taiwan indigenous vegetables in current agri-food systems

Hsin-I Wang, Wan-Jen Wu, and Ray-Yu Yang*

Nutrition Lab, Healthy Diets Program, World Vegetable Center, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC *Corresponding: [email protected]

Abstract About 150 Taiwan Indigenous Vegetables (TIV) were summarized from our previous reviews of ethnobotanical studies. We further investigated TIV production over the past 20 years and searched where and how the TIVs are currently produced, utilized and promoted. Production data and market prices were retrieved from monthly and annual Taiwan Agriculture Statistics Reports; information on TIV farms, local markets, restaurants were searched from internets with key words.

Among the 150 TIVs, only 14 were included in wholesale market database. Amaranth has the highest annual production in 2017 (8566 tons), follow by chayote vines (2549 tons), okra (2545 tons) and vegetable fern (247 tons). Six types of trends of TIV production and price changes overtime were classified. Many TIVs were produced by small farms and sold in local markets; production data were not recorded. About 39 TIV organic farms were searched from internet, 70% of the farms are opened to visitors and provide farming courses for education purpose. The learning program and topics generally include DIY (do-it-yourself), indigenous peoples' culture, and food and agricultural education. Farm locations were scattered around Taiwan.

Three common channels of purchasing TIVs include local markets, online shopping and wholesale markets. About 44 local markets selling TIV and 73 restaurants with TIV in menus were found from internet search. About 85% of the restaurants were tribal restaurants, 46 TIVs were mentioned in the 73 menus, and Mountain Pepper mentioned the most. Google Map for TIV farms, restaurants and local markets were developed using Google My Map for future promotion. Those farms, markets and restaurants not searchable from internet were not included in this study. The work was funded by Council of Agriculture (COA), Taiwan.

83 Characterization of amaranth germplasm in response to bacterial wilt disease caused by Ralstonia solanacearum

Honfoga, J1; Azoma, K1; Afari-Sefa, V1; Sikirou, R.; Dossoumou, M.-E.E.A.; Zocli, B.; Paret, M.L.; Legesse, W1.

1World Vegetable Center

Amaranth is one of the most produced and consumed Traditional African Vegetables (TLVs) in sub- Saharan Africa. It is consumed for both leaves and seeds. Increasing consumption and production of Amaranths species make it production falling unto many diseases’ attacks from which the bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is becoming important and is causing a lot of yield losing to farmers. Thereefore, there is a need to select resistant lines to manage bacterial wilt in the infested areas. This study aims to characterize 10 amaranths lines and identify stable sources of resistance to the disease. The experiments were conducted both in open field and under screenhouse condition. A Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications and ten treatments (amaranth lines such as Madiira 1, Madiira 2, BRESIL (B)-Sel, AC-LN, A 2002, AM-NKGN, GARE ES13-7, IP-5-Sel, UG-AMES13-2, Benin local variety) were used for both field and screenhouse experiments. For a good assessment of the germplasm behavior, we included the harvest parameter (cut and uncut plant) to observe it influence on the plant infection level. In field trials, the amaranth lines showed that the disease severity increased in the time for both cut and uncut plants, but the high levels of attack were observed on cut plants. AM-NKGN, UG- AMES13-2, Madiira 2 and the local variety showed the low severity mean (range 1), for uncut plants while for cut plants, only UG-AMES13-2 and the local variety were classified in this severity mean. AC-LN and IP5-Sel lines when cut or uncut, presented the high severity mean (range 4 and 5). From the whole lines tested, AC-LN and IP-5-Sel was the most susceptible showing between 70 and 95% of plant wilted for both cut and uncut plants. UG-AMES13-2, AM-NKGN and the local variety are the most resistant lines with 0, 5.13 and 6.41 % of wilted uncut plants and 5.13, 21.79 and 12.82 % of wilted cut plant. The screenhouse results showed that IP-5 Sel, AC-LN, A2002, Madiira 1, Bresil (B) Sel are most susceptible with 20 to 26.67% Bacterial Wilt Index (BWI) and a Bacterial Colonization Index (BCI) flicking between 26,67 et 80%, while AM-NKGN, GARE-ES 13-7, UG-AMES 13-2, Benin-local-variety and Madiira 2 are tolerant to the bacterium presence with a BWI between 0 et 13.33% and BCI between 6.67 et 33%. From the present study, three lines (UG-AMES13-2, AM-NKGN and Benin local variety) have been selected and can be proposed to the farmers in the infected areas to easily manage bacterial wilt. Those lines can also be used by breeders in future breeding programs.

Keywords: Characterization, Amaranth, Ralstonia solanacearum, germplasm, susceptible, resistant, tolerant

84 Effect of moisture on yield and quality of amaranth

Ms. Halima Daffa, Prof. Agnes Nyomora, Dr. Fekadu Dinssa

Abstract Effect of soil moisture on amaranths productivity is limited hence the need for this study which was conducted at WVC-Arusha in 2018 using six amaranthus genotypes in RCBD with 4 replicates. Madiira 2, Madiira 1 and Local cv significantly excelled in leaf yield with respectively 19.4, 17.5, 15.8g/plant dry weight when irrigated twice every week while lowest yield was from AH-TL-sel at 4.9g/plant dry weight for once every two weeks irrigation. AH-TL-sel, ‘Mchicha’ and Bresil-sel gave significantly higher grain yield (p<.001) among the genotype with 16.9, 16.66 and 14.16g/plant at twice a week irrigation. Local cv gave the lowest grains yield (1.47g/plant) when irrigated once every two weeks. Bresil-sel, AH-TL-sel grains had significantly higher crude protein (p≤.001) among the genotypes with respectively 26.25 and 24.74% in once every two weeks and twice a week irrigation and lowest was from Madiira 2 grains (8.64%) when irrigated once every two weeks. Leaf iron content from local cv was significantly higher among the six genotypes (296.66mg/100g) when irrigated once every week while lowest iron content was from AH-TL- sel leaves (114.73mg/100g) when irrigated once every two weeks (p≤.001). AH-TL-sel, ‘Mchicha’ and Bresil-sel were recommended for grain and Madiira1, Madiira 2 and Local for leafy harvest irrigated at twice a week.

85 The participatory evaluation of Amaranth germplasm for leaf yield in South Africa

Jansen van Rensburg WS1*, Khoza LN1, Gerrano AS1, Bairu MW1, Denby K2.

1Agricultural Research Council, Vegetable Ornamental Plants, Private Bag X293. Pretoria, 0001, South Africa 2Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Amaranth, better known as thepe or imbuya, is a very popular leafy vegetable in South Africa. Amaranth is very nutritious and 100 g cooked amaranth can contribute up to 70% of the daily beta-carotene and 30% of the daily iron needs of growing toddlers. Traditionally, amaranth is wild harvested but it can be cultivated with great success; however, no genetically improved material available in South Africa. The Agricultural Research Council (ARC) in collaboration with the University of York (UoY) and the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) has embarked on a project to evaluate amaranth germplasm. Eleven promising amaranth lines were selected based phenotypic traits. A formal yield trial was planted at ARC-Vegetable and Ornamental Plants, Roodeplaat research farm, Gauteng. The yield trial was planted in a randomised complete block design with three replicates during 2018/19 and 2019/20 cropping season. The young growth shoots and leaves were harvested three times and the fresh and dry weight of the three harvests were determined. Participatory demonstration trials were planted during 2019/20 with two farmers on their field in Gauteng, one farmer in Mpumalanga and a farmers group in KwaZulu Natal. These farmers were visited during the season and group discussions were held. The result showed that the amaranth lines differ significantly for all yield attributes. The different farmers evaluation were very similar. They all prefer green leaved amaranth. All of them have harvested for own consumption. The farmers in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu Natal have sell to the local community for home consumption. Three Amaranth lines namely, Anna, ACAT Seedfair and Arusha can be recommended for cultivation by small- scale farmers in the country. These lines will also be included in the amaranth breeding program at ARC.

86 Impact of storage conditions and packaging materials on seed germination and field emergence of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) at different seasons

Dr. Adam Akinloye1, Dr. Sunday Aladele1, Mr. Mayowa Olubiyi1, Dr. Gloria Afolayan1, Mr. Ayoola Kuyebi1, and Mr. Iyanu Aluko2

1National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Ibadan, Nigeria 2Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Oye-Ekiti

Abstract The conservation of okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)] seeds in genebanks is essential for success of their use in breeding programmes. This study was conducted to investigate the impact of storage conditions and packaging materials on germination and field emergence of okra seeds. One okra accession (NGB 00372) produced during the late growing season of 2015 was used for the study. The experiments were set up using 3x3 factorial in completely randomized design (CRD) and randomized complete block design (RCBD) for germination and field emergence experiments respectively with three replications. One hundred seeds per replicate were subjected to standard germination test and immediately followed by field evaluations during four growing seasons. The results of individual analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed most of the treatments had highly significant effect on germination and seedling emergence in all seasons. However, the combined ANOVA across the seasons revealed that storage conditions, packaging materials and interactive effects were highly significant on seed germination and field emergence. Okra seeds stored in plastic container had highest germination value (79.67%) and field emergence value (78.67%) under short term storage conditions while seeds stored in aluminum foil had highest seed germination value (74.33%) and field emergence value (75.33%) under medium term storage conditions. The materials stored under deep freezer using aluminum cans had highest percentage values for seed germination (67.00%) and field emergence (77.67%). This study suggests that plastic containers, aluminum foils and aluminum cans would enhance the viability of okra seeds during in short, medium and freezer storage conditions respectively.

Keywords: conservation, breeding, viability, short term, medium term

87 Perception of youths on consumption of African indigenous vegetables in western Kenya E. Minyatta*1, J. Ombati2, M.Mutuku2, N.Makete1, C.Ndinya1

1Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 169-50100, Kakamega, Kenya 2Egerton University, Faculty of Education and Community Studies, P. O Box 536 -20115 Egerton, Kenya Corresponding Author: Eunice Minyatta Onyango [email protected]

Abstract To explore the potential of African indigenous vegetables (AIVs), foster the nutritional awareness and creation of AIV market, the perception of young people towards AIVs is important. However, there is limited evidence on youth’s perception and preference on AIVs. Understanding the youths’ perception of on AIV will provide a way forward in building capacity among the youths on AIVs potential. The objective of this study was to assess the perception of the youths on consumption of AIV. A total of 86 (50 male, 36 female) youths were interviewed. Results indicate that the youths are aware of most of the common AIVs grown in Kenya with night shade being the most known and most preferred (60.7%) AIV for consumption. The reasons for preference included taste (40%), medicinal value (35%) and nutritious value (47%). The youths ate AIVs more while at home compared to when they are in collage. The reasons for the low consumption were tedious preparation process (69%), lack of skills on preparation (56%) high cost of local vegetables (49%) among others. Fifty % of the males said they would buy dried and packed AIV while 28% of the female said they would buy. Some of the reasons for not buying dried vegetables included, lose of taste (48%) and loss of nutrients 42%. This results shows that youths are aware of the importance of AIV in their diets. Capacity building on preparation methods and improving access to AIV at a cheaper cost throughout the year would improve consumption of AIV among the youths.

Keywords: Nutrition, Youths, Consumption, Medicinal, Local vegetables

88 Pathways to improved food and nutrition security of the poor: the promise of African indigenous foods and technologies

Francesco Rampa, Ellen Lammers, Anita Linneman, Sijmen Schoustra, Danielle de Winter

European Centre for Development Policy Management, Netherlands

Abstract This article presents the findings of a synthesis study of 7 multi-stakeholder research projects that were funded by the Dutch Research Council (NWO-WOTRO Science for Global Development) Food & Business Research programme. The projects focused on the role that indigenous foods and technologies can play in contributing to improved food and nutrition security for the poor as well as to food systems diversification. The projects were all set in Sub Saharan Africa, focusing on the production, processing and marketing challenges and opportunities of various traditional crops and foods (e.g. AIVs, moringa, spider plant, fermented foods, infant foods based on local resources). The article analyses the new knowledge, insights and innovations that these projects generated, showing that the promotion of indigenous foods can deliver positive and sustainable impacts in the social, economic and environmental domains (thus contributing to the people, profit and planet dimensions of the SDG Agenda). Barriers to, as well as drivers for maximising the impact of indigenous foods on food and nutrition security are identified, revealing that – depending on the country context – these include technical, logistical, as well as policy and economic issues and interests. The unique set-up of the projects, which were all run by a consortium of academic, private sector and NGO partners, proved an important factor in promoting research uptake by relevant local and national stakeholders.

Keywords: indigenous vegetables, traditional foods, food security, Kenya, Benin, Uganda, Zambia

89 Microscopic observations of the ultrastructure of Kersting’s groundnut (Macrotyloma geocarpum (Harms) Maréchal and Baudet) flowers

Azon Christel, Akohoué Félicien, Coulibaly Mariam, Achigan-Dako Enoch

Laboratory of Genetics, Horticulture and Seed Sciences (GBioS); Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi

Abstract Kersting’s groundnut belonging to Fabaceae family is a grain legume widely consumed in West Africa. Its genetic diversity is low and can be broadened through hybridization. The flowers are chasmogmous, and unfortunatly floral biology is not well known. This study aim to understand the floral development stages of six cultivars of kersting’s groundnut and to analyse anthesis timing together with stigma receptivity and pollen dehiscence and viability by utilizing photonic microscope and eyes observation. To achieve this, seed were firstly sowed on pots on experimental site of GBioS by using half di-allele design. For visual observation, one flower per plant were marked and observed every day in the morning at 6:30 pm and evening 5pm for development stages of the flowers. One flower per cultivar were observed per day in ten days in terms of pollen viability, stigma receptivity, and number of ovules per ovary through optical microscopic, at magnification of × 400 and × 1000. The results show five stages of flowers development namely immature bud stage; bud emergence; partially opened flower; anthesis and wilted flowers. From stage of bud initiation to bud emergence 5 (±2) days were recorded, 3(±1) days between bud emergence and partially opened flower, 2 (±0.5) days between partially opened flower and anthesis; and 7 (± 2) days between anthesis and development of gynophore. Cultivars showed a difference in terms of numbers of sepals, petals and stamens and ovule per ovary. The stigma becomes receptive at the step of bud emergence and pollen viability occurs at the step of partially opened flower. The colour of anthers is yellow and stigma is green at the partially opened flower stage, showing that these organs are already mature at this stage. There is no significant difference between the pollen maturity and stigma receptivity time and stigma becomes receptive before anthesis. This show that the appropriate time of emasculation for hybridization happens at stage of bud emergence.

Keywords: chasmogamous, stamen, sepal, petal, ovule, ovary, pollen, viability.

90 Overview of African Traditional Vegetables Germplasm Collection, Characterization and Conservation in Tanzania

Alice Makala- Kavishe and N. Merinyo

Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute (TARI -Tengeru) Tengeru, P.O. Box 1253, Arusha, Tanzania Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract A study on African Traditional Vegetables (ATV) germplasm collection, characterization and conservation was carried out in Tanzania at TARI–Tengeru (formerly HORTI Tengeru) from April 1999 to 2003, with the purpose of broadening genetic base from which plant breeders can obtain desirable genotypes found among landraces and wild plants. The objectives of the study were (i) To collect Germplasm and Characterize (ii) To conserve and maintain the collected Germplasm (iii) To stimulate use of the collected germplasm (iv) Documentation of the collected species The collection mission targeted the highly potential vegetables, the preliminary results indicated the accessions assembled were 350 of seed, leafy and fruit African Traditional Vegetables of 15 species. Seed collected were multiplied, characterized using a standard set of descriptors developed by World Vegetable Center (AVRDC). Accessions with potentials for promotion and domestication were identified. A high level of variability was observed among the accessions collected. From this study, results showed that Amaranthus blitum, Cleome gynandra (purple & green), Corchorus oliotorius and Solanum scabrum (52) were recommended for domestication. African Traditional Vegetables appear to be very important in the food system given their role in nutritional, medicinal, economical values and the diversification of the agricultural environment. From this study we are recommending that a concerted effort on domestication of ATV should be emphasized given their role in the food system in the rural and urban community of Tanzania.

Keywords: Germplasm Collection, Characterization, African Traditional Vegetables, Conservation.

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The contribution of neglected Oyster nuts (Telfairia pedata) to Biodiversity Conservation and Improved Community Livelihoods in Northern Tanzania

Philipina F. Shayo, Emmanuel F. Mwakasege

Supervisor: Anna C. Treydte, PhD

The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST)

Abstract Oyster nut (Telfairia pedata (Sims) Hook) is a vine usually growing on tall hard wood tree species, and native only to northern Tanzania, Mozambique and Uganda. Its nuts are valued by the Northern Tanzanian natives because of its important nutritional and healthy oil seeds which are in great demand by pregnant and lactating women (due to lactogenic properties). The socio-economic importance, conservation strategies and prospects for improved production and utilization of oysternuts which would provide a more diversified food and oil sources necessary for address food and nutritional security concerns in Tanzania. Here, we present a few potential of neglected oyster nut which could be useful to agriculturists, researchers, conservators and nutritionists in order to enhance prime utilization of the plant.

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