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The Current Body-Soul Debate: a Case for Dualistic Holism John W

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The Current Body-Soul Debate: a Case for Dualistic Holism John W The Current Body-Soul Debate: A Case for Dualistic Holism John W. Cooper OVERVIEW ics. It surveys why the debate about the body and he title of a recent anthology, In Search soul developed, introduces the current positions, Tof the Soul, reflects the current diversity of and identifies the important biblical, theological, opinion and occasional confusion among Chris- philosophical, scientific, ethical, and practical- tian scholars about the constitution of humans as pastoral issues involved. It argues that dualistic body and soul. Four evangelical philosophers each holism—the existential unity but temporary sepa- present different theories of body and soul, only ration of body and soul—remains the most ten- 2 John W. Cooper is Professor of some of which are consistent with able view. Philosophical Theology at Calvin historic doctrine, and the book’s Theological Seminary in Grand introduction raises more ques- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE Rapids, Michigan. tions about the traditional view CURRENT POSITIONS 1 Dr. Cooper served in the United than about recent alternatives. Traditional Positions States Army as a Chaplain’s It may surprise ordinary church Throughout history, the ecumenical Christian Assistant. From there he continued members to learn that, for a gen- tradition—Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catho- his studies at the University eration, Christian academics have lic, and most historic Protestant churches—has of Toronto and then at Calvin Theological Seminary. He taught vigorously debated which theory of affirmed that God created humans as unities of Philosophy at Calvin College body and soul best reflects proper body and soul but that disembodied souls exist in from 1978 to 1985, when he joined exegesis of Scripture, sound phi- an intermediate state between death and resurrec- the seminary faculty. Dr. Cooper 3 has written many articles and is losophy, and cutting-edge science. tion. In other words, body and soul are distinct the author of Body, Soul, and Life The traditional view that our souls and normally integrated, but the soul can exist Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology are separable from our bodies has separately, sustained by God. They are unified in and the Monism-Dualism Debate been challenged by many scholars, creation, redemption, and eternal life, whereas (2d. ed.; Eerdmans, 2000). including evangelicals. separation is a temporary consequence of sin and This article attempts to make sense of this situ- death. An appropriate term for this view is dual- ation for those who are not professional academ- istic holism, which emphasizes the union of body 32 SBJT 13.2 (2009): 32-50. and soul but recognizes the dichotomy. Dualistic challenged the distinctness of the soul. Evolution holism is a general position represented by more implied that consciousness gradually emerged than one theological and philosophical definition from matter as organisms became more complex, of body and soul. and thus it claimed to explain human mental and There are two main kinds of dualistic holism in spiritual capacities without postulating a soul. traditional Christian thought. Substance dualism In addition, study of brain functions and inju- holds that soul and body are distinct substances ries revealed the dependence of personality and (things, entities) that are conjoined to form a mental functions on the brain, and many thinkers whole human being. Adapted from Plato, this view concluded that mind and personality are produced is held by Augustine, Anselm, Eastern Orthodox by the brain. For more than a century, a growing theologians, Calvin, Descartes, many Protestant number of intellectuals have affirmed the physical theologians, and contemporary Christian phi- basis of the soul. losophers such as Alvin Plantinga and Richard Christians persuaded by this paradigm have Swinburne.4 Christian substance dualism could be adopted philosophical theories consistent with called Augustinian dualism. The other theory was it. One is called emergentism, the idea that the proposed by Thomas Aquinas, who adapted Aris- soul (personality and mind) gradually emerges totle and taught that humans consist of a substan- from the physical body and brain during normal tial soul that informs matter to constitute a bodily development, but that the soul is distinct from the human person. A human is not two substances but body, acquires its own powers and characteristics, one being consisting of a spiritual soul and matter. and reciprocally affects the body. Some emer- We can label this theory soul-matter dualism or gentists believe that God sustains the soul apart Thomist dualism. Most Roman Catholics, some from the body after death.6 Physicalism asserts that traditional Protestants, and contemporary Chris- personality and mental activities are functions of tian philosophers such as Eleonore Stump, Brian the brain. Most Christians who hold this view are Leftow, J. P. Moreland, and Scott Rae are Thomist non-reductive physicalists.7 They claim that the soul dualists.5 All dualists affirm that body and soul and mind are generated by brain processes. But are distinct and that the soul can exist apart from they also admit that the mind and the brain have the body. Thomist dualism is more holistic than different characteristics, and that science cannot Augustinian dualism because it emphasizes that explain how the brain generates the mind or the a human being is one thing, not the conjunction mind affects the brain. In this way they aim to of two things. preserve room for human freedom and genuine personal interaction with God and other human Modern Challenges to Traditional beings. However, physicalism precludes the pos- Dualism sible existence of the soul apart from the brain, Philosophy and Science and so they cannot affirm the intermediate state. Developments in modern philosophy and sci- A few Christian philosophers are material consti- ence challenged traditional Christian dualism. tutionists, which means that human persons are Already in the seventeenth century, philosopher constituted (generated, organized, and empow- Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) anticipated current ered) by, but not identical with, their bodies.8 physicalism by claiming that the soul results from Some constitutionists allow for persons to exist in the movement of parts of the body, and Baruch an intermediate state by postulating that the mate- Spinoza (1632-77) was a monist who argued that rial body divides (“fissures”) at death into a corpse soul and body are inseparable aspects of a single and a body that continues to constitute the person. substance. Nineteenth-century science further 33 Modern Biblical Scholarship and Theology ism, emergentism, non-reductive physicalism, and Developments in modern biblical scholarship material constitutionism. and theology also undermined belief in a sepa- rable soul. Studies of the Hebrew and Greek words SCRIPTURE AND SChoLARSHIP: for body, soul, and spirit concluded that biblical TWO BooKS OF REVELATION— anthropology is more holistic and less dualistic THE BIBLE AND NATURE than had been supposed. To explain traditional Before proceeding to interpretations of bibli- dualistic exegesis, historians pointed out that the cal teaching, we must consider the relationship church fathers, such as Justin Martyr, Origen, between Scripture, philosophy, and science, and Augustine, were trained in Platonic philoso- which can affect how we interpret Scripture. One phy and often read the biblical terminology for reason for disagreement about body and soul is body and soul accordingly. Modern theologians that Christians do not relate doctrine and scholar- have advocated more monistic views of human ship the same way. nature and repudiated dualism as residual Greek Theologians have long spoken of God’s revela- philosophy that is incompatible with holistic tion as two books, the book of Scripture and the Hebrew thought.9 book of nature, also called special or supernatural But if we do not have separable souls, what revelation and general or natural revelation (cf. Ps happens when we die? Two modern alternatives 19, Rom 1:18-25). Until modern times, Scripture to the traditional doctrine of a disembodied inter- was regarded as the final authority on everything mediate state are current. One is immediate resur- that it addresses, including topics also studied by rection: at death we instantly acquire resurrection philosophy and science. From Augustine through bodies that generate our personalities without Aquinas to the Protestant Reformers and dog- interruption. The other is non-existence-resurrec- maticians, theology derived from the Bible was tion: at death our personalities cease to exist until the queen of the sciences, and the conclusions of God raises us as bodily beings in the future. philosophy and science were read and evaluated through the lenses of interpreted Scripture. But Positions in the Current Debate modern science posed a problem because some In sum, to understand and evaluate the cur- of its conclusions seem to conflict with Scripture. rent debate about body and soul, we must con- Since the seventeenth century, most Christians sider three competing doctrines of the afterlife have conceded that the Bible’s references to nature in the light of Scripture: intermediate state- are not always intended to teach scientific truths. resurrection, immediate resurrection, and non- For example, even Christians who reject evolution existence-resurrection. If the Bible teaches that have different beliefs about the size, structure, and human persons exist between physical
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