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Maritime Boundary Agreements 172 6.1 Introduction 172 6.2 Saudi-Bahrain 1958 Agreement 172 6.2.1 Historic Background 174 6.2.2 Boundary Delimitation 176

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Maritime Boundary Agreements 172 6.1 Introduction 172 6.2 Saudi-Bahrain 1958 Agreement 172 6.2.1 Historic Background 174 6.2.2 Boundary Delimitation 176 Durham E-Theses Maritime boundary delimitation of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia a study in political geography Al-Muwaled, Faraj Mobarak Jam'an How to cite: Al-Muwaled, Faraj Mobarak Jam'an (1993) Maritime boundary delimitation of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia a study in political geography, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/10368/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 MARITIME BOUNDARY DELIMITATION OF THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA A STUDY IN POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY Fara.i Mobarak Jam'an AI-Muwaled The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Science in the Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Durham, U.K. with Supplementary volume "Atlas" July 1993 ABSTRACT Saudi Arabia was the first Arab country to claim offshore jurisdiction and the first Middle Eastern state to define its offshore waters. This study examines the principal geographical factors which have resulted in the present Saudi maritime boundary. The semi-enclosed sea, islands, reefs, natural resources of the continental shelf, exclusive economic zone and coastline, can all be considered principal geographical factors that have influenced Saudi territorial waters policy. Islands, for example, play an effective role in increasing the area of Saudi internal waters, increasing the breadth of the territorial sea, straight baseline and the delimitation of maritime boundary in the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf with opposite and adjacent states. Natural resources demanded the swift implementa­ tion of unique agreements, used later as an example worldwide. The author has drawn the 1958 Saudi straight baseline and a theoretical straight baseline based on the 1982 Convention and states practice. The territorial sea which is drawn on this basis along the Red Sea and the. Arabian Gulf coasts, is affected by the presence of islands and reefs. The Saudi Exclusive Fishing Zone claimed by the 1974 decree gave the Kingdom the same right as the 1982 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), but the Kingdom had to adapt the latter in order to gain more control over its resources and non-mineral activities. The importance of the 1949 Saudi decree can be found in the contribution made by Saudi Arabia to the development of the law of the sea, and to safeguarding the national hydrocarbon resources (natural gas and oil) on and below its seabed. Saudi Arabia engaged in several agreements, mainly in the Gulf, in order to defme its boundary. This study has highlighted these agreements as a model which can be used in different parts of the world to solve similar disputes, and can be adopted as methods of maritime delimitation between opposite and adjacent states. The importance of the economic factor has been shown, along with security, as the main factor influencing the successful conclusion of such agreements, but where there is no such importance, the boundary may become less significant and by the absence of such motivation the boundary may not be defmed. Saudi waters are a rich and highly important maritime area. This is based on the facts that Saudi Arabia has 30 per cent of the world seawater desaiination plants; that the sea represents food, fuel and wealth to Saudi Arabia; and that the existence of huge deserts emphasises the importance of the sea. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables VI List of Figures VII Declaration X Copyright X Dedication XI Acknowledgements xn Abbreviations XIV Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Saudi Arabia and the Law of the Sea (Decrees) 5 1.2 Objectives 7 1.3 The Methodology 8 1.4 Research Problems 10 1.5 Previous Studies 11 1.6 Thesis Summary 15 1. 7 Characteristics of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf 17 References 20 Chapter 2 Baselines 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Saudi Arabia Baseline Claims 27 2.2.1 The 1958 Decree 27 2.2.2 Application of the 1958 Saudi Decree 37 2.3 Straight Baselines in the UN 1982 Convention 43 2.3.1 The 1982 Convention (Use of Terms) 43 2.3.2 Application of the 1982 Convention 44 2.3.2.1 The Red Sea and the 1982 Convention 45 2.3.2.2 The Arabian Gulf 52 2.4 Evaluation of Straight Baselines 54 2.5 Internal Waters 55 2.5.1 Internal Waters in the Red Sea 56 2.5.2 Internal Waters in the Arabian Gulf 56 I 2.6 Conclusion 57 References 59 Chapter 3 The Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zones 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed Seas 63 3.3 Brief History 67 3.4 The Breadth of the Territorial Sea 68 3.4.1 The Four Nautical Miles Limits 69 3.4.2 The Six Nautical Miles Limits 69 3.4.3 The Twelve Nautical Miles Limits 70 3.5 Innocent Passage 70 3.6 The Gulf of Aqaba and Tiran Strait 72 3.6.1 Physical Geography 72 3.6.2 The Legal Status of Tiran Strait 72 3.7 The Delimitation of the Territorial Sea in Small or Narrow Seas 76 3.7.1 The Delimitation in the Gulf of Aqaba 79 3.7.1.1 The Equidistant Line 81 3.7.1.2 The Saudi-Egyptian Causeway 83 3.7.2 The Delimitation in the Arabian Gulf 85 3.7.2.1 Geographical Description to the Area 85 3.7.2.2 The 1969 Qatar-Abu Dhabi Boundary Agreement87 3.7.2.3 Saudi-UAE 1974 Boundary Agreement 89 3.7.2.4 The Equidistant Line 90 3.8 Contiguous Zone 94 3.9 Conclusion 96 References 99 Chapter 4 The Exclusive Economic and Fishing Zones 104 4.1 Introduction 104 4.2 Saudi Marine Resources 105 4.2.1 The Marine Environment 105 4.2.2 Living Resources 108 II 4.2.3 Fishing Communities 109 4.3 Fishing Yield 111 4.4 Exclusive Fishing Zone 115 4.4.1 Provision 115 4.5 Exclusive Economic Zone 120 4.5.1 The Status of the EEZ 120 4.5.2 The Role of the EEZ to Saudi Arabia 123 4.5.3 Scientific Research 127 4.5.3.1 Saudi Arabia 128 4.5.3.2 Sudan 131 4.6 Conclusion 133 References 136 Chapter S The Continental Shelf 140 5.1 Introduction 140 5.2 Definition of the Continental Shelf 141 5.3 The Breadth of Saudi Arabian Continental Shelf 145 5.3.1 The Red Sea 145 5.3.2 The Arabian Gulf 147 5.4 The 1949 Saudi Seabed Proclamation 149 5.5 Continental Shelf Resources 151 5.5.1 Petroleum and Gas 155 5.5.2 Minerals 157 5.5.3 Sedentary Species 157 5.6 Delimitation of the Continental Shelf 158 5.7 The Military Use of the Continental Shelf 165 5.8 Conclusion 167 References 169 Chapter 6 Maritime Boundary Agreements 172 6.1 Introduction 172 6.2 Saudi-Bahrain 1958 Agreement 172 6.2.1 Historic Background 174 6.2.2 Boundary Delimitation 176 Ill 6.2.3 The Joint Zone 178 6.3 Saudi-Iran Agreement 180 6.3.1 A Brief History 181 6.3.2 Boundary Line 183 6.3.3 Methods Employed in the Agreement 188 6.3.3.1 The Half Effect Method 188 6.3.3.2 The Prohibited Area 189 6.3.3.3 The 12 nm Belt Method 190 6.4 Saudi-Jordan Boundary 191 6.5 Saudi-Qatar Agreement 194 6.6 Saudi-UAE Agreement 195 6.7 Conclusion 195 References 197 Chapter 7 Saudi Arabia-Sudan Red Sea Agreement 200 7.1 Introduction 200 7.2 The Origin of Brines and Metalliferous Elements 200 7.3 Historical Background 201 7.4 The Red Sea Resources 203 7.5 The Claims to the Red Sea Resources 207 7.5 .1 Saudi Claim 208 7.5 .1.1 The Saudi Royal Decree of 1968 209 7 .5.2 Sudanese Claim 213 ..... 7.6 The Parties Claims to Seabed "I "to 7 .6.1 The Saudi Claim 214 7 .6.2 Sudanese Claim 215 7.7 The Significance and Objectives of the Agreement 216 7.8 The Common Zone as a Red Sea Model 217 7.9 Conclusion 219 References 221 Chapter 8 Saudi Arabia's Undelimited Boundaries 224 8.1 Introduction 224 8.2 Saudi-Kuwait Boundary 225 IV 8.2.1 Background to the Saudi-Kuwait Dispute 226 8.2.2 The Islands Problem 229 8.3 Saudi-Yemen Boundary 233 8.3.1 Living Resources 233 8.3.2 Non-Living Resources 234 8.3.3 Islands 237 8.3.4 Boundary Delimitation 240 8.4 Saudi-Egypt Boundary 243 8.4.1 Egyptian Straight Baselines 244 8.4.2 The Status of Tiran 246 8.4.3 The Equidistant Line 247 8.5 Conclusion 248 References 250 Chapter 9 Conclusion 254 9.1 Saudi Arabia's Maritime Policy 257 9.2 Straight Baselines 258 9.3 Boundary Delimitations 259 9.3.1 The Red Sea 259 9.3.2 The Arabian Gulf 260 9.3.3 The Global Effect of Saudi Maritime Boundaries 261 9.4 Geographical Factors 262 9.5 The EEZ and Continental Shelf 26~ 9.6 Recommendations 265 9.7 Suggestions 267 References 269 Appendices 270 Bibliography 318 v LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Saudi Arabia Land Boundary Lengths (km) 3 1.2 Saudi Arabia Potential Maritime Boundaries 5 1.3 Saudi Arabia Maritime Agreements 11 1.4 Distribution of Islands Along the Red Sea Coast 17 2.1 The First States to Claim Straight Baselines 24 2.2 The Matching Pairs of Original and Plain Maps Shown in the Accompanying Atlas 37 3.1 Semi-Enclosed Seas 64 3.2 The Coastal Length of the Gulf of Aqaba States 80 3.3 Al-Bunduq Oil Field Production (b/a) 88 4.1 Employment in the Primary Fisheries Sector in the Kingdom in 1987 110 4.2 Total Fish Catches in Saudi Arabian Coasts in
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