Course Syllabus March 18-April 22nd 2020 Crossing: A History of the Transatlantic Passage Dr. John J. Grabowski Before the advent of fast, reliable air transport, “the only way to cross” an ocean was by ship. This course will examine travel across the Atlantic Ocean to North America by ship from the seventeenth century to the present. It is a story of immigration, travel adventures, disaster, design, and of an industry that transformed the world. Shipping companies ranging from Cunard to the Hamburg American Line were powerful private enterprises, but also assets to, and symbols of the nations they represented. Much of what they achieved came with support from the state and in return their ships carried the mails and, in time of war, served in roles ranging from troop ships to auxiliary cruisers. But over time their primary role was getting people from one side of the ocean to the other -- and most who would make the journey did so as migrants rather than tourists or celebrity passengers. The “crossing” is an integral part of many family histories as much as it is a popular vision of luxury, privilege, and the “elegance” of a time gone by. This six-session course will cover the age of sailing ships, the rise of steam-powered ships and scheduled packet service, the importance of the immigrant trade, and the era of the great ocean liners ranging from the Mauritania to the Queen Mary and the Normandie, each of which epitomized an era of speed and style. Disaster will not be neglected, but tragedies such as the Titanic, Lusitania, and the SS Cap Arcona will be treated in the wider context of their times. We will also focus on the rise and the history of cruising, an industry that dominates the oceans of the world today, but one that arguably began with a group of Clevelanders joined Samuel Clemens aboard the Quaker City in 1867 for a tour of the Holy Land. Session 1: March 18th Why Do We Cross the Ocean? This session will provide a general overview of the course and then follow with a focus on the age of exploration and early settlement when the wind provided the only propulsion for an Atlantic crossing. It was an era when those who made the journey spent weeks and even months at sea, often enduring appalling conditions. It was a transit totally absent schedule and certainty. For some the voyage was a promise of riches or at least a new life, for others it was a voyage into servitude or slavery. Session 2: March 25th Technology and Order Take to the Waves, 1830-1865 Two major factors began to change the Atlantic crossing in the early decades of the 19th century – the rise of scheduled packet service offered by companies such as the Black Ball Line and the use of steam power for propulsion. It was a time when Isambard Kingdom Brunel literally reshaped what came to be called the ocean liner. Mail and cargo were still priorities, but 1 passenger service would rise to unexpected prominence in the years between 1830 and 1860. Much of what happened in terms of service was shaped by individuals such as Samuel Cunard and Edward Knight Collins. Charles Dickens and Jenny Lind would be among their “celebrity” passengers. Session 3: April 1st National Pride Rules the Waves and Immigrants Become Big Business 1865-1900 The extraordinary growth of trans-Atlantic immigration in the years after the American Civil War spurred an enormous expansion of transatlantic passenger traffic. New companies such as the Inman lines and White Star provided competition for Cunard. Third class “steerage” accommodation slowly began to change from “awful” to “acceptable.” More importantly during this period, the British domination of the Atlantic crossing was challenged by a newly united Germany. Within three decades North German Lloyd and Hamburg America would become dominant players on the trans-Atlantic sea lanes – much to the chagrin of the British. Session 4: April 8th Ocean Liners at War 1900-1920 The war at sea during World War I was presaged by an increasingly competitive war for passengers waged by the British and German shipping lines. The years between 1907 and 1914 saw the construction of some of the largest and fastest liners ever built – the Mauretania, Lusitania, Olympic, Titanic, Britannic, Imperator, Bismarck, and Vaterland. Their construction was supported by the state and they were symbols of national pride and assets for national defense. All of this occurred at the same time that American John Pierpont Morgan was working to monopolize trans-Atlantic shipping. Many of the great ships would be sunk or “interned” during the war. Overall, the toll in shipping tonnage sunk by enemy action was enormous – well beyond the tragedy of the Lusitania. Also lost to the war was Albert Ballin, the visionary who built Hamburg America into the largest shipping company in the world. His story will be central to this class session. Session 5: April 15th Booze Cruises and Magnificent Ships of State 1920 -1945 The immediate post-World War I era saw two major changes in the trans-Atlantic crossing. Germany was no longer a competitor as most of its passenger tonnage was distributed as reparations. More importantly, the restriction of immigration to the United States by the Quota Acts of 1921 and 1924 seriously diminished trans-Atlantic travel. Shipping companies responded by focusing more on cruising and promoting tourism to Europe. That worked until the Depression, but ironically it was during the Depression that the last great “ships of state” were launched – they included the Normandie, Rex, Conte Savoia, Bremen, Europa, Queen Mary, and Queen Elizabeth. Supported by government funding, they created jobs in the shipyards and boosted national pride. With the exception of the Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth and the Europa (reincarnated as the Liberte’) most would not make it through World War II. 2 Session 6: April 22nd End of the Liners? 1945-2020 The fifteen years following the end of World War II were halcyon days for the trans-Atlantic crossing. Back in service, the Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary were routinely filled to capacity and even the United States got into the act with the construction of the fasted ocean liner ever built, the SS United States, in 1952.. But the inauguration of trans-Atlantic jet air travel in 1958 signaled the beginning of the end of the liner. Even with decline, new liners were created, notably the Queen Elizabeth 2 and the France. But by the late ‘70s the only way to cross seemed to be by air. Although crossings declined, the cruise business flourished. Some would argue that this shift was driven by the television series The Love Boat, however cruising had been around much longer. We will close out the course by looking at the cruise industry with a particular focus on Carnival Corporation, which in 1998-’99 took ownership of a foundering Cunard Line and then oversaw the construction of what is the last true ocean liner to remain in service today, the Queen Mary 2, launched in 2004. RECOMMENDED READINGS There are hundreds of books relating to the trans-Atlantic crossing. Most focus on a particular ship or a tragedy (Lusitania and Titanic are popular topics). Many are directed toward so called “ship geeks” but are still of interest given the detail they provide through photographs and technical data about a particular ship or shipping line. The titles listed below are mainly of volumes that take a wider view of the trans-Atlantic trade. Brinnen, John Malcom. Beau Voyage: Life aboard the Last Great Ships. Marboro Books, 1988. Brinnen, John Malcom. Grand Lux: The Transatlantic Style. Henry Holt & Co. 1990 Brinnen, John Malcom. The Sway of the Grand Saloon: A Social History of the North Atlantic. Delacort Press, 1971. Butler, Daniel Allen. The Age of Cunard. ProStar Publications, 2004 Larsen, Erik. Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania. Broadway Books, 2016 (reprint edition). One of the best treatments of this tragedy. Maxtone-Graham, John. Liners to the Sun. Sheridan Books, 2000. This is a reprint of a 1985 title that begins to examine the history of cruising up to that time. Maxtone-Graham, John. The Only Way to Cross: The Golden Era of the Great Atlantic Express Liners from the Mauretania to the France and the Queen Elizabeth 2. MacMillan, 1974. A number of reprinted editions are available. 3 Also see Maxtone-Graham’s heavily illustrated books on the Normandie, SS United States, and France/Norway Wyman, Mark. Round-Trip to America. The Immigrants Return to Europe, 1880-1930. Cornell University Press, 1993. This book does not focus on shipping but does show how the growing shipping industry made it possible for immigrants to return or to travel with frequency between their homeland and the US. On-line Resources. Searching on line will bring you to a variety of sources relating to ships and the trans- Atlantic crossing. The ones listed below make no claim to accuracy or authority, but you may find them of interest. “Cruising the Past.” An on-going blog about the grand days of travel. https://www.cruiselinehistory.com/ “Ship Geek” A stunning collection of amateur films shot on ship-board. These date from the 1920s into the 1970s. http://www.shipgeek.com Balllins Dampfer Welt A German-based, but English language companion to “ship geek.” https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCgpTWdyscapDPzzx8o5QuoA 4 .