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Home , 2008 Kashgar attack, Gaochang, History of Xinjiang, Manichaean script, Old Uyghur

Asian Journal of Language, Literature and Culture Studies

3(2): 31-37, 2020; Article no.AJL2C.56205

China’s - Historical Influence and Development in

Rainer Feldbacher1*

1School of History, Capital Normal University, , 100089, .

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analyzed, interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

Editor(s): (1) Dr. Suleyman Goksoy, University of Duzce, Turkey. Reviewers: (1) Chandra Shekhar Ghanta, Telangana University, . (2) Chung-Jen Wang, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, . (3) Jolly D. Kukuru, Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/56205

Received 19 February 2020 Accepted 25 April 2020 Original Research Article Published 02 May 2020

ABSTRACT

Recently, the Silk Road became revived by the People’s Republic of China as the global economic power, including the contacts along its ancient routes. Beijing is aiming to reactivate the Silk Road that once linked China with Central and Southeast Asia, the Gulf States, Africa, and Europe. Many among them are nowadays Islamic states, in particular along the continental path. Taking this into account, the historic and archaeological heritage highlights the influence on nowadays’ economic, political, social, and ecological implications and consequences. Different ideologies are the main challenges for this new initiative. The present article focuses as a descriptive narrative on the history, development and position of in , mainly in Xinjiang and its inhabitants the . Uyghurs and Han share their history, not only by conflicts but also by trade and cultural exchange. The author’s field research (by archaeological surveys, as well as interviews with inhabitants) reflects the contradiction of those regions sometimes forgotten in the world, but on the other hand, becoming the center of global trade.

Keywords: Xinjiang; Uyghur; An Lushan; Central Asia; Silk Road.

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Feldbacher; AJL2C, 3(2): 31-37, 2020; Article no.AJL2C.56205

1. INTRODUCTION Japan that had been linked as well): Already the extended the Great Wall far to the The Silk Road, shrouded in legend, brought west, expanding their empire in that process. The intensified attention in China’s northwestern established trading and way stations became the region: In addition to the “nostalgic” routes for centers, the former stream of traders and those interested in culture and adventure, the missionaries left their mark in the religious and Xinjiang Province plays an important role in the ethnic diversity. expansion of the New Silk Road. In recent years, its revival has become one of China’s Nowadays a higher percentage of live economically most significant projects. Thus, the further to the west in China’s northwestern routes get at the same time more into today’s province – Xinjiang. In this biggest province are focus of global politics and globalized economy. the famous oasis cities of and Turfan / Along with innovation and improved Turupan located, the latter one apparently being infrastructure, sometimes heritage gets lost; the most famous cities regarding the Eastern tourism partially has to be blamed for loss of SilkRoad, where settlements predate Han and authenticity. The author’s intention has been to Tang dynasties. Its inhabitants ranged from Indo- research in this region what had been originally Europeans () to Chinese and left of this cultural background. Uyghurs, whose capital (Khocho) stood until 1250 and witnessed Uyghur’s The Silk Road(s) brought the worlds of East and transformation from to farmers, and from West closer to each other. In addition to goods Manicheans to Buddhists and finally to Muslims. and inventions, culture and ideas as religions In the 7th century, before their encounter with the came along. Central Asia was a melting pot of Arab-Muslim armies, Emperor Taizong/Dezong different religions, beside the Zoroastrian [1] and of Tang [7], China had sent its armies west to Manichaean [2] religion (both of Persian origin) attack the Western Turks and the oasis states and the Jewish [3] and (Nestorian) Christian faith after having overcome the Eastern Turks [8]. The [4], mainly played a key role. It first oasis to fall was Turfan, which was captured became stronger during the Northern and in 630 and annexed as part of China [9]. It th th Southern Dynasties (Wei-Jin) in the 4 and 5 absorbed many migrants, mainly Sogdians, and century (when the Confucian Han dynasty lost its the pace of migration heightened considerably th th power), with its peak in the 7 and 8 century after the Islamic conquest of th during the Tang. From the 7 century on, after (nowadays ) in 712 [10]. Two wealthy the conquest of the Persian , cities were located close by: Jiaohe (Yarkhoto / the Arabs expanded eastwards, settling Islam Yarghul) and Gaochang (Karakhoja / ), after the defeat of the Chinese army at the battle built in the 2nd or 1st century BCE and having of Talas. The Chinese influence was pushed played a key role as a transportation hub in the back, and Islam mainly adapted by Turkic Turfan basin [11]. peoples settled in the Central Asian region. Thus, in Turkestan (what covers more or less all Turk- Following those continental paths (the southern speaking countries), Buddhism diminished by route around the ), another Islam in the 8th and 9th centuries [5]. one among the wealthiest and most powerful lay to its southeast: Khotan. It was – as most th Although in the 13 century, the Mongolian army municipalities in that region – since around 200 devastated large parts of Central Asia [6]– which CE a Buddhist kingdom [12]. Generally, the was a heavy blow to Islam as well– nearly all the pressure on the western Turks had been greatly population including “Chinese Turkestan” weakened in this period, especially as their th (Xinjiang) had turned to Islam by the 15 century. attention had been diverted to the west, where Until nowadays, Islam is the main religion in most the advance of Islam and of the Arabs was a new countries from Northwestern China to the Black menace for them [13]. In the last year of Kao Sea. Tsung’s reign (649 to 683 CE), under whose rule the decline of the began, the first 2. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGI- of the liberation wars by the northern Turks CAL CONSIDERATIONS (known until then as the western Turks) started against the Chinese. By tradition, Xi'an (Chang'an) is always seen as the eastern starting point of the silk road The Tang faced the really devastating situation (ignoring the Chinese eastern coast and the hundred years later: An Lushan, a general of maritime routes that would involve e.g. Nara in probably Sogdian and Turkic origin, mobilized his

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Feldbacher; AJL2C, 3(2): 31-37, 2020; Article no.AJL2C.56205

army in 755 and marched against his Tang themselves did not convert to Islam [21]. While employers, capturing the Tang eastern capital, at the Kara-Khitai were Buddhists ruling over a that time based in Luoyang. Afterwards, he largely Muslim population, they were considered moved against Chang'an (nowadays Xi'an). In fair-minded rulers whose reign was marked by the meantime, the Tang emperor Xuanzong hired religious tolerance. The Islamic religious life 4,000 Arab mercenaries to help defend Chang'an continued uninterrupted and Islamic authority against the rebels [14]. Tang troops took up persevered under their rule [22]. In 1211, the highly defensible positions in all of the mountain Naiman leader Kuchlug usurped the throne of the passes leading to the capital, completely Kara-Khitai Dynasty and instituted anti-Islamic blocking An Lushan’s progress. Due to tactical policies on the local populations [23]. In 1219, mistakes, An Lushan could take the capital, too. most of the dynasty as well as the population Xuanzong abdicated in favor of one of his were swept away by and his army younger sons, the 45-year-old Emperor Suzong from (where the Uyghur also have their who decided to hire reinforcements for his origin). decimated army. He brought in an additional twenty-two thousand Arab mercenaries and a 3. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS BACK- large number of Uyghur soldiers – Muslim troops GROUND OF CHINESE MUSLIMS WITH who intermarried with local women and helped MAIN FOCUS ON THE UYGHURS form the Hui ethnolinguistic group in China. With these reinforcements, the Tang army was able to The Uyghur’s ethnic roots are most retake both of the capitals at Chang'an and understandable when their Empire was located in Luoyang in 757. An Lushan and his army northwestern Mongolia, consisting of a Turkic- retreated east. His newly founded Yan Dynasty speaking nomadic society. The name was then soon began to disintegrate from within. Although equated with sedentary oasis inhabitants, which the Tang eventually defeated the An Lushan consisted of Buddhists, Manichaeans and rebellion, the effort alone left the empire weaker Nestorians. Despite the definition “Uighur”, the than ever. Later in 763, the individual communities lived in isolation from retook its Central Asian holdings from Tang and each other in their respective oases, a stronger even captured the Tang capital of Chang'an. The definition of their identity did not appear to be Tang had been forced to borrow not only troops necessary. In the fifteenth century, they but also money from the Uyghurs – to pay those converted almost exclusively to Islam. The debts, the Chinese gave up control of the Tarim Chinese name for Islam is “Hui” (Huíjiào, “religion Basin. Internally, the Tang emperors lost of the Hui”). Though, Hui is also a reference to significant political power to warlords all around the Muslims who are ethnically (“by their blood”) the periphery of their lands. This problem would Chinese. In addition to the Hui and the Uyghur, plague the Tang right up until its dissolution in there are other Sunni Muslims, including 907, which marked China’s descent into the , Tajiks, , Kyrgyz, and Tartars. chaotic Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Those aforementioned Muslim immigration areas period. After the Tang dynasty’s fall, non-Han to China (via the port cities and via Central Asia) Chinese empires gained prestige by connecting are also reflected in the Islamic schools (more themselves with China, and the Kara-Khitai used specifically Sunni schools of law): On the one the title of the Chinese emperor, gaining prestige hand there are the Hanafites (Hanafi Madh'hab) by connecting themselves with north Chinese [24] in the northwest [25], on the other the Shafi states to legitimize their rule to the Central Asian (Shafii Madh'hab) [26] (in lesser amount) in the Muslims [15]. In the middle of the 10th century, south of China [27]. The Sunni mainstream of Khotan came under attack by the Karakhanid Huo (about 58 percent) in northwestern China ruler Musa, and in what proved to be a pivotal belongs to the Gedimu-School [28], a very moment in the and Islamification of conservative interpretation of Islam, resisting the , the Karakhanid leader Yusuf renewal and unorthodox currents. In contrast, Qadir Khan conquered Khotan around 1006 [16]. Xinjiang also has strong influences from the Its inhabitants converted to Islam then, as did Central Asian Sufi schools (Yihewani, , those in the surrounding oasis towns, among Khufiyya, Qadariyya, Kubrawiyya) [29], being them [17]. Islam became the principal more flexible with the orthodox interpretation of religion [18]. When the Kara-Khitai [19] the Qur'an, moreover, focusing on internal and conquered the region, the Karakhanids continued esoteric aspects. These moderate religious to function as administrators for sedentary currents are more progressive and open to Muslim populations [20]. The Kara-Khitai social, political and religious changes. Both

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religious orientations (Gedimu and Sufi) belong Xinjiang. It is worth mentioning that the Uyghurs to the law schools of the Hanafites, one of the are not only restricted to the province of Xinjiang. four law schools of the Sunni [30]. In contrast, They are scattered all along in other provinces, the direction of the Shafi is more common among too. Mainly in the province live also Säriq the Hui in southeastern China. One of the / “Yellow Uyghurs”, who practice the Lamaistic northern “Sufi-Hui” even adopted Taoist Buddhism, as it was still the mode of life of the influences that merged with the Sufi philosophy. first Uyghur Empire (744/5-840 CE) attach. Therefore, an interesting aspect is that the Nevertheless, there were some serious clashes Uyghurs were previously associated with between the individual Sufi schools and between Buddhism and never with Islam. The “redefined” the Hui and Han (among them the Panthay Uyghurs never addressed this aspect of their rebellion and Dungan rebellion), especially history. They emphasized a strong nationalist during the 19th century. At the time of the (Pan-Uyghur) and yet Pan-Turkic ideology for the Chinese Republic, significant importance was unification of all Turk tribes in the world. Self- attached to the equal rights of all religions. definition and reconciliation with the situation, During the Cultural Revolution, however, many however, are more complicated, depending on Islamic institutions, cemeteries, and cultural the social strata and the extent to which a city or objects were damaged, plundered, devastated, oasis benefits from the political (and, above all, and destroyed in addition to many other religious the economic situation). The border regions gain institutions throughout China. Religions were access through the openings to the other states. banned as anti-socialist schools of thought. Also remarkable is the and its The separation between each other on a : From the 8th century CE, the religious or ethnic scale cannot be set so clearly Uyghurs – speakers of a Turkic language from due to migration, but also due to political and the Kingdom of Qocho (see above) – settled in religious changes. It had not been so strict in the the region. The peoples of the Tarim city states past either, because boundaries often shifted. In intermixed with the Uyghurs, whose the 18th century, when the language spread through the region. The conquered the region what is now Xinjiang, they (in Chinese ) [33] tolerated as a pluralistic empire the Uyghurs but are believed to have become extinct during the categorized them for control. After all, this region 9th century. Between the 8th and the 16th century, has always consisted of a collection of different Uyghur was written with an derived ethnic groups, where today thirteen officially from Sogdian [34]. Unlike Sogdian, written from recognized groups are listed. On the other hand, right to left in horizontal lines, the Old Uyghur Xinjiang is important for many reasons, above all alphabet was written from left to right in vertical – how could it be otherwise – economic ones. columns, as it rotated 90° to the left. Uyghur was Covering one-sixth of the Chinese area of land also written with the [35], mostly and an estimated 30 percent of the oil and gas in Christian documents [36]. From the 16th until reserves, the province is the symbol of the Silk the early 20th century, Uyghur was written with a Road legacy, which is being revitalized to version of the known as improve the infrastructure. While in times of Sino- “Chagatai” [37]. During the 20th century, several Soviet tensions the region served as a bulwark versions of the Latin and Cyrillic were against the Soviet threat, today it defines itself as adopted to write Uyghur in different Uyghur- the gateway to the markets of Central Asia and speaking regions. However, the as a springboard further westward [31]. was unpopular, and in 1987 the Arabic was Nowadays, all nations’ focus on preventing or reinstated as the official script for Uyghur in fighting terrorism along with incorporating the China. The name of this language is variously Central Asian States in China´s vision of the spelt Uigur, Uighur, Uighuir, Uygur, Uyghur or in “New Silk Road” [32]. Chinese, 维 吾 尔 语 (Wéiwú'ěryǔ). Usually, Uyghur is the preferred spelling in the Latin The ethnic term was already used by exiled alphabet: This was confirmed at a conference of citizens in Soviet Central Asia in 1924. The the Ethnic Languages and Script Committee of Uyghurs – originally separated from each other the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region held in by oases – could be culturally and linguistically October 2006 [38]. The original term "Uyghurs" distinguished from all other groups such as "united" is under those circumstances even more Kazakhs, Han, and Dungans, and became by appropriate: After all it goes back to the union of this new definition the strongest ethnic group in various Indo-European, Turkic, and probably also

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Mongolian ethnic groups from Central Asia. This globalized world. Cultural transfer and production political decision of various writings reflects this of knowledge is always subject to cultural, mixture. political and ideological conditions. In any case, there had barely been isolated cultural 4. CONCLUSION developments. Confronted with “foreign” influences, transfers and construction for cultural The Silk Road is legendary and embraces at the identities had been set. Another idea is the same time today’s world politics and globalized “lending” and “borrowing” culture under the economy. In addition to the “nostalgic” routes for aspect of transfer as re-importation. The question those interested in culture and adventure, the arises, “Will the Silk Road now be a one-sided Xingjiang province plays a key role in the deal, or a mutual exchange?” development of the New Silk Road, being the gate to Central Asia. In recent years, its revival COMPETING INTERESTS has become one of the most economically significant projects. The northwestern province Author has declared that no competing interests plays a major role in this context with some of the exist. better-known sites and cities. On the one hand, the routes around the Taklamakan (southern and REFERENCES northern routes) are being expanded again, and on the other hand, there are many major 1. Gulacsi Z, BeDuhn J. It has to be construction sites in the mountainous regions emphasized that all religions went further (Tianshan), to establish a more rapid connection east, finding fertile ground in imperial to the west. China’s capital. The Religion of Wirkak and Wiyusi: The Zoroastrian Iconographic Rising economy can be observed in China’s Program on a Sogdian Sarcophagus from “Wild West”, along with better infrastructure, Sixth-Century Xi’an. Bulletin of the Asia though still being more rural. Due to resources Institute. 2016;26:1-32. the province plays an important role for the 2. Plenty of written sources have been found, country. But Xinjiang’s population has to pay the referring to a recent translation: Morano E. prize of losing its identity. Despite the Chinese Manichaean Sogdian Cosmogonical Texts attempt to sinicize the Uyghur (along with in . In: Hao C, Editor. Kazakh, Tajik, and other ethnic groups located Competing Narratives between Nomadic there), their cultural ties lie closer to the People and Their Sedentary Neighbours. neighboring Sitan-countries. Along those Szeged. 2019;195-205. continental paths are some of the most important 3. Zhang Z. The Second Jewish-Persian oasis cities, between nowadays Xinjiang to Letter, ca. 790 [trans.]. In: Hansen V. The Uzbekistan, either in the hands of Uyghurs Silk Road: A new history with documents. (though an increasing number of Han-Chinese New York: Oxford University Press. are settling down in the cities) or further west in 2017;381-382. those of other Turk peoples (Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, 4. Dickens M. Multilingual Christian Uzbeks, Turkmens, Tajik), all of them being manuscripts from Turfan. Journal of the Muslims. Islam, therefore, dominates nowadays Canadian Society for Syriac Studies. along the Silk Road that became revived. For the 2009;9:22-42. time being, all participants are optimistic and see 5. O'Brien B. It is worth to mention that only advantages in its revival. Its paths follow Buddhism suffered persecution in mainly the same tracks. mainland China from the 9th century on, though it thoroughly permeated Chinese Geopolitical and social conditions in the culture and influenced its rival religions of individual regions can be regarded as a basis for Confucianism and Taoism. History of similarities, despite cultural and religious Buddhism in China: The First Thousand differences. Accordingly, religious and Years. Learn Religions; 2019. archaeological sites were visited, customs of the Available:learnreligions.com/buddhism-in- current inhabitants observed, discussed and china-the-first-thousand-years-450147 catalogued. Culture’s influence and the trade 6. Their expansion went along with what is along the Silk Road on today’s populations, but generally called “Mongolian Peace” (their also the (re)construction of traditions for term for peace, îlî or el also meant survival’s sake became challenging in this “submission”), see: Favereau M. The

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