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Waiting for the Snow to Fall: First Nations, Federal Policy, And

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Waiting for the Snow to Fall: First Nations, Federal Policy, And WAITING FOR THE SNOW TO FALL: FIRST NATIONS, FEDERAL POLICY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE by Brennan R. Lagasse A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Humboldt State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Social Sciences In Environment and Community August 2008 WAITING FOR THE SNOW TO FALL: FIRST NATIONS, FEDERAL POLICY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE by Brennan R. Lagasse Approved by the Master’s Thesis Committee: Maria Bartlett, Major Professor Date Marlon Sherman, Committee Member Date Mark Baker, Graduate Coordinator Date Chris Hopper, Interim Dean for Research and Graduate Studies Date ABSTRACT Critical evaluation of the proposed expansion of the Arizona Snowbowl ski area will provide knowledge towards developing sustainable land-use policy. The San Francisco Peaks region in Arizona has endured numerous conflicts since the United States Forest Service (USFS) allowed the ski area’s construction in 1938. The cultural importance of this region is evident in that over thirteen Native American tribes hold this area as sacred and central to their traditional way of life. Through this conflict, partnerships fostered between the tribes and several environmental groups have illuminated the significance of the cultural and natural resources involved. However, lost in the consciousness of many Americans today is the fact that Indigenous peoples have been fighting to save their sacred sites since Europeans made first contact. The ski industry developed without oversight for decades even with negative impacts to both environment and community. The ski industry has failed to address these impacts due to the strength of corporate power that drives the industry. For example, loopholes found in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) will allow the Arizona Snowbowl to spray wastewater over an uncontaminated mountainside for making artificial snow, which simultaneously damages the spiritual significance of the mountain for Native Americans. I will use a methodological approach centered on qualitative interviews to examine historical actions that have paved the way for the present conflict involving the Arizona Snowbowl. Literature reviewed will examine Native American culture and iii sacred sites, United States-Tribal relations, the history of the ski industry, and ecosystem health as integral to the understanding of this case study analysis. The purpose is to contribute to achieving greater governmental accountability, cultural sensitivity, and recommendations for sustainable recreational activity. Through this thesis, I intend to articulate the arguments and their reasoning behind this conflict, analyze its current structure, and make recommendations for a socially and environmentally just outcome. Through in-depth interviews I will gather data to identify differing viewpoints so that this thesis may serve as a basis for understanding the greater issues connected to this case, including ski industry and USFS accountability, as well as sustainable and culturally equitable environmental policy. Environmental justice theory will be the conceptual framework of this analysis. To resolve this conflict, policy crafted to address the differing values and diverse constituencies is necessary. The implications intend to add to the dialogue for constructing sustainable land-use policy that centers on social and environmental justice. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank family and friends for their love and support. This paper is a gift to my father’s spirit, who left this life before he was able to read the final draft. I would like to thank Humboldt State University, the Environment and Community M.A. program, professors, and my cohort members for unlimited support and dialogue over the past few years. I would also like to give thanks to Marlon Sherman and Mark Baker for their support as my committee members. Special thanks to my chair, Maria Bartlett, for her care and support during this process. I would also like to thank Deb Waxman for her time and consideration in working with me. As well, a sincere thanks to Kelvin, Evon, and the Save the Peaks folks for inspiring people to engage in this research and continuing to fight for what they believe in. I would like to thank all interviewees for their time and perspective shared. In addition, a sincere thanks to Jeanne Souldern, who finally helped this paper find its completion. I would like to acknowledge my thanks and respect for the Earth, for all of its life forms and processes, especially the snow and mountains. Finally, to Jillian, Olas, and Nieve for their unlimited patience and the loving support to make this into something tangible and accessible beyond academia. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ v CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1 Background ............................................................................................................. 6 The San Francisco Peaks ............................................................................ 7 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 15 Native Americans and Environmentalism: Juxtaposing the mainstream environmental movement with the environmental justice movement ..... 16 Environmental Racism .............................................................................. 19 Environmental Justice and Federal Policy ................................................ 21 Native American Communities and Environmental Injustices ................. 23 Sacred Site Protection on Public Land ...................................................... 26 Sacred Sites, Federal Policy, and Environmental Injustice ...................... 27 Native Americans and the USFS .............................................................. 32 NEPA, Environmental Justice, and Sacred Sites ...................................... 34 Repercussions of Hegemonic Policy ........................................................ 37 The Ski Industry, Ecosystem Health, and Environmental Injustice ......... 38 The Sustainable Slopes Initiative .............................................................. 42 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 47 Theoretical Orientation ......................................................................................... 47 Rationale for Methodology ................................................................................... 48 vi Sample....................................................................................................... 48 Design ....................................................................................................... 50 Data Collection ......................................................................................... 51 Tools ......................................................................................................... 52 Reliability .................................................................................................. 55 Validity ..................................................................................................... 55 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS ......................................................................................... 57 Identity Politics ..................................................................................................... 58 Ski Industry (Seven Interviews) ................................................................ 59 Flagstaff Snowriders (Eleven Interviews) ................................................ 61 USFS (Three Interviews) .......................................................................... 63 Flagstaff Local Stakeholders (Ten Interviews) ......................................... 66 Wastewater Specialist Questionnaire (Five Interviews) ........................... 68 Activist Questionnaire (Seven Interviews) ............................................... 69 Economics ............................................................................................................. 70 The Ski Industry, Pro Expansion, and Artificial Snowmaking ................. 70 Anti-Expansion and Economic Justice ..................................................... 75 Ecosystem Health Concerns ................................................................................. 80 The Ski Industry’s Environmental Values and Artificial Snowmaking ... 81 Support for Artificial Snowmaking with Reclaimed Wastewater ............ 85 Scientific and Ecological Concerns about Artificial Snowmaking made from Reclaimed Wastewater .................................................................... 89 Religious and Spiritual Tolerance ......................................................................... 99 Pro-expansion and Religious Tolerance ................................................. 100 vii Public Land, Sacred Sites and US Law .................................................. 102 Religious Intolerance and the San Francisco Peaks as a Sacred Site ..... 106 Justice .................................................................................................................
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