Unveiling the Innovators—A Glimpse on Sufi-Salafi Polemics

religions

Article Unveiling the Innovators—A Glimpse on Suﬁ-Salaﬁ Polemics

Hazim Fouad

Department on Islamism and Foreign-Related Extremism, Federal State Oﬃce for the Protection of the Constitution, Senator for the Interior of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, 28203 Bremen, Germany; [email protected] Received: 10 January 2020; Accepted: 4 March 2020; Published: 20 March 2020

Abstract: In western public discourse, as well as in parts of academia, Sufism and Salafism are sometimes portrayed as arch enemies in Islam. However, so far, very few studies have analyzed in detail the polemics between Sufis and Salafis in a western setting. This article tries to fill this gap by providing a snapshot of the critique of Salafism by the Sufi Na¯z. imiyya order, as well as the response from the British Salafi spectrum. It will argue that although both protagonists would perceive themselves in the same way as outlined above, in fact both groups are influenced by each other with regard to the benchmark of what constitutes “authentic Islam”, as well as the ways in which arguments are portrayed as legitimately grounded in Islamic thought. These insights may help in better understanding the complexities of contemporary intra-Muslim debates and representations.

Keywords: Sufism; Sufism in the West; Salafism; Salafism in the West; Islam in Europe; Islam in the US; intra-Muslim discourse; contemporary Islam

1. Introduction At a first glance, Sufism and Salafism might be perceived as existing in a solely antagonistic relationship in contemporary Sunni Islam. At least in the eyes of most of their followers, both currents seem to be mutually exclusive.1 The first pays close attention to the spiritual dimension of Islam. In the view of the Sufis, this spiritual dimension is more important than the mere observance of legal prescriptions and therefore, Muslims should try to establish a closer relationship to God via constant remembrance (dhikr), in order to receive certain religious knowledge (yaq¯ın). The most beneficial way to do this is to follow a shaykh, who will act as a teacher on the spiritual ladder. In contrast to that, Salafis follow a heavily textualist interpretation of those religious sources they regard as legitimate. The exact performance of specific rituals and the minute abidance by the prescriptions they deem obligatory is of paramount importance. Many of the performances conducted by Sufis in the context of the expansion of consciousness are regarded as deviant by Salafis. Whether both approaches to Islam are really as conflicting as claimed by their followers is something to be discussed in this article. These above-outlined delineations of what it means to be a Sufi/Salafi has been partially taken for granted in western public discourse on religious extremism and Islamist militancy. In these generalizing debates, Sufis are often portrayed as liberal, peaceful, and less strict in their religious behavior, while Salafis are viewed as stern zealots prone to justify or conduct violence in the name of Islam. For example, a documentary on the German branch of the Naqshbandiyya-Na¯z.imiyya order called its members simply

1 Some exceptions can be found among those belonging to the “post-Salafi spectrum” (Hamid 2008). For the attempt of an ecumenical discussion, see ( 2016) “Imam’s panel discussion: Salafis/Sufis finding common ground” (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=825GBEOS6EM&t=89s).

Religions 2020, 11, 144; doi:10.3390/rel11030144 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2020, 11, 144 2 of 24

“the Anti-Salafis” (ZDF 2017). Furthermore, some pundits have called for a stronger governmental engagement with Sufi groups in the fight against Salafi inspired religious extremism (Jenkins 2009). The simplicity of this “solution” for rising religious extremism has been questioned by researches in Islamic studies. As Mark Sedgwick has argued: “Sufism may be the natural enemy of Salafism, but this does not mean that Sufism is the natural ally of those who are opposing Salafism, especially when they are opposing Salafism for their own reasons” (Sedgwick 2015, p. 117). Another academic study on both currents similarly concluded that “theological orientation cannot be used as a predictor of either violent or nonviolent behavior. Broadly defined theological orientations including Salafism and Sufism are not prime movers or causal factors leading to either acceptance or rejection of violence against religious others as a political strategy. They can, however, be used to legitimate a priori dispositions towards both” (Woodward et al. 2013, p. 59). From this follows that self-descriptions and attributions found in the polemics of both groups should be regarded with great caution. Beyond public debates on extremism and militancy, numerous studies have dealt with the apparent conflict between Sufis and Salafis on a more general level. A comparatively recent anthology was published by Ridgeon(2015). Slightly older comprehensive works on Muslim criticism of Sufism are those of De Jong and Radtke(1999) and Sirriyeh(1999), although they do not focus as much on contemporary Salafism. When it comes to articles and essays, some authors have focused on regional case studies, such as Knysh (2007) for Yemen and North Caucasus, Tariq(2012) for Kashmir, Khemissi et al.(2012) for Algeria, or Brown (2011) for Egypt. Analyses of the relationship between Sufis and Salafis in the West, are still rather scarce. A noticeable exception surely is Hamid(2016), whose focus on explaining different forms of Islamic activism in Great Britain includes both Sufi and Salafi groups. For all their merits, the aforementioned studies do not delve into the subtleties of the theological discourse between both groups. This should not be regarded as a deficiency, since the authors place their focus on more overarching research questions. Still, there remains a research gap when it comes to analyzing the polemics between Sufis and Salafis in a western setting. Such an analysis can prove beneficial in that it might challenge common assumptions on the nature of both currents based on a critical reading of primary source material. Critically assessing the arguments found in these debates might help answering the following questions: Do Salafis really disavow every form of contextual or metaphoric interpretation? Are Sufis really less dogmatic and strict with respect to certain religious obligations and prescriptions? What are the arguments put forth and what do they tell us about the relationship between both groups? Does the content relate to the lived experiences in a western setting, and to which extent can they be relevant to the process of identity formation? In this article, I explore these questions by using a case study of the Naqshbandiyya-Na¯z. imiyya, led by Shaykh Nazim Qibrisi until his death in 2014 and Salafi writings published on the website “Salafipublications”, which belongs to the network of the British Salafi preacher Abu Khadeejah.2 This particular order was chosen since the publications of the Na¯z. imiyya were a general response to various criticism levelled at Sufism by Salafis both in the western as well as in the Islamic world. The response of “Salafipublications”, in turn, was specifically limited to these very publications by the Naz¯. imiyya. The article starts with a review of relevant academic literature on the relationship of Sufism with historical and contemporary figures which are relevant for present-day Salafism. It will then portray the arguments found in the writings of the Na¯z. imiyya, followed by the counter-arguments of “Salafipublications”. It will finish with a discussion of the questions raised in this introduction.

2. The Relationship of Textualist Currents within Islam with Suﬁsm—Some Examples The views of one of the scholars who will play an important role in the subsequent discussions in this article is the eponymous founder of the fourth Sunni law school Ah. mad Ibn H. anbal (d. 855), especially

2 http://www.salaﬁpublications.com/sp/. Religions 2020, 11, 144 3 of 24

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24 those regarding the relationship between Hadith and reason, as well as some of his theological stances (Dziriconcerning 2014; God’sSchneiders attributes 2014) that. During heavily his inform lifetime contemporary, Sufism was Salafionly in thought its infancy (Dziri, and 2014 from; Schneiders what is known2014). Duringso far, his his stance lifetime, towards Sufism the was early only Sufis in its was infancy, rather and ambivalent. from what Although is known he so believed far, his stancein the powertowards of thethe early relics Sufis of the was Prophet rather as ambivalent. well as in the Although abdāl, “extraordinarily he believed in the pious power Muslims of the” relics (Melcher of thet 2006,Prophet p. as356), well3 he as inwas the skepticalabdal¯ , “extraordinarily about the dhikr pious-ceremonies, Muslims” (whichMelchert he 2006regarded, p. 356), as3 anhe wasunnecessary skeptical innovationabout the dhikr (Melchert-ceremonies, 2001, whichpp. 356 he–60). regarded as an unnecessary innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards SufismSufism of Aḥh. mad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominentlyprominently featured in SalafiSalafi writingswritings ((KrawietzKrawietz 20142014)).. His polemics against well well-known-known mystics such as Ibn ʿArab¯īı (d. 1240) are well documented (Knysh (Knysh 1999).1999). On On the the other hand, scholars such as George Makdisi (d. 2002) 2002) have have argued argued that that he he was was himself himself a a membe memberr of a Sufi Sufi ṭ.tarī¯ıqaqa (Makdisi(Makdisi 1973)1973).. T Thishis view view has has been challenged challenged (Meier 1981;1981; Ansari 1985).1985). Contemporary Contemporary research suggests suggests that that “it should“it should nonetheless nonetheless be clear be that clear Sufism, that within Sufism, the within boundaries the of boundaries traditionalist of traditionalisttheology, had theology, a place in had Ibn a Taymiyya’s place in Ibn worldview” Taymiyya’s ( Postwor ldview”2016, p. 161).(Post 2016, p. 161). The antipathy antipathy towards towards Sufism Sufism is moreis more obvious obvious in the in writings the writings of Mu ofh. ammad Muḥammad Ibn Abd Ibn al-Wahh ʿAbd alab¯ - Wahh(d. 1792),āb (d. the 1792), founder the of founder the Wahhabi of the movement Wahhabi movement from which from contemporary which contemporary Salafism emerged. Salafism4 emerged.The idea of4 T anhe unbroken idea of an heart-based unbroken heart link (-rbasedabi¯ .ta) between link (rābi theṭa) student between ( mur the ¯ıd student) and his (mur shaykh,īd) and blind his sobediencehaykh, blind towards obedience him, and towards his claim him to, standand his in aclaim spiritual to stand line allin thea spiritual way to the line Prophet all the Muhammadway to the Prophet(silsila) were Muh forammadAbd (silsila al-Wahh) wereab¯ signsfor ʿAbd of manifestal-Wahhā unbeliefb signs of (kufr manifest bawa¯h. unbelief)(Peskes ( kufr1999 bawā, p.ḥ 159).) (Peskes Still, “Wahh1999, p.abism,¯ 159). St inill, its “Wahhābism, early stages, in confronted its early stages, Sufism confronted primarily Sufism at the primarily level of at popular the level practice of popular and practicedaily routines. and daily Discourse routines. was Discourse not carried was out not on carried the level out of on sophisticated the level of theological sophisticated argumentation” theological argumentation”(Peskes 1999, p. 159).(Peskes 1999, p. 159). This was rather don donee by representatives of the contemporary Salafi Salafi movement. Two Two prominent books containing containing a a comprehensive comprehensive critique critique of of Sufism Sufism are are “These “These are are the the Sufis Sufis ( (HādhihīHadhih¯ ¯ı hiya hiya l l--ṣs.ūufiyya¯fiyya))”” and “ “TheThe demise demise of of Sufism Sufism (Ma (Maṣras.raʿ alal-ta-taṣawwufs.awwuf)”,)”, written written by byʿAbdAbd ar-Ra ar-Raḥmhā. mn anal¯ -Wak al-Wakīl (d.¯ıl (d.1971), 1971), the thirdthe third leader leader of “ ofAn “Anṣārs .alar¯ -Sunna al-Sunna alal-MuMuḥammadiyyah. ammadiyya”,”, Egypt’s Egypt’s oldest oldest and and biggest biggest Salafi Salafi organization organization (Gauvain(Gauvain 2015)2015).. Other Other examples examples can can be be found found in inthe the writings writings of ʿ ofAbdAbd al-ʿ al-AzīAzz Ibn¯ız IbnBāz B(d.az¯ 1999), (d. 1999), the formerthe former grand grand mufti mufti of Saudi of Saudi Arabia Arabia,, as well as as well Ṣāliḥ as alS.-aliMunajjid,¯ h. al-Munajjid, who administrates who administrates the Salafi the website Salafi “Islamwebsite Q&A”. “Islam Although Q&A”. Although they differentiate they differentiate between between different diff Sufierent movements, Sufi movements, both conclude both conclude that Sufismthat Sufism would would have to have be rejected to be rejected in its entirety in its entirety (Ibn Bāz (Ibn n.d. B; az¯al- Munajjidn.d.; Al-Munajjid 2014). Against 2014). this Against historical this backgroundhistorical background,, the following the following chapter will chapter analyze will analyzesome of somethe most of the extensive most extensive Sufi responses Sufi responses to these to Salafithese Salaficriticisms, criticisms, which which were published were published by the by Ṭar theīqaT .alar-¯Nıqaāẓ al-Nimiyyaaz¯. imiyya. .

3. A A Sufi Suﬁ Critique of Salafism Salaﬁsm

One of the the most most vocal vocal anti anti-Salafi-Salafi Sufi Sufi orders orders situa situatedted in the West West i iss the ṬT.arīqaar¯ıqa al al-N-Nāa¯ẓz.imimiyyaiyya,, which which 5 isis part of the Naqshbandi-traditionNaqshbandi-tradition in Sufism.Sufism.5 SeveralSeveral websites websites on on Islam Islam in in English English are affiliated affiliated 6 with the order. 6 TheThe order order in in its its present present form form was was founded founded by by Mu Muḥh.ammadammad N Nāa¯ẓz.imim ʿĀadil¯dil al-Qibral-Qibrī¯ıṣs.ī¯ı alal--ḤH.aqqaqqāan¯nī¯ı,, known known as as Shaykh Shaykh Nazim, Nazim, who who was was born born 1922 1922 in in what what is is now now the the Turkish Turkish part part of of Cyprus Cyprus.. During his studies in Damas Damascus,cus, he became the student of ʿAbd Allah al-Dal-Daghistā¯ghistanā¯n¯ıī (d. 1973), a local local leaderleader of the the NaqNaqshbandiyya-Khshbandiyya-Khāalidiyya¯lidiyya. He He told told Shaykh Shaykh Nazim Nazim to to go go back back to to Lefke Lefke in in Cyprus Cyprus in in order order to spread his message to the westernwestern world world.. The The center center of of his activities in in Europe was a mosque in London, which he visited annually annually for for several several months months,, almost almost up up until until his his death death in in 2014 2014 ( (AtayAtay 20122012,, pp. 42 42–45).–45). The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch and denies other orders to be on the same level (Dantschke et al. 2001, p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This 3 claimIt is is unclear unsurprisingly if the description disputed of abdal¯ byas “extraordinarilyother branches pious of the Muslims” Naqshbandiyya is taken from, for the example writings of, Ibnby Hthe. anbal Istanbul or if it is- an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdal¯ are more than just pious. They are seen as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). 34 ItFor is aunclear depiction if ofthe this description process from of the abdāl perspective as “extraordinarily of the history pious of ideas Muslims” see Lauziè reis (taken2015). from the writings of Ibn 5 ḤAlsoanbal known or if asit Naqshbandiyyais an explanation H. aqq aniyya¯by Melchert., H. aqqaniyya¯ In lateror Naqshbandiyya Sufism, the Nabdālaz¯. imiyya are .more than just pious. They are seen 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/. as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). 4 For a depiction of this process from the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/.

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

3 It is unclear if the description of abdāl as “extraordinarily pious Muslims” is taken from the writings of Ibn 7 For a portrayal of this order, see Pirický (2012). Ḥanbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdāl are more than just pious. They are seen 8 For some critical questions by Malay students concerning the Na¯zimiyya directed to the former Mufti of Egypt Al¯ı Jum a, as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012).. who is a Sufi himself, see ( 2015) “Ali Jumaa’s Answers to the Wahhabi Run JAKIM of Malaysia, Regarding Naqshbandis” 4 For a depiction of this process from the perspective(https://www.youtube.com of the history/watch?v of ideas=eNXAR-M_VpM see Lauzière (2015).). 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya9 The, Ḥaqq namesāniyya of persons or Naqshbandiyya commonly known Nāẓimiyya in their. English version will not be put in Arabic transliteration. 10 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/See http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh//; http://sunnah.org. or 11 Similar to Hamid, Geaves does not provide an in-depth analysis of the “Encyclopedia” since his article focuses on the ways https://eshaykh.com/. in which Traditionalist and Sufi circles in Britain re-organized in response to the Salafi challenge. 12 Much of the criticism in this book focuses on another anonymous book called “Haqiqat ul-Haqqani”, whose content was purportedly rejected by Shaykh Nazim himself (Kabbani 1997, p. 50). 13 http://www.livingislam.org/. Religions 2020, 11, 144 5 of 24

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24 not mentioned verbatim in these sources, so too did tasawwuf develop based on the establishedframework by the established Book and by the the Sunna Book and and the never Sunna did and it step never out did of it the step bounds out of theof boundsthese of parameters.these parameters. (Kabbani 1996, (Kabbani p. 266). 1996 , p. 266) FromFrom a scholarly a scholarly perspective, perspective, this claim this claim needs needs to be to questioned be questioned insofar insofar as certain as certain mystics mystics and and Sufi practicesSufi practices have havebeen beensubject subject to strong to strong criticism criticism by currents by currents other other than thanSalafism Salafism throughout throughout Islamic Islamic history.history. The institutionalization The institutionalization of Sufism of Sufism in modern in modern Egypt, Egypt, for example, for example, went went hand hand in hand in hand with withthe the ban ofban certain of certain rituals rituals deemed deemed unislamic unislamic (De Jong (De Jong1999, 1999 p. 311)., p. 311). It is noticeableIt is noticeable that among that among the Hadiths the Hadiths quoted quoted in this in context, this context, there there are two are which two which are frequently are frequently usedused by Salafis by Salafis to refer to referto themselves. to themselves. The first The states first states that the that Prophet the Prophet has said has that said the that Muslim the Muslim Umma Umma will willsplit splitinto into73 sects, 73 sects, only only one one of which of which will will be be saved. saved.14 14TheThe second second says says that that (true) (true) Muslims Muslims will will feel feel likelike strangers strangers ( ghurabāghuraba¯ʾ )in in a a world world surrounded surrounded by by people people who who follow the wrong faith.faith.15 OnOn the the one one hand,hand, Salafis Salafis say say that that they they are are the the saved saved group, group, since since they they only only rely rely on what what is is found found in in the the Quran Quran and and in the HadithHadith ((MeijerMeijer 2009 2009,, p. p. 5). 5). This, This, in in turn, turn, would would make make them them feel feel as strangersas strangers in thein the wider wider Muslim Muslimcommunity community (Köpfer (Köpfer 2014 2014,, p. 454). p. 454). The The Sufis, Sufis, on the on otherthe other hand, hand, say thatsay that if Sufism if Sufism is part is part and parceland of parcelIslam, of Islam, then then the saved the saved group group can only can beonly Muslims be Muslims who havewho joinedhave joined a .tar¯ ¯ıqa a .ṭā Inrīqa Kabbani’s. In Kabbani’s view, it is view,because it is because of the ongoingof the ongoing onslaught onslaught on Sufism on atSufism the hands at the of hands the Salafis of the that Salafis Sufis feelthat as Sufis strangers feel as in the strangerscontemporaryReligions in the 2020 contemporary, 10 Muslim, x FOR PEER world REVIEWMuslim (Kabbani world 1996 (Kabbani, pp. 284–87). 1996, pp. The 284 interpretation–87). The interpretation of the Hadiths of the among 3 of 24 Hadithsboth among groups both is virtually groups theis virtually same, they the justsame, use they diff erentjust use labels. different labels. (Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is In theIn attempt the attempt to portray to portray Sufism Sufism as an as integral an integral part partof the of Islamic the Islamic tradition, tradition, Kabbani Kabbani extensively extensively known so far, his stance towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the quotesquotes the founders the founders of the of four the four law lawschools schools as well as well as other as other luminaries luminaries of Islamic of Islamic legal legal thought. thought. One One of power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert of thethe mo mostst famous famous quotes quotes he he uses uses is isattributed attributed to toImam Imam Mālik Malik¯ Ibn Ibn Anas Anas (d. (d. 795 795):): 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary WhosoeverinnovationWhosoever practices(Melchert practices Sufism 2001, Sufism pp. without 356 without–60). legal legal knowledge knowledge is a isheretic, a heretic, whosoever whosoever [in turn] [in turn] practicespracticesThere jurisprudence is jurisprudence also some without dispute without Sufism among Sufism is a isscholars deviator a deviator on and and the who who attitude combines combines towards between between Sufism the the twoof two A ḥ hasmad Ibn hasTaymiyya foundfound the the (d. truth truth1328), ( (manman who ta ta ṣiss.awwafaawwafa prom wa-laminently wa-lam yatafaqqihfeatured yatafaqqih infa-qad fa-qad Salafi tazanndaqa tazanndaqa writings wa-man wa-man(Krawietz tafaqqaha tafaqqaha 2014) .wa- wa-lamHis polemics 16 lamagainst yatayataṣs. awwafwellawwaf-known fa-qad tafassaqamystics wa-mansuchwa-man as jamaIbnjama ʿaArabʿa bainahum bainahumī (d. 1240)a¯ ā fa-qad fa -qadare ta wellhta. aqqaqaḥaqqaqa documented).) (Kabbani (Kabbani (Knysh 1996 1996,, p. 1999).p. 278) On the 278)other.16 hand, scholars such as George Makdisi (d. 2002) have argued that he was himself a member of If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, a Sufi ṭarīqa (Makdisi 1973). This view has been challenged (Meier 1981; Ansari 1985). Contemporary thereIf almost does all not prominent remain anyscholars authority of Islamic the Salafis history could have ruled rely on in infavor their of critiqueSufism so of the Sufism. logic goes, As stated research suggests that “it should nonetheless be clear that Sufism, within the boundaries of therebefore, does not this remain holds trueany onlyauthority for what the wasSalafis regarded could byrely the on religious in their establishmentcritique of Sufism. as orthodox As stated Sufism. traditionalist theology, had a place in Ibn Taymiyya’s worldview” (Post 2016, p. 161). before,The this question holds true of what only constitutesfor what was orthodox regarded and by non-orthodoxthe religious establishment Sufi beliefs and as orthodox practices Sufism. has always The antipathy towards Sufism is more obvious in the writings of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- The questionbeen an ongoing of what processconstitutes of negotiation orthodox and (Green non-orthodox 2012). Sufi beliefs and practices has always Wahhāb (d. 1792), the founder of the Wahhabi movement from which contemporary Salafism been an ongoingGiven that, process according of negotiation to Kabbani, (Green certain 2012). knowledge (yaq¯ın) cannot be obtained by the study of emerged.4 The idea of an unbroken heart-based link (rābiṭa) between the student (murīd) and his booksGiven alone,that, according it is mandatory to Kabbani, to follow certain a shaykh,knowledge since (yaqīn “every) cannot true be Sufi obtained is a scholar by the in study Sacred of Law, shaykh, blind obedience towards him, and his claim to stand in a spiritual line all the way to the booksthough alone, theit is reverse mandatory is not to necessarily follow a shaykh true“ (,Kabbani since “every 1996 ,true p. 396). Sufi Theis a puritanicalscholar in Sacred approach Law, of the Prophet Muhammad (silsila) were for ʿAbd al-Wahhāb signs of manifest unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes thoughSalafis the wasreverse a deviation is not necessarily from the true“ tradition (Kabbani and proof 1996, thatp. 396). they The were puritanical a new phenomenon approach of inthe Islam, 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular Salafisinspired was a bydeviation western from notions the oftradition epistemology: and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, inspiredpractice by western and daily notions routines. of epistemology: Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological argumentation”The delusion ( thatPeskes ‘no 1999, Islamic p. 159 knowledge). is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in The delusiontheThis books,’ was that rather is ‘ theno Islamic Westernizeddone by knowledge representatives belief ofis hidden the of ‘Salafis’ the from contemporary who me if rebel only against I Salafi decide movement. the to ideafind ofit in havingTwo the prominent an books,books’ containingis the Westernized a comprehensive belief of critiquethe 'Salafis' of Sufism who rebelare “These against are the the idea Sufis of (Hādhihī having hiyaan l-ṣūfiyya)” Imamand “ ofThe fiqh demise or tasawwuf of Sufism (… (Ma). Thereforeṣraʿ al-taṣ awwufit [Islamic)”, written knowledge] by ʿAbd is artaken-Raḥ andmān understood al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the 14 thirdIt is transmittedleader of in“An diffṣerentār al versions-Sunna inal the-Mu Hadith-collectionsḥammadiyya” of, Egypt’s Abu¯ Daw¯ oldestud¯ (d. 889)and in biggest the “Book Salafi of Sunna”, organization chapter 14 It is(Gauvain transmitted“Explanation 2015) in of different the. Other Sunna” versions examples (sharh. al-sunna in the can Hadith-), be al-Tirmidh foundcollections¯ı in (d. the 892) of writings in Abū the “BookDāwūd of ofʿAbd (d. Faith” 889) al according- ʿinAz theīz “BookIbn to the B āof prophet,z Sunna”,(d. 1999), chapter the chapterformer“What “Explanation hasgrand been mufti told of aboutthe of SaudiSunna” the split Arabia (shar of thisḥ ,al Umma”as-sunna well),(m as al-Tirmia¯ Ṣ ja¯ālia fḥ¯ı ftiraldh-aq¯Munajjid,ī (d. hadhih¯ 892)¯ı l-umma in who the) “Book andadministrates Ibn of M Faith”aja¯ (d. 887)accordingthe inSalafi the “Book towebsite of ¯ the prophet,Tribulations” chapter (fitna “What), chapter has “The been splitting told about up of peoples the split (iftir ofaq this al-umam Umma”). It is (mā not tojā beʾa f foundī ftirāq in hā thedh collectionsihī l-umma of) al-Bukhand ar¯ ¯ı “Islam(d. 870) Q&A”. or Muslim Although (d. 875). they differentiate between different Sufi movements, both conclude that Ibn Māja (d. 887) in the “Book of Tribulations” (fitna), chapter “The splitting up of peoples (iftirāq al-umam). 15 SufismIt can bewould found have in Ibn to M ajabe¯ rejected in the “Book in its of Tribulations”,entirety (Ibn chapter Bāz n.d. “Islam; al- beganMunajjid as something 2014). Against strange” this (bada hista l-Isloricalam¯ It isbackground notghar to¯ıban be). found, the in followingthe collections chapter of al- Buwillkh āanalyzerī (d. 870) some or Muslim of the (d. most 875). extensive Sufi responses to these 15 It 16can be found in Ibn Māja in the “Book of Tribulations”, chapter “Islam began as something strange” (badaʾa SalafiThis quotecriticisms, was first which mentioned were in published the marginal by notes the ( h.Ṭashiy¯arīqaat¯ ) al of-N theāẓ Malikiimiyya scholar. Ah. mad al- Adaw¯ı (d. 1775) in the l-Islāmexplanatory gharīban). work (sharh. ) of the Maliki scholar Al¯ı Ibn Muh. ammad al-Manfuf¯ ¯ı (d. 1532) on the prominent legal compendium 16 This “quoteRisalat¯ was Ibn Ab first¯ı Zaid mentioned(Epistles of in Ibn the Ab ¯ımarginal Zaid)”, written notes by (ḥ theāsh Malikiiyāt) of scholar the Maliki Muh. ammad scholar Ibn A Abḥ¯ımad Zaid alal-QairawʿAdawan¯ī (d.¯ı (d. 996). 1775)3.Almost Ain Sufithe needlessexplanatory Critique to say, of work Salafis Salafism (shar regardḥ) of this the connection Maliki scholar as being ʿ tooAlī vague, Ibn Mu whichḥammad is why al-Manf they refuseūfī to(d. attribute 1532) on this the quote to Malik.¯ See Islamweb(2005). prominentOne legal of thecompendium most vocal “Risālat anti-Salafi Ibn Abī Sufi Zaid orders (Epistles situa of tedIbn Abīin the Zaid)”, West written is the Ṭ byarīqa the al Maliki-Nāẓim scholariyya, which Muisḥammad part of Ibn the Ab Naqshbandī Zaid al-Qairawi-traditionānī (d. in996). Sufism. Almost5 Severalneedless websites to say, Salafis on Islam regard in this English connection are affiliated as being too vague, which is why they refuse to attribute this quote to Mālik. See Islamweb (2005). with the order.6 The order in its present form was founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī al-Ḥaqqānī, known as Shaykh Nazim, who was born 1922 in what is now the Turkish part of Cyprus. During his studies in Damascus, he became the student of ʿAbd Allah al-Dāghistānī (d. 1973), a local leader of the Naqshbandiyya-Khālidiyya. He told Shaykh Nazim to go back to Lefke in Cyprus in order to spread his message to the western world. The center of his activities in Europe was a mosque in London, which he visited annually for several months, almost up until his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, pp. 42–45). The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch and denies other orders to be on the same level (Dantschke et al. 2001, p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This claim is unsurprisingly disputed by other branches of the Naqshbandiyya, for example, by the Istanbul-

3 It is unclear if the description of abdāl as “extraordinarily pious Muslims” is taken from the writings of Ibn Ḥanbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdāl are more than just pious. They are seen as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). 4 For a depiction of this process from the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/.

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24 Religions 2020, 11, 144 6 of 24 Religionsestablished 2020, 10, x FOR by PEER the REVIEW Book and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these3 of 24 parameters. (Kabbani 1996, p. 266). Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf ( ... ). Therefore(Dziri it [Islamic 2014; Schneiders knowledge] 2014) is taken. During and his understood lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is NOT [original emphasis] from the books—asknown isFrom taughtso far a, byhisscholarly Jewishstance andperspective,towards Christian the earlythis professors claim Sufis needswas in rather to be ambivalent.questioned insofarAlthough as hecertain believed mystics in the and non-Muslim academies—but from Allah’spowerSufi awliya’, practices of the the relics scholarshave of been the of Prophetsubject knowledge to as strong well who as criticism arein the the abdāl by currents, “extraordinarily other than piousSalafism Muslims throughout” (Melcher Islamict 3 full beneficiaries of the Prophet ( ... ). (Kabbani2006,history. p. 1997356), The, pp.institutionalizationhe 110–11)was skeptical about of Sufism the dhikr in modern-ceremonies, Egypt, whichfor example, he regarded went hand as an in unnecessary hand with the innovationban of certain (Melchert rituals 2001, deemed pp. 356unislamic–60). (De Jong 1999, p. 311). Probably aware of the fact that Salafis wouldThere stronglyIt is noticeable is alsochallenge some that this disputeamong statement, the among Hadiths Kabbani scholars quoted tries on in to thethis attitudecontext, theretowards are two Sufism which of are Aḥ madfrequently Ibn prove that the legal scholars themselves haveTaymiyya declaredused by the Salafis(d. superiority 1328), to refer who ofto is thethemselves. prom Sufiinently shaykh The featured over first the states legalin Salafithat the writings Prophet (Krawietz has said that 2014) the. HisMuslim polemics Umma scholar. He points to a passage in a work byagainst thewill prominentsplit well into-known 73 medieval sects, mystics only legal such one scholar as of Ibn which ʿIzzArab will al-Dinī (d. be 1240) saved. Ibn are14 Thewell seconddocumented says that (Knysh (true) 1999). Muslims On the will Abd al-Salam (d. 1182), in which he said thatother “thefeel hand,like friends strangers scholars of God” (suchghurabā (auliy asa¯ Georgeʾ ),in i.e., a world the Makdisishuy surroundedukh¯ (d., possess2002) byhave people argued who that follow he was the himself wrong afaith. membe15 Onr of the a higher status among God than the legal scholarsa Sufione (hand,ṭfuqaharīqaa ¯ (MakdisiSalafis) and evensay 1973) that the. they martyrsThis are view the (shuhad has saved beena¯ )( group, Kabbanichallenged since they (Meier only 1981; rely Ansari on what 1985). is found Contemporary in the Quran 1996, p. 349). 17 researchand in the suggests Hadith that (Meijer “it should2009, p. nonetheless5). This, in turn, be clearwould that make Sufism, them feel within as strangers the boundaries in the wider of The lower status of those who fight in thetraditionalist nameMuslim of Allah community theology, (mujahid¯ (Köpfer unhad¯ ) and a place 2014, strive in p. toIbn 454). become Taymiyya’s Theshuhad Sufis, awor¯ on theldview” other (Post hand, 2016, say thatp. 161). if Sufism is part and in comparison to those performing constant remembranceparcelThe of antipathy Islam, of Godthen towards (thedhikr saved ) Sufism is further group is more exemplifiedcan only obvious be byMuslims in the writings who have of joined Muḥammad a ṭārīqa Ibn. In ʿKabbani’sAbd al- other Hadiths quoted by Kabbani. When askedWahhview, whoāb it will (d.is because be 1792), on thethe of highest the founder ongoing ranks of onslaught theamong Wahhabi God on on Sufism movement the at the from hands which of the contemporary Salafis that Sufis Salafism feel as day of resurrection, Muhammad is reportedemerged. tostrangers have said4 T inhe that the idea it contemporary will of bean the unbroken one Muslim who heart remembers world-based (Kabbani link God (rāb 1996,iṭa) between pp. 284 – the87). student The interpretation (murīd) and of his the most frequently. Puzzled by this answer, theshaykh, questionerHadiths blind among asks obedience aboutboth groups those towards whois virtually him fight, and for the his the same, claim sake they ofto standjust use in different a spiritual labels. line all the way to the Allah and gets the following answer: ProphetIn Mu theh attemptammad (tosilsila portray) were Sufism for ʿAbd as an al -integralWahhā bpart signs of ofthe manifest Islamic unbelieftradition, ( kufrKabbani bawāḥ ex) (Peskestensively 1999,quotes p. 159). the foundersStill, “Wahhābism, of the four in law its earlyschools stages, as well confronted as other Sufismluminaries primarily of Islamic at the legal level thought. of popular One Even if he fights the unbelievers and thepracticeof polytheists the moandst daily famous with routines. his quotes sword Discoursehe until uses it is breaks attributedwas not and carried isto Imam out Mālik on the Ibn level Anas of (d.sophisticated 795): theological being stained red from blood, those whoargumentation” continiously remember (Peskes 1999, Allah p. are 159 better). than him Whosoever practices Sufism without legal knowledge is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] (lau d. araba bi-sayfihi f¯ı l-kuffar¯ wa-l-mushrik¯ınThish. atta was yankasira rather don wa-yakhtae by representativesd. iba damman la-k of ana¯the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent practices jurisprudence18 without Sufism is a deviator and who combines between the two l-dhakir¯ un¯ Allah¯ kath¯ır afd. al minhu). (Kabbanibooks 1998a containing, p. 6). a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” has found the truth (man taṣawwafa wa-lam yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the This Hadith can be found in debates about the naturelam of yata the greatṣawwaf and fa-qad the small tafassaqa Jihad. wa-man However, jama inʿ manya bainahumā fa-qad taḥaqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization of these debates, those who remember Allah constantly278) and.16 those who fight for his sake are not understood (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the as two separate or even opposing groups, as the quote of Kabbani suggests. Traditionalist scholars have formerIf grand almost mufti all prominent of Saudi Arabia scholars, as ofwe Islamicll as Ṣā lihistoryḥ al-Munajjid, have ruled who in administrates favor of Sufism the so Salafi the logic website goes, rather argued that both can and should be done simultaneously (Schleifer 1983; Churchill 1991). “Islamthere Q&A”.does not Although remain anythey authority differentiate the Salafisbetween could different rely on Sufi in theirmovements, critique bothof Sufism. conclude As statedthat Neither the practice of dhikr, nor the use of prayer beads would constitute an innovation according Sufismbefore, would this holds have trueto be only rejected for what in its wasentirety regarded (Ibn Bāz by then.d. religious; al-Munajjid establishment 2014). Against as orthodox this hist oricalSufism. to Kabbani. All the Hadiths which were used by Salafis to prohibit their use, were supposedly weak backgroundThe question, the of following what constitutes chapter willorthodox analyze and some non-orthodox of the most Sufi extensive beliefs andSufi practicesresponses has to thesealways and could not be found in the six well-known Hadith collections. Moreover, in Kabbani’s view there Salafibeen criticisms, an ongoing which process were of published negotiation by (Green the Ṭar 2012).īqa al- Nāẓimiyya. was clear evidence for their use in exactly these collections:Given that, according to Kabbani, certain knowledge (yaqīn) cannot be obtained by the study of 3. booksA Sufi alone, Critique it is of mandatory Salafism to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, The statement that counting dhikr on beads is an innovation is undoubtedly false. The use of though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the beads for counting dhikr was definitely allowedOne by theof the Prophet, most andvocal a sunnaanti-Salafi of the Sufi Companions. orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which Salafis was a deviation from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, This is proven by the sahih hadith of Sadis ibn part Abi of Waqqas, the Naqshband who relatedi-tradition that the in Prophet Sufism. once5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated inspired by western notions of epistemology: saw a woman using some date-stones or pebbleswith the to order. count6 dhikrThe order ( ... ), in and its dit present not prohibit form was her founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī use of them. (Dawud, Tirmidhi, Nasai, Majah)al-Ḥaqq (TheKabbaniānī ,delusion known 1998a as that ,Shaykh p. ‘no 37) Islamic Nazim, knowledge who was born is hidden 1922 infrom what me is if now only the I decide Turkish to findpart ofit in Cyprus the . Duringbooks, his studies’ is the in WesternizedDamascus, he belief became of the student'Salafis' ofwho ʿAbd rebel Allah against al-D ātheghist ideaānī of(d. having1973), a an local With this style of argumentation, the Sufisleader try ofImamto the defeat Naqof fiqhsh theband or Salafis iytasawwufya-Kh withālid i(y… theirya).. HeTherefore own told rhetorical Shaykh it [Islamic Nazim knowledge] to go back isto taken Lefke andin Cyprus understood in order weapons. This means that they accept the Salafito spread claim that his Hadithsmessage serve to the as w theestern only world legitimate. The sourcecenter of his activities in Europe was a mosque in for judicial rulings next to the Qur’an. This could prove problematic, insofar as in this particular case, London,14 It is transmittedwhich he visited in different annually versions for in several the Hadith- monthscollections, almost of Abūup until Dāwūd his (d. death 889) in the2014 “Book (Atay of Sunna”,2012, the Hadith does not speak exactly of prayer beads. It is rather Kabbani who draws an analogy on the pp. 42chapter–45). “Explanation of the Sunna” (sharḥ al-sunna), al-Tirmidhī (d. 892) in the “Book of Faith” according to basis of date stones or pebbles mentioned therein. This is exactly why Salafis accept the authenticity of Thethe prophet, order regard chapters itself“What as has the been most told authentic about the representativesplit of this Umma” of the (mā Naqshbandiyya jāʾa fī ftirāq hādh ihSufiī l-umma branch) and the report, but they do not agree with its interpretationand deniesIbn Mā otherja as (d. a 887) legalorders in basis the to “Bookbe for on the ofthe Tribulations” use same of prayerlevel ((Dantschkefitna beads), chapter et “The al. 2001, splitting p. 92 up; Atay of peoples 2012, ( iftirāqp. 226 al).-umam This ). (Al-Munajjid 1998). claimIt is is unsurprisingly not to be found disputedin the collections by other of al-branchesBukhār īof (d. the 870) Naqshbandiyya or Muslim (d. ,875). for example , by the Istanbul- 15 ʾ It can be foun d in Ibn Mā j a in the “Book of Tribulations”, chapter “Islam began as something strange” (bada a l-Islām gharīban). 3 16It is unclear if the description of abdāl as “extraordinarily pious Muslims” is taken from the writings of Ibn 17 This quote was first mentioned in the marginal notes (ḥāshiyāt) of the Maliki scholar Aḥmad al-ʿAdawī (d. The original quote can be found in one of the Fatwa collectionsḤanbal of or Ibn if Abdit is an al-Sal explanationam,¯ published by byMelchert. Ibn ‘Abd In al-Fatt latera¯ hSufism,. (1986, the abdāl are more than just pious. They are seen pp. 118–19). 1775) in the explanatory work (sharḥ) of the Maliki scholar ʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad al-Manfūfī (d. 1532) on the as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). 18 The Hadith can be found in al-Tirmidh¯ı in the “Book of Supplications”,prominent legal chapter compendium “More [on the “Risālat benefits Ibn of Abī remembrance] Zaid (Epistles of Ibn Abī Zaid)”, written by the Maliki scholar 4 For a depiction of this process from the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). (minhu)”. The prominent Salafi scholar of Hadith al-Alban¯ ¯ı (d.Mu 1999)ḥammad downgrades Ibn Ab theī Zaid rating al-Qairaw of al-Tirmidhān¯ıī from(d. 996). good Almost (h. asan) needless to say, Salafis regard this connection as 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. to weak (da ¯ıf ). See Al-Alban¯ ¯ı(1998). being too vague, which is why they refuse to attribute this quote to Mālik. See Islamweb (2005). 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/.

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

(Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is knownReligions so far2020, his, 11 stance, 144 towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the 7 of 24 power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary 3.2. On the Status of the Prophet and Sound Belief innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). ThereAnother is also somestrong dispute point of among contention scholars between on the Sufis attitude and Salafis towards is the Sufism correct of way Aḥmad of venerating Ibn Taymiyyathe Prophet. (d. 1328), The who celebration is prominently of the featured Prophet’s in birthday Salafi writings (mawlid (Krawietz) is a case 2014) in point.. His Forpolemics the Salafis, againstit iswell a reprehensible-known mystics innovation such as Ibn (bid ʿaArab), sinceī (d. it 1240) has not are been well practiceddocumented during (Knysh the time1999). of On the the Prophet other andhand, moreover scholars leadssuch toas actsGeorge considered Makdisi as (d. forbidden 2002) have (h. ararguedam¯ ) and that/or he reprehensible was himself ( makruha membe). Ther of Sufis a Sufiobject ṭarīqa to(Makdisi this reasoning 1973). This by pointingview has tobeen a so-called challenged "Mu (Meierh. ammad 1981; Ibn AnsariAbd 1985). al-Wahh Contemporaryab-week”,¯ which researchwas suggests celebrated that in Saudi-Arabia “it should nonetheless in 1980. If the be founder clear that of their Sufism, movement within was the worth boundaries a week of full of traditionalistfestivities, theology, why should had a this place not in be Ibn legitimate Taymiyya’s in the wor caseldview” of the (Post Prophet 2016, (Kabbani p. 161). 1998b, p. XVIII)? The antipathyAccording towards to the Sufis, Sufism the is aim more of mawlid obviouswas in the to increase writings one’s of Mu loveḥammad of the IbnProphet. ʿAbd The al- fact Wahhthatāb (d. one 1792), should the love founder the Prophet of the more Wahhabi than anybody movement else from was proven which by contemporary different authentic Salafism Hadiths emerged.as well4 The as idea the Qur’an of an unbroken itself. Because heart-based of all these link ( proofs,rābiṭa) between the majority the student of scholars (mur hadīd) andagreed his upon shaykh,the blind legitimacy obedience of celebrating towards him the mawlid, and his, even claim Ibn to Taymiyya, stand in a probably spiritual the line most all the venerated way to medievalthe Prophetscholar Muhammad for Salafis. (silsila Kabbani) were remindsfor ʿAbd theal-Wahh Salafisāb of signs the wordsof manifest of the unbelief companion (kufr Ibnbawā Masḥ) (Peskesud¯ (d. 650), 1999, whop. 159). has St reportedlyill, “Wahhābism, said: in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological argumentation”Whatever (Peskes the majority1999, p. 159 of Muslims). see as right, then this is good to Allah, and whatever is 19 This wasseen rather by the don majoritye by representatives of Muslims as of wrong, the contemporary it is wrong with Salafi Allah movement. (Kabbani Two 1998b prominent, p. 11). ṣ books containingThe Salafi’s a comprehensive objection to thiscritique argument of Sufism is based are “These on an assessmentare the Sufis by (Hādhihī al-Alban hiya¯ı, who l- ūfiyya deemed)” the ṣ ʿ ṣ ʿ ḥ and “reportThe demise as being of Sufism not authentic (Ma ra (Ahl al-ta al-Hadeethawwuf)”, written 2009). Asby forAbd Ibn ar Taymiyya,-Ra mān al Salafis-Wakī arguel (d. 1971), that he the clearly ṣ ḥ third consideredleader of “An theā practicer al-Sunna of mawlid al-Mutoammadiyya be an unlawful”, Egypt’s innovation oldest (bid anda ),biggest although Salafi he mentionedorganization that the ʿ ʿ (Gauvainintention 2015) of. Other venerating examples the Prophetcan be found was a in good the writings thing (Salafipublications of Abd al- Azīz n.d. Ibn). B20āz (d. 1999), the Ṣ ḥ former grandThe mufti Salafi’s of objection,Saudi Arabia in turn,, as we is completelyll as āli al discarded-Munajjid, by who the administrates Sufis. In their the eyes, Salafi the Salafiswebsite neither “Islampossess Q&A”. the Although qualifications they nordifferentiate the legitimacy between to question different what Sufi has movements, been agreed both upon conclude by the scholarsthat of Sufismthe would Umma. have The to be Sufis rejected even equatein its entirety this attitude (Ibn Bāz with n.d. potential; al-Munajjid unbelief 2014) and. Against use the this following historical quote background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these from the Hanafi scholar MullaReligionsAl 2020¯ı al-Q, 10, xar¯ FOR¯ı (d. PEER 1606) REVIEW to support their view: 5 of 24 Salafi criticisms, which were published by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya. To prohibit that upon whichestablished the scholars by the haveBook formed and the consensus Sunna and is never disbelief, did becauseit step out it of the bounds of these 3. A Sufi Critiqueexceeds of the Salafism allowable prohibitingparameters. that (Kabbani is agreed 1996, upon p. 266). in this topic. (as cited in Kabbani 1998b, p. 98)21 One of the most vocal anti-SalafiFrom Sufi a orders scholarly situa perspective,ted in the West this is claim the Ṭ arīqaneeds al -toNā beẓim questionediyya, which insofar as certain mystics and 5 is part of theThe Naqshband apparent deviancei-traditionSufi of practices Salafiin Sufism. positions have Severalbeen from subject websites what to is strong accepted on Islam criticism by in the English by majority currents are of affiliated other Muslims than wasSalafism throughout Islamic 6 ḥ ẓ ʿ ṣ with thenot order. only apparent The order in legal in history.its matters, present The but form institutionalization also was in thefounded realm ofby of theology. MuSufismammad in In modern this Nā context,im Egypt, Ādil the for al contemporary- Qexample,ibrī ī went hand in hand with the Ḥ al- aqqSalafisānī, known are accused as Shaykh of being Nazim,ban anthropomorphists, of certain who was rituals born deemed 1922 despite in unislamicwhat the factis now that(De the Jong some Turkish 1999, of their partp. 311). major of Cyprus authorities. ʿ Duringdeny his studies equating in GodDamas withcus his, heIt creation.became is noticeable 22theOne student that example among of Abd ofthe Allah non-anthropomorphic Hadiths al-D quotedāghistā innī this(d. interpretations1973),context, a local there are by two which are frequently leader of the Naqshbandiyya-Khālidiyya. He told Shaykh Nazim to go back to Lefke in Cyprus in order historical scholars Salafisused heavily by Salafis rely on to is refer Ibn Hto. anbal’s themselves. tafsir The of Sura first 89, states Verse that 22, the where Prophet Allah has says: said that the Muslim Umma to spread“And his thy message Lord cometh, to the andwwillestern His split angelsworld into .73 rankThe sects, center upon only rank”.of onehis 23activitiesofIn which order inwill to Europe avoid be saved. givingwas14 a Themosque God second a direction, in says that (true) Muslims will London, which he visited annually for several months, almost up until his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, Ibn H. anbal had interpretedfeel “thy like Lordstrangers cometh (ghurabā (wa ja¯ʾ ain rabbuka)” a world surrounded as the coming by of people his command who follow (amr )the wrong faith.15 On the pp. 42(–Kabbani45). 1996, p. 190–92).one This hand, view Salafis was sharedsay that by they later are Hanbali the saved scholars group, such since as they Ibn Jawz only¯ı rely (d. 1200),on what is found in the Quran The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch Shafii scholars such as Ibnand Kathir in the (d. Hadith 1373), and(Meijer even 2009, the Zahirip. 5). This, scholar in turn, Ibn Ha wouldz.m (d. make 1064) them (Kabbani feel as strangers in the wider and denies1996, p.other 193). orders Against to be this onMuslim background the same community level of evidence,(Dantschke (Köpfer it 2014, iset beyondal. p.2001, 454). the p. The 92 comprehension; Sufis,Atay 2012,on the p. other of226 the). hand,This Sufis thatsay that if Sufism is part and claim is unsurprisingly disputedparcel by other of Islam, branches then of the the saved Naqshbandiyya group can, for only example be Muslims, by the whoIstanbul have- joined a ṭārīqa. In Kabbani’s view, it is because of the ongoing onslaught on Sufism at the hands of the Salafis that Sufis feel as 3 It is19 unclearThe Hadith if the is description not found in strangers theof abdāl six prominent as in“extraordinarily the Hadith contemporary collections, pious but Muslims”Muslim is mentioned worldis taken in the(Kabbani from “Musnad the writings1996, (Hadith-Collection)” pp. of 284 Ibn– 87). of The interpretation of the ḤanbalIbn orH .ifanbal. it is an It explanation seems, however,Hadiths by thatMelchert. the among word In “majority”later both Sufism, groups was the added is abdāl virtually to are the Englishmore the thansame, translation, just they pious. since just They ituse cannot are different seen be found labels. in as saints,the Arabicwithout original. whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). 20 In the attempt to portray Sufism as an integral part of the Islamic tradition, Kabbani extensively 4 For a depictionI mention theof responsethis process by “Salafipublications” from the perspective already of herethe becausehistory itof is ideas not present see Lauzière in the articles (2015). of Abu Hudhayfah, which are specifically directed at thequotes “Encyclopedia”. the founders For an of academic the four discussion law schools of Ibn Taymiyya’sas well as views other on luminaries celebrating mawlid of Islamic legal thought. One 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. see Ukeles(2010). of the most famous quotes he uses is attributed to Imam Mālik Ibn Anas (d. 795): 6 http://naqshbandi.org/21 ; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or The quotation is taken from an explanatory work of al-Qar¯ ¯ı on the famous book “Al-Shifa¯ bi-ta r¯ıf h. uquq¯ al-mus..tafa¯ (Healing https://eshaykh.com/Through the Identification. of theWhosoever Rights/Truths of practices the Chosen Sufism One)” by without the Maliki legal scholar knowledge Qad¯ ¯ı Iyad¯ ibn is M us a¯ a¯ heretic, (d. 1149). whosoever [in turn] 22 For a comparison of Salafi theologypractices with the Asharijurisprudence and Maturidi without school of Sufism thought concerningis a deviator these and issues who see Gharaibeh combines between the two (2014) and to a lesser extent Wiktorowicz(2006). 23 Translation by Yusuf Ali. has found the truth (man taṣawwafa wa-lam yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- lam yataṣawwaf fa-qad tafassaqa wa-man jamaʿa bainahumā fa-qad taḥaqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. 278).16 If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, there does not remain any authority the Salafis could rely on in their critique of Sufism. As stated before, this holds true only for what was regarded by the religious establishment as orthodox Sufism. The question of what constitutes orthodox and non-orthodox Sufi beliefs and practices has always been an ongoing process of negotiation (Green 2012). Given that, according to Kabbani, certain knowledge (yaqīn) cannot be obtained by the study of books alone, it is mandatory to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the Salafis was a deviation from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, inspired by western notions of epistemology: The delusion that ‘no Islamic knowledge is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in the books,’ is the Westernized belief of the 'Salafis' who rebel against the idea of having an Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is taken and understood

14 It is transmitted in different versions in the Hadith-collections of Abū Dāwūd (d. 889) in the “Book of Sunna”, chapter “Explanation of the Sunna” (sharḥ al-sunna), al-Tirmidhī (d. 892) in the “Book of Faith” according to the prophet, chapter “What has been told about the split of this Umma” (mā jāʾa fī ftirāq hādhihī l-umma) and Ibn Māja (d. 887) in the “Book of Tribulations” (fitna), chapter “The splitting up of peoples (iftirāq al-umam). It is not to be found in the collections of al-Bukhārī (d. 870) or Muslim (d. 875). 15 It can be found in Ibn Māja in the “Book of Tribulations”, chapter “Islam began as something strange” (badaʾa l-Islām gharīban). 16 This quote was first mentioned in the marginal notes (ḥāshiyāt) of the Maliki scholar Aḥmad al-ʿAdawī (d. 1775) in the explanatory work (sharḥ) of the Maliki scholar ʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad al-Manfūfī (d. 1532) on the prominent legal compendium “Risālat Ibn Abī Zaid (Epistles of Ibn Abī Zaid)”, written by the Maliki scholar Muḥammad Ibn Abī Zaid al-Qairawānī (d. 996). Almost needless to say, Salafis regard this connection as being too vague, which is why they refuse to attribute this quote to Mālik. See Islamweb (2005). Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

(Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is known so far, his stance towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). Religions 2020, 11, 144 8 of 24 There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominently featured in Salafi writings (Krawietz 2014). His polemics against wellthe prominent-known mystics Salafi such scholar as Ibn ʿUthaymArabī (d.¯ın 1240) (d. 2001) are well insists documented on a literal (Knysh interpretation 1999). On and the claims that other hand,anything scholars else such would as George clash with Makdisi the consensus (d. 2002) have of the argued Salaf ( Kabbanithat he was 1996 himself, pp. 191–94). a member of a Sufi ṭarīqa (MakdisiBy this way1973) of. T argumentation,his view has been the challenged Sufis try to (Meier deconstruct 1981; Ansari the ideational 1985). Contemporary genealogy of today’s research Salafis suggests back that to the “it Salaf. should Anthropomorphism nonetheless be clear was thatrather Sufism, prevalent within among the extreme boundaries offshoots of of the traditionalistHanbalis theology, and other had a misled place in groups: Ibn Taymiyya’s worldview” (Post 2016, p. 161). The antipathy towards Sufism is more obvious in the writings of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhāb (d. The 1792), recurrence the founder of such of historical the Wahhabi incidents movement teach us from time which and again contemporary that the Salafis Salafism of today, 4 like the Wahhabis before them, like Ibn Taymiyya and his student, did not make up all of their emerged. The ideaReligions of an 2020 unbroken, 10, x FOR heart PEER- REVIEWbased link (rābiṭa) between the student (murīd) and his 5 of 24 shaykh, blindpositions obedience but towards took many him of, and them his from claim previous to stand anthropomorphists, in a spiritual line suchall the as way the Barbaharis to the Prophet Muhammadand Karramis (silsilaestablished) of were Baghdad for by ʿ Abdthe who Book al- ragedWahh and inā bthe thesigns Sunna fourth, of manifest and fifth, never and unbelief sixthdid it ( centuries kufrstep bawā out ḥ andof) (Peskesthe were bounds put of these 1999, p. 159). Stdownill, “Wahhābism, eachparameters. time ( ... in )(its (KabbaniKabbani early stages, 1996,1996 confronted, p. 266). 37) Sufism primarily at the level of popular practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological While it isFrom true thata scholarly Ibn Jawz perspective,¯ı was an opponent this claim of anthropomorphism, needs to be questioned Kabbani insofar fails as to certain mention mystics and argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). that he facedSufi some practices fierce have resistance been subject from otherto strong prominent criticism Hanbali by currents scholars other of than his Salafism time, such throughout as Abu¯ Islamic This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent l-Fadl al-Althhistory.¯ı (d. The 1236) institutionalization or Ibn Qudama¯ al-Maqdis of Sufism¯ı (d.in modern 1223) (Swartz Egypt, 2002 for example,). Generally went speaking hand in there hand with the books containing. a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” have beenban very of few certain supporters rituals deemed of speculative unislamic theology (De Jong (kalam¯ 1999,) among p. 311). Hanbalis (Halverson 2010).24 and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the Maybe theIt most is noticeable well-known that Hadithamong quotedthe Hadiths by Salafis quoted in orderin this to context, prove that there God are is two in the which heavens are frequently third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization is the oneused about by theSalafis slave to girlrefer of to thethemselves. companion The Mu firstawiya¯ states Ibnthat al-theH Prophetakam (d. has 685). said25 thatThe the report Muslim Umma (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz. Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the states thatwill Muhammad split into asked73 sects, this only girl one about of thewhich whereabouts will be saved. of God,14 The whereas second she says pointed that (true) towards Muslims will former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website heaven andfeel said like “in strangers heaven ((fghurabā¯ı s-sama¯ʾ )”.in Thea world Sufis, surrounded however, insist by people on the who necessity follow of the a metaphorical wrong faith.15 On the “Islam Q&A”. Although they differentiate between different Sufi movements, both conclude that interpretation,one hand, since Salafis giving say direction that they to Allah are the was saved forbidden group, by since consensus. they only For rely Kabbani, on what the is found story has in the Quran Sufism would have to be rejected in its entirety (Ibn Bāz n.d.; al-Munajjid 2014). Against this historical to be readand keeping in the the Hadith context (Meijer of idol 2009, worshipping p. 5). This, of in those turn, days would in mind: make them feel as strangers in the wider background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these Muslim community (Köpfer 2014, p. 454). The Sufis, on the other hand, say that if Sufism is part and Salafi criticisms, which were published by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya. The Prophetparcel of therefore Islam, then meant the tosaved determine group whatcan only she be worshipped. Muslims who When have she joined said: a in ṭā therīqa. In Kabbani’s ‘heaven,’view, – it and is because another of narration the ongoing says thatonslaught she made on Sufism a sign at towards the hands the heavenof the Salafis – it was that Sufis feel as 3. A Sufi Critique of Salafism understoodstrangers that in shethe wascontemporary a believer Muslim in oneness. world He (Kabbani meant by 1996, this linepp. 284 of questioning–87). The interpretation the of the One of thedisavowal mostHadiths vocal of antiamong the-Salafi gods both ofSufi groups the orders earth is situa virtually (nafited al-aliha in the the same, West al-ardiyya) itheys the just Ṭ whicharīqa use al different- areNāẓ theimiy idols, yalabels., which not the is part of theestablishment NaqshbandIn ithe-tradition of attempt the heaven in to Sufism. portray as a location5 SufismSeveral foras websites an Allah, integral andon Islampart Allah of in the is English greatly Islamic exaltedare tradition, affiliated from Kabbani the extensively 26 with the order.sayings6 Thequotes oforder the the wrong-doers!in founders its present of theform (Kabbani four was law 1997founded schools, pp. by 41–42). as Muwellḥammad as other N luminariesāẓim ʿĀdil of al Islamic-Qibrīṣ īlegal thought. One al-Ḥaqqānī, knownof as the Shaykh most Nazim,famous whoquotes was he born uses 1922 is attributed in what isto now Imam the Mālik Turkish Ibn partAnas of (d. Cyprus 795): . ¯ During his studiesThe Sufis in Damas of thecusN,a hez. imiyya becameadmit the student that sometimes of ʿAbd Allah Salafis al- doDāgh useist metaphoricalānī (d. 1973), a interpretation, local Whosoever practices Sufism without legal knowledge is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] leader ofbut the thenNaqsh theyband seemiyya-Kh toā makelidiyya things. He told even Shaykh worse. Nazim Oneexample to go back is to a part Lefke of in Sura Cyprus 57, Verse in order 4: “And He practices jurisprudence without Sufism is a deviator and who combines between the two to spreadis his with message you wheresoever to the western ye mayworld be”.. The In center order toof avoidhis activities pantheistic in Europe beliefs was and a tomosque insist thatin God is has found the¯ truth (man taṣawwafa wa-lam yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- London, literallywhich he in visited the heavens annually (bi-dh foratihi several), Ibn al-monthsUthaym, almost¯ın compares up until God his withdeath the in sun,2014 which (Atay is2012 also, fixed at lam yataṣawwaf fa-qad tafassaqa wa-man jama27 ʿa bainahumā fa-qad taḥaqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. pp. 42–45)the. firmament, but whose rays touch humans on earth. A second example is a Hadith in which the 278).16 TheProphet order regard prohibiteds itself spitting as the inmost front authentic of someone representative performing of prayers, the Naqshbandiyya since God would Sufi standbranch in front of 28 ¯ and denieshim other in this orders moment.If to almost be onFor all the Ibnprominent same al- Uthaymlevel scholars (Dantschkeın, there of Islamic existset al. history no2001, contradiction p. have 92; Atay ruled between2012, in favor p. 226 the of ).Sufism two This examples, so the logic goes, claim is unsurprisinglysince the sunthere is disputed duringdoes not its by remain rise other in front branchesany authority of the of one the the whoNaqshbandiyya Salafis looks eastwards,could, for rely example whileon in , ittheir by is the simultaneously critique Istanbul of- Sufism. fixed As stated at the heaven. If this is possible for something created, it has to be even more valid for its creator. before, this holds true only for what was regarded by the religious establishment as orthodox Sufism. The Sufis however, do not like to follow that line of reasoning: 3 It is unclear if theThe description question of of abdāl what as “extraordinarilyconstitutes orthodox pious Muslims” and non-orthodox is taken from Sufi the beliefswritings and of Ibnpractices has always Ḥanbal or if it is anbeen explanation an ongoing by Melchert. process Inof later negotiation Sufism, the (Green abdāl are2012). more than just pious. They are seen as saints, without whomGiven the universe that, according would be to thrown Kabbani, off balance certain (Goldziher knowledge and (yaqīn Kissling) cannot 2012). be obtained by the study of 4 For a depiction24 For the of influence this process of Zahiri from theory the onperspective Ibn Hazm’s of theology the history in this of context ideas see MakinLauzière(1999 (2015).). 25 books alone, it is mandatory to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, 5 Also knownIt can as beNaqshbandiyya found in Muslim Ḥaqq in theāniyya “Book, Ḥ onaqq Mosquesāniyya or and Naqshbandiyya Places of Prayer”, Nāẓ chapterimiyya. “The prohibition of talking during prayer and the abrogationthough the of its reverse permission is not (tahr ¯ımnecessarily al-kalam¯ f¯ı s -strue“alat¯ wa-naskh (Kabbani ma¯ kana¯ 1996, min ibp.ah¯ atihi396).)”. The puritanical approach of the 6 . . . . http://naqshbandi.org/26 ; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or These wordsSalafis are was originally a deviation found in fromAl¯ı al-Q thear¯ ¯ıstradition commentary and “ Mirqproofat¯ al-mafthatati ¯theyh. (Ladder were of a Keys)”new phenomenon on the book of in Islam, https://eshaykh.com/. Hadith-scienceinspired “Mishq byat ¯western al-mas.abi¯ h.notions(The Niche of ofepistemology: the Lamp)” of the Persian Hadith scholar Muh. ammad Khat.¯ıb al-Tabr¯ız¯ı (d. 1341), which is based in turn on the original work “Mis.ba¯h. as-sunna (Lamp of the Sunna)” written by the Shafii scholar Abu¯ Muh. ammadThe al-Baghaw delusion¯ı (d. that 1122). ‘no Islamic knowledge is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in the 27 Al- Uthaym¯ın’sbooks, comparison’ is the is to Westernized be found in his belief commentary of the on 'Salafis' “Al- Aq¯ıda who al-wasi¯ rebel.tiyya (Theagainst Creed the of [the idea town] of Wasit)”having an written by Ibn Taymiyya, who took the moon instead of the sun as the object of comparison (Kabbani 1996, p. 190). 28 It is found in al-BukhImamar¯ of¯ı in fiqh the “Book or tasawwuf of Prayer”, ( chapter…). Therefore “The burying it [Islamic of the expectoration knowledge] in the is mosque taken (dafn and al-nakh understoodama¯ f¯ı-l-masjid)”.

(Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is known so far, his stance towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). Religions 2020, 11, 144 9 of 24 There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominently featured in Salafi writings (Krawietz 2014). His polemics against well-known mystics such asHe Ibn [al- ʿUthaymArabī (d.¯ın] 1240) continues are well his documented explicit similes (Knysh (“just 1999). as the sunOn ...the ”) with royal indifference other hand, scholars such as Georgeto Makdisi his blatant (d. commitment 2002) have argued of tamthil that [comparing he was himself God a to membe his creation]r of ( ... ). Since when do a Sufi ṭarīqa (Makdisi 1973). This viewcreated has thingsbeen challenged serve as an (Meier analogy 1981; for Ansari the Creator? 1985). Contemporary ( ... ) No rational person can say that research suggests that “it shouldsuch nonetheless a meaning be is meant clear that here, Sufism, for when within the person the boundaries at prayer prostrates, of he does not draw traditionalist theology, had a placenear in Ibn to aTaymiyya’s body nor to wor Allah’sldview” body. (Post This 2016, proves p. 161). that the proximity in question is that of his The antipathy towards Sufismmercy, is more and thatobvious the words in the ‘in writings front of of him’ Muḥ inammad the above Ibn hadithʿAbd almean- that Allah is looking Wahhāb (d. 1792), the founder ofover the him Wahhabi and taking movement account from of his which works—not contemporary that He is Salafism there literally, which would be Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24 emerged.4 The idea of an unbrokenascribing heart-based to Him link a place, (rābiṭ anda) between this is an the aberration. student ( (murKabbaniīd) and 1996 his, p. 191) shaykh, blind obedience towards him, and his claim to stand in a spiritual line all the way to the established by the Book and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these Prophet Muhammad (silsila) were Thisfor ʿAbd section al-Wahh illuminatesāb signs that of manifest the debate unbelief is not (kufr about bawā theḥ) legitimacy (Peskes of literalist or metaphoric parameters. (Kabbani 1996, p. 266). 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism,interpretations in its early stages, per se. confronted It is rather Sufism the attempt primarily by at the theN levela¯z. imiyya of popularto prove that the Salafis fail in both practice and daily routines. Discourserespects:From Literalwas nota scholarly and carried metaphorical outperspective, on the approaches level this of claim sophisticated to needs the text. to betheological For questioned the Sufis, insofar this was as due certain to their mystics bad and argumentation” (Peskes 1999,character, p. 159Sufi). practices as will be have shown been in subject the next to strong section. criticism by currents other than Salafism throughout Islamic This was rather done by representativeshistory. The ofinstitutionalization the contemporary of Salafi Sufism movement. in modern Two Egypt, prominent for example, went hand in hand with the 3.3. On the Bad Character of Salafis books containing a comprehensiveban critique of certain of Sufism rituals are deemed “These unislamic are the Sufis (De ( JongHādhihī 1999, hiya p. l -311).ṣūfiyya )” and “The demise of Sufism (MaṣraOneʿ al-taIt of ṣisawwuf the noticeable main)”, written points that among ofbycriticism ʿAbd the ar Hadiths- ofRa theḥmā contemporaryn quoted al-Wak inīl this(d. Salafis 1971),context, the by there the N area¯z. imiyya two whichis the are apparent frequently third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunnatampering alused-Mu ḥbyammadiyya by Salafis Salafis to ofrefer”, classicalEgypt’s to themselves. oldest works and of The Islamic biggest first states jurisprudence Salafi that organization the Prophet and Hadith has said science. that the One Muslim example Umma (Gauvain 2015). Other examplesis the canwill famous be split found into commentary in 73 the sects, writings only of al-Bukh ofone ʿAbd ofar¯ which¯ı al by-ʿAz Ibn willīz Hajar Ibn be Bsaved.ā al-z (d.Asqal 141999), Thean¯ ¯ı secondthe (d. 1449), says in that which (true) he speaksMuslims of will former grand mufti of Saudi Arabiaa consensusfeel, as like we llstrangers among as Ṣāliḥ the al(ghurabā-Munajjid,ulama¯ʾ inwith whoa world regard administrates surrounded to the prohibition the by Salafi people website of who giving follow direction the wrong to Allah. faith. In15 theOn the “Islam Q&A”. Although theyversion differentiateone publishedhand, Salafisbetween by thesay different previousthat they Sufi Muftiare themovements, of saved Saudi group, Arabia both since Ibnconclude Btheyaz,¯ there only that isrely a footnote on what statingis found that in the this Quran is Sufism would have to be rejectedthe consensusinand its inentirety the ofHadith (Ibn the people Bāz (Meijer n.d. of; 2009,alkal-Munajjidam¯ p.(speculative 5). This, 2014 )in. Against theology)turn, would this only hist makeorical and them not offeel Ahl as al-Sunnastrangers ( Kabbaniin the wider background, the following chapter1996Muslim, p. will 167). analyze community This was some an (Köpfer of obvious the most 2014, manipulation extensive p. 454). The Sufi of theSufis, responses original on the message,to other these hand, which say is that considered if Sufism an is act part of and Salafi criticisms, which were publishedunbeliefparcel (Kabbani byof theIslam, Ṭ 1996ar īthenqa, al p. -theN 189).āẓ savedimiyya .group can only be Muslims who have joined a ṭārīqa. In Kabbani’s view,In fact, it foris because Kabbani, of Muslims the ongoing were onslaught the primary on targetsSufism of at the the Salafi hands rhetorical of the Salafis attacks. that Instead Sufis feel of as 3. A Sufi Critique of Salafismconcentrating strangers theirin the e ffcontemporaryorts on Muslim Muslim unity and world criticizing (Kabbani the 1996, enemies pp. of284 Islam,–87). SalafisThe interpretation would weaken of the the UmmaHadiths through among theirboth sectarianism:groups is virtually the same, they just use different labels. One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which In the attempt to portray Sufism as an integral part of the Islamic tradition, Kabbani extensively is part of the Naqshbandi-tradition in Sufism.5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated quotesIt is ironic the founders that under of allthe such four lyinglaw schools charges, as thewell ‘Salafis‘ as other cannot luminaries hide theof Islamic fact that legal they thought. are One with the order.6 The order in its present form was founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī ofseldom the mo seenst famous bringing quotes anyone he uses into is Islam, attributed while to the Imam Naqshbandis Mālik Ibn Anas whom (d. they 795): attack have Ḥ al- aqqānī, known as Shaykh Nazim,brought who thousandswas born 1922 and in tens what of thousands is now the into Turkish Islam! part ( ... of )Cyprus ‘The Salafis’. have declared loud ʿ During his studies in Damascus, heand becameWhosoever clear the that student their practices aim of isAbd Sufism to destroyAllah without al Islam-Dāgh legal fromistān knowledgeī within, (d. 1973), while a islocal wearinga heretic, the whosoever cloak of Islam. [in turn] leader of the Naqshbandiyya-Khālidi(yKabbaniya.practices He told 1997 Shaykh jurisprudence, pp. 14, Nazim 137) towithout go back Sufism to Lefke is a in deviator Cyprus andin order who combines between the two to spread his message to the western worldhas found. The the center truth of ( manhis activities taṣawwafa in wa-lam Europe yatafaqqih was a mosque fa-qad tazanndaqa in wa-man tafaqqaha wa- London, which he visited annuallyThis forlam statementseveral yata ṣmonthsawwaf needs fa-qad, toalmost be tafassaqa seriously up until wa-man questioned his death jama wheninʿa 2014bainahum looking (Atayā at fa2012-qad the, extensivetaḥaqqaqa research) (Kabbani on 1996, converts p. 16 pp. 42–45). and so-called278). reverts in the western Muslim Diaspora. It is true that the Na¯z. imiyya attracted a significant The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch number ofIf almost followers all prominent in western scholars countries of inIslamic the 70s history and 80shave (Duran ruled in 1991 favor). However,of Sufism so both the o logicfficial goes, and denies other orders to be on the same level (Dantschke et al. 2001, p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This numbersthere publisheddoes not remain by governments, any authority as well the asSalafis numerous could studies,rely on pointin their to thecritique fact thatof Sufism. Salafism As has stated claim is unsurprisingly disputed by other branches of the Naqshbandiyya, for example, by the Istanbul- becomebefore, the this most holds dynamic true only current for what for people was regarded turning by to the Islam religious in the establishment West (Roy 2004 as; orthodoxHamid 2009 Sufism.; Dantschke The question 2014; Inge of what 2017 ).constitutes orthodox and non-orthodox Sufi beliefs and practices has always 3 It is unclear if the description of abdālbeenOne as an of “extraordinarily theongoing worst process culprits pious of among Muslims”negotiation the is Salafis taken(Green hasfrom 2012). been the writings al-Alban¯ of¯ı. Ibn According to Haddad Ḥ anbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert.Given In that, later accordingSufism, the toabdāl Kabbani, are more certain than just knowledge pious. They ( yaqīnare seen) cannot be obtained by the study of as saints, without whom the universehe remainswould be thethrown qibla off of balance the people (Goldziher of Innovation and Kissling [sic], 2012). self-styled re-formers of Islam, and books alone, it is mandatory to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, 4 For a depiction of this process fromother the perspective ‘Salafi’ and of Wahhabithe history sympathizers, of ideas see Lauzière and the (2015). preferred author of book merchants and though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqmanyāniyya, uneducated Ḥaqqāniyya or Muslims. Naqshbandiyya (Haddad Nāẓimiyya 2000. ) 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/Salafis was a deviation; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ from the tradition and proof that they wereor a new phenomenon in Islam, https://eshaykh.com/. inspiredFor Kabbani, by western Muslims notions should of epistemology: be cautious the moment an individual questions what has been a consensusThe fordelusion centuries. that Of‘no course, Islamic di knowledgefference of is opinion hidden and from the me acceptance if only I decide thereof to hasfind been it in partthe

and parcelbooks, of the’ is legal the disputesWesternized over belief centuries. of the However, 'Salafis' who if one rebel single against person the stands idea upof againsthaving thean majority,Imam his position of fiqh could or tasawwuf no longer (… be). regarded Therefore as it a legitimate[Islamic knowledge] discord, but is rather taken asand a reprehensible understood deviation (shudhudh¯ )(Kabbani 1998c, p. 111). One example concerns the nature of the performance of the daily prayer: 14 It is transmitted in different versions in the Hadith-collections of Abū Dāwūd (d. 889) in the “Book of Sunna”, chapter “Explanation of the Sunna” (sharḥ al-sunna), al-Tirmidhī (d. 892) in the “Book of Faith” according to the prophet, chapter “What has been told about the split of this Umma” (mā jāʾa fī ftirāq hādhihī l-umma) and Ibn Māja (d. 887) in the “Book of Tribulations” (fitna), chapter “The splitting up of peoples (iftirāq al-umam). It is not to be found in the collections of al-Bukhārī (d. 870) or Muslim (d. 875). 15 It can be found in Ibn Māja in the “Book of Tribulations”, chapter “Islam began as something strange” (badaʾa l-Islām gharīban). 16 This quote was first mentioned in the marginal notes (ḥāshiyāt) of the Maliki scholar Aḥmad al-ʿAdawī (d. 1775) in the explanatory work (sharḥ) of the Maliki scholar ʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad al-Manfūfī (d. 1532) on the prominent legal compendium “Risālat Ibn Abī Zaid (Epistles of Ibn Abī Zaid)”, written by the Maliki scholar Muḥammad Ibn Abī Zaid al-Qairawānī (d. 996). Almost needless to say, Salafis regard this connection as being too vague, which is why they refuse to attribute this quote to Mālik. See Islamweb (2005). Religions 2020, 11, 144 10 of 24

He advocates in his Salat al-Nabi the formula “Peace and blessings upon the Prophet” instead of “upon you, O Prophet” in the tashahhud in contradiction of the Four Sunni Schools, on the basis of a hadith of Ibn Mas’ud whereby the Companions used the indirect-speech formula after the passing of the Prophet. But the Prophet himself instructed them to pray exactly as he prayed saying: “Peace and blessings upon you, O Prophet” without telling them to change it after his death, nor did the major Companions (whose Sunna we were ordered to imitate together with that of the Prophet), such as Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, teach the Companions and Successors otherwise! (Haddad 2000).29

Thus, the Suﬁs accuse al-Alban¯ ¯ı for demanding something, which has not been demanded by the Prophet himself, something which is illicit. The argumentation becomes contradictory to some extent, however, because in the following passage, al-Alban¯ ¯ı is accused of exactly the opposite, which is prohibiting something because the Prophet did not do it.

He prohibits praying more than 11 rak’as in Tarawih prayers on the grounds that the Prophet never did and in blatant rejection of his explicit command to follow the Sunna of the well-guided Caliphs after him. (Haddad 2000)

This brings up several questions: What is more important in finding the correct doctrine, the words or the deeds of the Prophet? Does every action have to be expressed verbatim by the Prophet in order to be legitimate? What role do the actions and sayings of the companions after the death of the Prophet play in this context? Looking at the arguments put forth, it seems that the Sufis of the Na¯z. imiyya consider right what the majority of scholars have considered to be right. This does not mean that their attitudes are always more liberal than those of the Salafis. When it comes to the matter of excommunication (takf¯ır), al-Alban¯ ¯ı is accused by Haddad of being too lenient. This is because the former should have declared that a Muslim can only be regarded as an infidel (kafir¯ ) if his heart was convinced by his words or deeds containing unbelief (kufr). This would mean, in turn, that although someone who had worshipped an idol, insulted God, or killed a Prophet could technically still be considered a Muslim. Since it was unimaginable that the inner intention was opposed to such deeds, the majority of scholars have ruled that these words or deeds are a certain proof for apostasy (ridda)(Haddad 2009, p. 53).30 These apparently deviant views of al-Alban¯ ¯ı are considered by the Sufis as the result of his deficient methodology (manhaj). In relation to a Hadith in the context of intercession (tawassul), he has said that one man in the chain of narrators, Malik¯ al-Dar,¯ was unknown (majhul¯ )(Kabbani 1998b, p. 125).31 Kabbani points out, however that this claim was only based on one source, and that he neglected the fact that this person is being mentioned in another chain of narrators. According to the rules of the science of Hadith, however, nobody must be declared majhul¯ if he is mentioned in at least two Hadiths and is not explicitly listed in the authoritative works on weak narrators (Kabbani 1998d, p. 45).32 It needs to be asked therefore if al-Alban¯ ¯ı did not know the second chain of narration or whether he kept silent on it. In both cases, he had squandered his credibility as an authority in the field of Hadith. Next to his textual and methodological errors, the Sufis of the Na¯z. imiyya are appalled by the disrespect to other scholars they find in the expressions of al-Alban¯ ¯ı. The most infamous incident according to Kabbani was his claim that Abu¯ H. an¯ıfa (d. 767) was weak in his dealing with Hadith

29 The tashahhud is an invocation during prayer, where the person facing the qibla is greeting God and the messenger. 30 For an analysis of not only the legal views on apostasy, but also of its practical implementation in Islamic history, see Cook (2006). 31 The “Hadith of the blind man” can be found in al-Tirmidh¯ı in his “Book on Supplication” with no subchapter, and in Ibn Maja¯ in his “Book on Establishing the Prayer and the Sunnah Regarding Them” with no subchapter. 32 For an explanation of some less known technical terms in the science of Hadith, see Juynboll(2001). Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24

established by the Book and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these parameters. (Kabbani 1996, p. 266). From a scholarly perspective, this claim needs to be questioned insofar as certain mystics and Religions 2020, 11, 144 11 of 24 Sufi practices have been subject to strongReligions criticism 2020 by, 10 ,currents x FOR PEER other REVIEW than Salafism throughout Islamic 3 of 24 history. The institutionalization of Sufism in modern Egypt, for example, went hand in hand with the ban of certainand rituals the apparent deemed comparison unislamic(Dziri (De of Hanafi Jong 2014; 1999, fiqhSchneiders withp. 311). the 2014) Christian. During gospels his lif (Kabbanietime, Sufism 1996, pp.was 79–82).only in33 its infancy, and from what is It is noticeableThe first that claim among wasto the be Hadiths consideredknown quoted so invalid far in, histhis insofarstance context, towards as there al-Alb are thean¯ two¯ ıearly would which Sufis only are was relyfrequently rather on the ambivalent. opinions Although he believed in the used by Salafisof people to refer who to themselves. are by and largeThepower first considered statesof the thatrelics weak. the of Prophet the Their Prophet opinion has said as bearswell that asthe no in Muslim relation the abdāl Umma to, “extraordinarily the amount of pious Muslims” (Melchert will split intoprominent 73 sects, scholars only one who of havewhich2006, praised will p. be356), Absaved.u3¯ heH. an 14was The¯ıfa forskeptical second his scholarship says about that the (true) indhikr Hadith. Muslims-ceremonies, The will Sufis which say ithe is regarded as an unnecessary feel like strangerstrue that (ghurabā al-Nasa¯ʾ ¯ıin (d. a 915),world Muslim, innovationsurrounded and (Melchert Bukh by peoplear¯ ¯ı are 2001, who said pp. tofollow have356– 60).the declared wrong Ab faith.u¯ H. an15 On¯ıfa asthe “not strong one hand, withSalafis regard say that to Hadiththey are ( laisathe saved bi-l-qaw group,There¯ı f¯ı-l- h . issincead also¯ıth )”.they some This only criticism, dispute rely on amongwhat however, is found scholars was in illegitimate, the on Quran the attitude since theytowards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn and in the haveHadith been (Meijer proponents 2009, p. of 5). the This,Taymiyya legal in school turn, (d. would of 1328), Ahl make al-whoH. ad themis¯ıth, prom whilefeelinently as Ab strangersu¯ featuredH. an¯ıfa in did inthe belongSalafi wider writings to the Ahl (Krawietz 2014). His polemics 34 Muslim communityal-Ra y. According(Köpfer 2014, to thep. 454). lawsagainst The of criticism Sufis,well-known on and the praiseothermystics hand, (al-jar such hsay. aswa-l-ta thatIbn ʿifdArab ¯ılSufism), itī is(d. prohibitedis 1240) part areand well to criticize documented (Knysh 1999). On the parcel of Islam,the members then the of saved the other group school canother accordingonly hand, be scholarsMuslims to the criteriasuch who as have of George one’s joined ownMakdisi a schoolṭārī qa(d.. (In2002)Kabbani Kabbani’s have 1998d argued , p. 164).that he was himself a member of view, it is becauseCriticism of the and ongoing praise onslaught is aa form Sufi ofṭonar narratorī qaSufism (Makdisi criticism,at the 1973) hands and. This of was viewthe developed Salafis has been that as challenged aSufis religious feel (as disciplineMeier 1981; to Ansari 1985). Contemporary strangers ininvestigate the contemporary the trustworthiness Muslimresearch world of the (Kabbani transmitters suggests 1996, that of pp. “itHadith. 284 should–87). To The say nonetheless thatinterpretation members be clear ofof Ahlthe that al- H Sufism,. ad¯ıth within the boundaries of Hadiths amongdid not both criticize groups Ahl is al-Ravirtuallyy istraditionalist the historically same, they inaccuratetheology, just use had insofardifferent a place as labels. the in polemicsIbn Taymiyya’s between wor bothldview” groups (Post are 2016, p. 161). In thevery attempt well to documented portray Sufism (Makdisi as an integral1979The , antipathy p. part 4; Çakmak of the towards Islamic 2017 , Sufism p.tradition, 80). is The more Kabbani rules obvious of exal-jartensively inh. wa-l-ta the writingsd¯ıl also of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- quotes thehave founders never of been the four fully law agreed schoolsWahh upon, asā bwell as (d. they as 1792), other “are basicallytheluminaries founder subjective of of Islamic the in Wahhabi legal nature, thought. and movement therefore One from do not which contemporary Salafism of the mostyield famous any quotes consensus he uses that is can attributedemerged. be measured to4 ImamThe in idea statistical Mālik of anIbn terms” unbroken Anas ((d.Koç 795heart 2005): -,based p. 156). link35 (rābiṭa) between the student (murīd) and his The most famous critiqueshaykh, of Ab blindu¯ Han obedience¯ıfa al-Alban ¯towards¯ı relies on,him was, and apparently his claim to made stand by in Sufy a spiritualan¯ line all the way to the Whosoever practices Sufism without legal knowledge. is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] al-Thawr¯ı (d. 778), a followerProphet (tabi¯ ¯ı) of Mu theh generationammad (silsila of the) were companions for ʿAbd ofal- theWahh Prophetāb signs (sa hofaba¯ manifest). After unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes practices jurisprudence without Sufism is a deviator and who combines between the two . . he had heard of the death of1999, Abu¯ H p.an 159).¯ıfa, heStill, reportedly “Wahhābism, said: in “Praise its early be stages, to God, confronted never has Sufism been born primarily at the level of popular has found the truth (man taṣawwafa wa-lam. yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- someone more sinister in Islampractice (al-h amdand li-l-ldailyah,¯ routines. ma¯ wulida Discourse f¯ı-l Islam¯ was ash am¯not minhu)” carried (outKabbani on the 1998d level, of sophisticated theological lam yataṣawwaf fa-qad tafassaqa wa-man jama. ʿa bainahumā fa-qad taḥaqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. p. 171). Kabbani’s response toargumentation” this is that it was (Peskes highly 1999, unlikely p. 159 that). a highly respected scholar such as 278).16 al-Thawr¯ı would have said somethingThis thatwas disrespectful,rather done by especially representatives because of his the praise contemporary for Abu¯ H. Salafian¯ıfa movement. Two prominent If almostwas all well-known. prominent Ifscholars he had reallyof Islamicbooks uttered containing history these have words, a comprehensive ruled he wouldin favor have of critique Sufism disqualified of so Sufism the himself logic are goes, “These as an authority are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” there doesin not Islam, remain and any one authority should pay the noand Salafis attention “The coulddemise to this rely of statement Sufismon in their (Ma (Kabbani ṣcritiqueraʿ al- ta1998d ṣofawwuf Sufism., p.)” 172)., written As For stated the by Nʿ Abda¯z.imiyya, ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the before, thisit holds is only true the only Salafis for whowhat are was notoriousthird regarded leader for by of their the “An religious foulṣār languageal-Sunna establishment towardsal-Muḥammadiyya everybodyas orthodox” who, Sufism.Egypt’s disagrees oldest with and biggest Salafi organization The questionthem. of what In order constitutes to see whether orthodox(Gauvain this and claim non-orthodox 2015) is empirically. Other examples Sufi justifiable, beliefs can and be the foundpractices next section in thehas writings takesalways a look of ʿAbd at the al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the been an ongoingSalafi responses process of to negotiation the accusationsformer (Green levelled grand 2012). againstmufti of them. Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website Given that, according to Kabbani, certain“Islam knowledgeQ&A”. Although (yaqīn ) theycannot differentiate be obtained between by the study different of Sufi movements, both conclude that books alone,4. Theit is Salafimandatory Response to follow Sufisma shaykh would, since have “every to be true rejected Sufi inis itsa scholarentirety in (Ibn Sacred Bāz n Law,.d.; al -Munajjid 2014). Against this historical though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the The most comprehensivebackground response, to the the following accusations chapter against will the analyze Salafis some by the of Nthea¯z. imiyyamost extensivehas Sufi responses to these Salafis wasbeen a deviation formulated from by the a membertraditionSalafi of and thecriticisms, proof British that which Salafi they scene,were were published Abu a new Hudhayfah. phenomenon by the Ṭar Heīqa in belongsal -Islam,Nāẓimiyya to a group. inspired byof western Salafis associatednotions of epistemology: with the website “salafipublications.com”. The website is still in use, and was 3. A Sufi Critique of Salafism The delusionestablished that in‘no 1996 Islamic by members knowledge of ais now hidden dissolved from me organization if only I decide called to “Organisation find it in the of Associated books,Salafi’ is the Islamic Westernized Societies” belief (OASIS). of theOne This 'Salafis' of organization the who most rebel vocal was against anti led-Salafi by the the Sufiidea prominent orders of having situa British tedan in Salafi the West activist is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which 36 ImamAbu of fiqh Khadeejah or tasawwuf Abdul-Wahid. (…). Thereforeis partIt wasof it the[Islamic a breakNaqshband knowledge] off ofi “The-tradition Societyis taken in forSufism.and the understood Revival5 Several of websites the Prophetic on Islam in English are affiliated Way” (JIMAS), Britain’s first Salafiwith the organization, order.6 The founded order in in its 1984 present (Hamid form 2009 was, p. founded 394). by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī While the JIMAS leadership sympathised with the political “Sahwa”-movement in Saudi-Arabia at 14 It is transmitted in different versions in theal- Hadith-Ḥaqqāncollectionsī, known ofas AbūShaykh Dāwūd Nazim, (d. 889) who in the was “Book born of 1922 Sunna”, in what is now the Turkish part of Cyprus. chapter that“Explanation time, Abu of Khadeejahthe Sunna” belonged(sharDuringḥ al-sunna to his the), studiesal-Tirmi so-called dhin quietistīDamas (d. 892)c spectrum,usin ,the he “Book became which of Faith”the is student ideologically according of ʿ Abdto very Allah much al-Dāghistānī (d. 1973), a local the prophet, chapter “What has been toldleader about of the the split Naq ofsh thisband Umma”iyya-Kh (māālid jāiyʾaya fī .ftirāq He told hādh Shaykhihī l-umma Nazim) and to go back to Lefke in Cyprus in order Ibn Māja (d. 887) in the “Book of Tribulations”to spread (fitna his), chaptermessage “The to splittingthe western up of world peoples. The (iftirāq center al-umam of his). activities in Europe was a mosque in It is not 33to beThe found quote in in the question collections goes as of follows: London,al-Bukh “Thisār whichī (d. is evident 870) he or visited by Muslim the fact annually (d. that 875). Jesus, for peace several be upon months him, ruled, almost with our up law until and his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, 15 It can be founruledd in with Ibn theMā Quranja in the and “Book the Sunna ofpp. Tribulations”, 42 and–45) not. with somethingchapter “Islam else such began as the as gospelssomething or Hanafi strange” law or(bada somethingʾa similar hadh¯ a¯ sar¯ıh f¯ı an ¯ısa¯ alaih¯ı al-salam¯ yahkumu bi-shar ina¯ wa-yaqd¯ı bi-l-kitab¯ wa-l-sunna la¯ bi-ghairihima¯ min al-inj¯ıl au al-fiqh l-Islām gharī(ban). . . The. order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch 16 This quote wasal-h. anaf first¯ı wa-na mentionedh. wahu)“. in This the comparison marginal is notes supposedly (ḥāshiy foundāt) of in the his Maliki commentary scholar on “AMukhtasarḥmad al-s.ʿaAdawh. ¯ıh. Muslimī (d.(Summary of the Hadith collection of Muslim)”and of the denies Shafii Hadithother scholarorders Zak to¯ı be al-D on¯ın Abtheu¯ Musamehammad level al-Mundhir (Dantschke¯ı (d. 1258).et al. It2001, is said p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This 1775) in the explanatory work (sharḥ) of the Maliki scholar ʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad al-Manf. ūfī (d. 1532) on the that the commentary has been removedclaim fromis unsurprisingly later editions. I was disputed not able toby detect other a versionbranches containing of the the Naqshbandiyya original citation., for example, by the Istanbul- prominent legalLooking compendium at Salafi websites, “Risālat however, Ibn Abī it is Zaid possible (Epistles to find of the Ibn quote, Abī which Zaid)”, is interpreted written by in the a di ffMalikierent way: scholar al-Alb an¯ ¯ı did not Muḥammadequate Ibn Ab Hanafiī Zaidfiqh al-Qairawwith the gospels,ānī (d. all 996). he wanted Almost to needless do is to point to say, to the Salafis fact that regard there werethis Hanaficonnection scholars as who stick so much to their fiqh that they neglect the Quran and the Sunna. See Sunnah.net(2011). being too vague, which is why they refuse3 toIt attributeis unclear this if the quote description to Mālik. of See abdāl Islamweb as “extraordinarily (2005). pious Muslims” is taken from the writings of Ibn 34 The school of the textualists (Ahl al-Had¯ıth) and the school of the rationalists (Ahl al-Ra y) were the two major legal schools in . Ḥ Islam before the formation of the four contemporaryanbal or if it lawis an schools. explanation For a depiction by Melchert. of this In process later seeSufism, (Melchert the abdāl1997). are For more the than just pious. They are seen as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). two terms Ahl/As.hab¯ al-H. ad¯ıth and Ahl/As.hab¯ al-Ra y see (Schacht 2012a) and (Schacht 2012b). 4 35 For a depiction of this process from the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). On the politicized use of al-jarh. wa-l-ta d¯ıl in intra-Salafi polemics see (Meijer 2011). 36 https://www.abukhadeejah.com/5. Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/.

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

(Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is known so far, his stance towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). Religions 2020, 11, 144 12 of 24 There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominently featured in Salafi writings (Krawietz 2014). His polemics against attachedwell-known to the mystics Saudi scholarsuch as RabIbn¯ ıʿArabIbn Hī ad(d.¯ ¯ı 1240) al-Madkhal are well¯ı. The documented group around (Knysh Abu 1999). Khadeejah On the is known other hand,for its scholars lengthy such polemics as George also against Makdisi other (d. currents2002) have of theargued Salafi that spectrum, he was suchhimself as thosea membe associatedr of with a Sufi ṭarBilalīqa (Makdisi Philips (Duderija 1973). This and view Rasool has 2019 been). challenged Since it regards (Meier itself 1981; as theAnsari only 1985). legitimate Contemporary group to carry the researchlabel suggests “Salafism”, that it“it was should pejoratively nonetheless dubbed be the clear “Super that Salafis” Sufism, by within other Salafi the boundaries currents (Hamid of 2008, traditionalistp. 11). theology, In an article had by a place Abu Iyad,in Ibn who Taymiyya’s is administrating worldview” the (Post website 2016, “salafipublications.com”, p. 161). we can Thefind antipathy a self-description towards Sufism of the group: is more obvious in the writings of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhāb (d. 1792), the founder of the Wahhabi movement from which contemporary Salafism He [the Salafi] is not of the sects of the Khawaarij who consider the Muslims to be Kaafirs emerged.4 The idea of an unbroken heart-based link (rābiṭa) between the student (murīd) and his (nonbelievers) due to their committing major sins, and make lawful the taking of their wealth shaykh, blind obedience towards him, and his claim to stand in a spiritual line all the way to the and blood. He is not of the sects of the Shi’ah (Shi’ites) who hate and curse the Prophet’s Prophet Muhammad (silsila) were for ʿAbd al-Wahhāb signs of manifest unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes Companions and claim them to be apostates, claim that the Qur’an has been altered, reject 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular the authentic Sunnah and worship the Prophet’s Family, peace be upon them. He is not of the practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological Qadar¯ıyah who deny Qadr (the Divine Decree). He is not of the Murjiah who claim Imaan argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). (Faith) to be only in words and not in deed. He is not of the Asharriyah who deny Allah’s This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent Attributes. He is not of the Sufis who worship graves, saints and claim Divine incarnation. books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” He is not of the Muqallidoon who necessitate that every Muslim adhere to the Madhhab and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the (School of Thought) of a particular Imam or Shaikh, even when that madhhab differs with third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization the clear verses of the Qur’an and authentic hadiths of the Prophet, peace be upon him. (Iyad (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbdReligions al-ʿAz 2020īz Ibn, 10 ,B xā FORz (d. PEER 1999), REVIEW the 5 of 24 n.d.) former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website “Islam Q&A”.The Although text mingles they historical differentiate and between contemporary different Muslim Sufi movements, currents,established which both are byconclude consideredthe Book that and deviant the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these Sufism wouldby the have Salafis to aroundbe rejected Abu in Khadeejah.its entirety (Ibn As Bāz can n be.d. seen,; al-Munajjid the Sufis 201 areparameters.4). one Against of the (Kabbani this groups historical 1996, mentioned. p. 266). backgroundThe following, the following analysis chapter willrely will on analyze a series some of 21 of articles the most written extensive byFrom Abu Sufi Hudhayfah a responsesscholarly called perspective,to these “Exposing this claim needs to be questioned insofar as certain mystics and Salafi criticisms,Kabbani”, which which were can bepublished found in by the the section Ṭarīqa “Callersal-Nāẓimiyya & Individuals”. Sufi practices on “salafipublications.com”. have been subject to strong37 criticism by currents other than Salafism throughout Islamic history. The institutionalization of Sufism in modern Egypt, for example, went hand in hand with the 4.1. Countering the Accusation of Anthropomorphism 3. A Sufi Critique of Salafism ban of certain rituals deemed unislamic (De Jong 1999, p. 311). One of theThe most majority vocal ofanti the-Salafi arguments Sufi orders employed situated by in Salafis the West against is the It SufisṬ arīqais noticeable revolve al-Nāẓim aroundthatiyya among, which the age-old the Hadiths quoted in this context, there are two which are frequently is part ofdebate the Naqshband of the righti interpretation-tradition in Sufism. of God’s5 Several attributes websites and the on pitfalls usedIslam by ofin Salafis anthropomorphism.English to referare affiliated to themselves. Based on The first states that the Prophet has said that the Muslim Umma with thea order. part of6 SuraThe 42,order Verse in its 11, present both Salafis form and was non-Salafis founded by alike Mu denyḥammadwill any split interpretation N intoāẓim 73 ʿĀ sects,dil whichal only-Qibr likensoneīṣī of God which will be saved.14 The second says that (true) Muslims will al-Ḥaqqtoān hisī, known creation. as 38ShaykhWhile Nazim, non-Salafis who resortwas born to some 1922 extent in what to is metaphorical nowfeel thelike Turkish strangers interpretation part (ghurabā of Cyprus (taʾ win¯ıl ),.a Salafisworld surrounded by people who follow the wrong faith.15 On the During insisthis studies that thein Damas immediatecus, he meaning became ofthe the student words of has ʿAbd to beAllah accepted,one al- Dhand,āgh butist Salafisā theirnī (d. say nature1973), that a orthey local “howness” are the saved group, since they only rely on what is found in the Quran leader of(kaifiyya the Naq)sh remainsbandiyya unknown.-Khālidiyya39. HeThey told point Shaykh to a Nazim quote ofto Imamgo backand M toalik,¯in Lefkethe who Hadith in isCyprus reported (Meijer in order to2009, have p. said5). This, in turn, would make them feel as strangers in the wider to spreadthat his one message should to not the even western ponder world about. The how center God of has his establishedactivitiesMuslim in himselfEurope community (wasistaw aa¯ )(Köpfermosque upon the 2014,in throne, p. 454). The Sufis, on the other hand, say that if Sufism is part and London,as which mentioned he visited in Sura annually 20, Verse for 5.several Malik¯ months is supposed, almost to haveup until said:parcel his death of Islam, in 2014 then (Atay the saved2012, group can only be Muslims who have joined a ṭārīqa. In Kabbani’s pp. 42–45). view, it is because of the ongoing onslaught on Sufism at the hands of the Salafis that Sufis feel as The establishment on the throne is not unknown, the how is beyond the intellect, the belief The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of strangersthe Naqshbandiyya in the contemporary Sufi branch Muslim world (Kabbani 1996, pp. 284–87). The interpretation of the in it is obligatory, and asking about it is an innovation (al-istiwa¯ ghayr majhul¯ wa-l-kayf ghayr and denies other orders to be on the same level (Dantschke et al. 2001,Hadiths p. 92; Atay among 2012, both p. groups226). This is virtually the same, they just use different labels. ma qul¯ wa-l-iman¯ bihi wajib¯ wa-s-su al¯ anhu bid a). (Abdul-Raof 2012, p. 151) claim is unsurprisingly disputed by other branches of the Naqshbandiyya, forIn example the attempt, by the to portrayIstanbul Sufism- as an integral part of the Islamic tradition, Kabbani extensively Taking this as a premise Kabbani is accused of negatingquotes the fact the that founders the meaning of the four of the law word schools as well as other luminaries of Islamic legal thought. One 3 It is unclearistawa¯ is if known.the description His argument of abdāl as that “extraordinarily the meaning ofpious the Muslims” ambiguousof is the taken verses mo fromst ( mutashfamous the writingsabih¯ quotesat¯ ) is of onlyhe Ibn uses known is attributed to Imam Mālik Ibn Anas (d. 795): Ḥanbalto or God if it is is challenged an explanation by theby Melchert. Salafis, whoIn later claim Sufism, that the the abdāl ambiguousness are more thanWhosoever is just only pious. valid practices They for are the Sufismseen “howness” without legal knowledge is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] as saints,and without not for whom the meaning the universe of these would verses be thrown (Abu off Hudhayfah balance (Goldziher 1999c). practicesand If theKissling meaning jurisprudence 2012). was not without known, Sufism is a deviator and who combines between the two 4 For a depiction of this process from the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). there would be no possibility to know God, something the famoushas Qur’anic found exegetesthe truth Ibn(man Kath taṣ¯ırawwafa and wa-lam yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. al-Tabar¯ı (d. 923) have declared to be the meaning of Sura 51, Verse 56 “I haveṣ only created jinns and ʿ ḥ 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/lam yata awwaf fa-qad tafassaqaor wa-man jama a bainahumā fa-qad ta aqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. men, that they may serve Me”. In fact, it would render the whole prophetic16 message null and void. https://eshaykh.com/. 278). In this context Abu Hudhayfah asserts: If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, there does not remain any authority the Salafis could rely on in their critique of Sufism. As stated before, this holds true only for what was regarded by the religious establishment as orthodox Sufism. 37 http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?secID=NDV&subsecID=NDV07&loadpage=displaysubsection.cfm. 38 “[ ... ] there is nothing whatever like unto Him (laisa ka-mithlihi shay )”. ForThe a thorough question analysis of what of both constitutes Salafi and non-Salafi orthodox and non-orthodox Sufi beliefs and practices has always perspectives on anthropomorphism see (Gharaibeh 2014). been an ongoing process of negotiation (Green 2012). 39 For an analysis of the foundations of the “Bi-la¯ Kayfa” doctrine in Islamic theologyGiven see ( Abrahamovthat, according 1995). to Kabbani, certain knowledge (yaqīn) cannot be obtained by the study of books alone, it is mandatory to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the Salafis was a deviation from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, inspired by western notions of epistemology: The delusion that ‘no Islamic knowledge is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in the books,’ is the Westernized belief of the 'Salafis' who rebel against the idea of having an Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is taken and understood

Either the Prophet ( ... ) knew the meanings of the words with which Allaah described Himself or he did not. If he knew them then he would have taught their meanings to his Companions by virtue of the command of His Lord: “O Messenger! Proclaim that which has been sent down to you from your Lord. And if you do not do it, then you have not Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24 conveyed His message.” (5:67). And if he ( ... ) did not know their meaning then it results in a Messenger from Allaah who speaks about His Lord’s Attributesestablished and yet he by does the notBook and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these know what they mean and he is speaking with words he does notparameters. understand, (Kabbani and this 1996, p. 266). is inconceivable. (Abu Hudhayfah 1999c) From a scholarly perspective, this claim needs to be questioned insofar as certain mystics and The Salafis further accuse the Sufis of using double standards. WasSufi it not practices al-Daghest¯ havean¯ been¯ı, Kabbani’s subject to strong criticism by currents other than Salafism throughout Islamic teacher himself, who has said that he dreamt of Allah’s eyes and describedhistory. The their institutionalization beauty?40 If the of Sufism in modern Egypt, for example, went hand in hand with the apparent meaning of these words was not intended, then what elseban was of certain meant (ritualsAbu Hudhayfah deemed unislamic (De Jong 1999, p. 311). 1999d)? This accusation indicates that the Salafis do not limit their critiqueIt is noticeable to the “Encyclopedia”, that among the Hadiths quoted in this context, there are two which are frequently but also consider other works of the Na¯z. imiyya in order to look for potentialused by points Salafis of to criticism. refer to themselves. Given The first states that the Prophet has said that the Muslim Umma the fact that the master of a Sufi order yields unrivaled spiritual authority,will split Kabbani into 73 issects, portrayed only one as of which will be saved.14 The second says that (true) Muslims will either disobeying his master or giving up on his stances towards metaphoricalfeel like strangers interpretation (ghurabā (taʾ win¯ıl ).a world surrounded by people who follow the wrong faith.15 On the The issue of ta w¯ıl as used by Sufis is one of the main issues the Salafisone hand, take Salafis offence say at. that For they them, are the saved group, since they only rely on what is found in the Quran any interpretation must be based on a textual proof “since it is only throughand in revelation the Hadith that (Meijer knowledge 2009, p. 5). This, in turn, would make them feel as strangers in the wider of the Unseen can be arrived at” (Abu Hudhayfah 1999b). In order to substantiateMuslim community that claim, (Köpfer the author 2014, p. 454). The Sufis, on the other hand, say that if Sufism is part and draws back on the medieval polemics between the scholars of speculativeparcel theology of Islam, (kal thenam¯ ) the and saved those group can only be Muslims who have joined a ṭārīqa. In Kabbani’s who relied on the textualist method of the Ahl al-Had¯ıth. He quotes Ibn Qudview,ama¯ it is (d. because 1223) as of a proponentthe ongoing onslaught on Sufism at the hands of the Salafis that Sufis feel as of the latter saying: strangers in the contemporary Muslim world (Kabbani 1996, pp. 284–87). The interpretation of the Hadiths among both groups is virtually the same, they just use different labels. If he should say: ‘You have abstained from the interpretation of theIn Qur’anic the attempt verses to portray and Sufism as an integral part of the Islamic tradition, Kabbani extensively narrations which have come down to us in respect of the Attributes,quotes claiming the founders that the of Salaf the four law schools as well as other luminaries of Islamic legal thought. One did make ta’weel of them and explain them, then he is utteringof the falsehood, most famous forging quotes lies, he uses is attributed to Imam Mālik Ibn Anas (d. 795): and is guilty of the most grievous aberration. For there is no question about the fact that the doctrine of the Salaf, in this regard, consisted in acknowledgement,Whosoever unreserved practices approval, Sufism without legal knowledge is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] and avoidance of the temerity of using allegorical interpretation (ta’weel)practices and jurisprudence resemblance. without Sufism is a deviator and who combines between the two ṣ Moreover, the fundamental rule is to presume the lack of their use of ta’weel.has found So, letthe him truth who (man ta awwafa wa-lam yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- ṣ ʿ ḥ claims that they did interpret them allegorically produce evidence in supportlam yata ofawwaf his statement. fa-qad tafassaqa wa-man jama a bainahumā fa-qad ta aqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. 16 But there is no way of knowing this save by the transmission and278) relation. of narrations. Let him then transmit to us narrations to this effect on the authorityIf ofalmost the Messenger all prominent of scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, Allaah ( ... ) or his Companions orReligions from 20 one20, of10,the x FOR Successors PEER REVIEW or onethere of thedoes approved not remain Imaams. any authority the Salafis could rely on in3 of their 24 critique of Sufism. As stated Furthermore, he who claims this is one of the people of kalaam (theologicalbefore, this rhetoric), holds true and only they for what was regarded by the religious establishment as orthodox Sufism. are the most ignorant of men with(Dziri regard 2014; to Schneiders the narrations. 2014)41. DuringThe question his lifetime of what, Sufism constitutes was only orthodox in its infancy and non-orthodox, and from what Sufi is beliefs and practices has always known so far, his stance towardsbeen the anearly ongoing Sufis was process rather of ambivalent.negotiation (GreenAlthough 2012). he believed in the The quote suggests arbitrarinesspower when of it comesthe relics to figurativeof the Prophet interpretation. as Givenwell as that, Itin also the according suggestsabdāl, “extraordinarily to that Kabbani, certain pious knowledge Muslims” ((Melcheryaqīn) cannott be obtained by the study of 3 the historical Salaf were opposed to this.2006, Modern p. 356), day he Asharis was skeptical would counterbooks about alone,the these dhikr claimsit is-ceremonies, mandatory and say that whichto follow he aregarded shaykh, assince an “unnecessaryevery true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, the Salaf simply had no necessity to debateinnovation such issues.(Melchert Things, 2001, however, pp. 356though– changed60). the reverse with the is emergence not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the ḥ of the philosophers and members of otherThere faiths is who also challenged some dispute theSalafis basic among tenets was scholars a of deviation Islamic on thetheology. from attitude the tradition towards and Sufism proof of that A theymad were Ibn a new phenomenon in Islam, It was only then that Muslims startedTaymiyya to use the (d. instruments 1328), who of Greekis prominspired rationalisminently by featured western and logic in notions Salafi to defend writingsof epistemology: (Krawietz 2014). His polemics themselves. From the perspective of traditionallyagainst well- trainedknown Asharimystics and such Maturidi as Ibn ʿulamAraba¯ī ,(d.ta 1240)w¯ıl is onlyare well to documented (Knysh 1999). On the be used by the experts in Islamic exegesisother andhand, not scholars by the laymen.such as George (Gesink MakdisiThe 2010 delusion, p. (d. 233). 2002) that42 have‘no Islamic argued knowledge that he was is himself hidden afrom membe me rif of only I decide to find it in the How then do the Salafis explaina theSufi alleged ṭarīqa (Makdisi metaphorical 1973) interpretation. This viewbooks, has of been’ God’s is thechallengedface Westernized by Imam (Meier belief 1981; of Ansari the 'Salafis' 1985). Contemporarywho rebel against the idea of having an Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is taken and understood Ah. mad mentioned in this article inresearch Section 3.2 suggests “On the that status “it should of the Prophet nonetheless and sound be clear belief”? that Sufism, within the boundaries of traditionalist theology, had a place in Ibn Taymiyya’s worldview” (Post 2016, p. 161). The antipathy towards Sufism14 It is is transmitted more obvious in different in the versions writings in the of Hadith- Muḥammadcollections Ibn of ʿ AbdAbū Dāwūd al- (d. 889) in the “Book of Sunna”, 40 This statement can be found in (Qibrisi 1980Wahh, p. 44).āb (d. 1792), the founder ofchapter the Wahhabi “Explanation movement of the Sunna” from ( shar whichḥ al-sunna contemporary), al-Tirmidh Salafismī (d. 892) in the “Book of Faith” according to 41 This lengthy quote by Ibn Qudama¯ is originallyemerged. found4 inT (heMakdisi idea 1985 of , an p. 7). unbrokenthe heart prophet,-based chapter link “What (rābiṭ ahas) between been told the about student the split (mur of thisīd) andUmma” his (mā jāʾa fī ftirāq hādhihī l-umma) and 42 It is therefore no coincidence that the Syrianshaykh, Ashari blind scholar obedience Sa ¯ıd Rama d.towardsan¯ al-Bu¯ t.¯ı (d.himIbn 2013) ,Mā andja is (d. frequentlyhis 887) claim in quotedthe to “Bookstand in the ofin Tribulations” a spiritual line(fitna all), chapter the way “The to splittingthe up of peoples (iftirāq al-umam). works of Kabbani. Prophet Muhammad (silsila) were forIt is ʿAbd not to al be-Wahh foundā bin signs the collections of manifest of al- unbeliefBukhār ī( (d.kufr 870) bawā orḥ Muslim) (Peskes (d. 875). 15 It can be found in Ibn Māja in the “Book of Tribulations”, chapter “Islam began as something strange” (badaʾa 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular l-Islām gharīban). practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological 16 This quote was first mentioned in the marginal notes (ḥāshiyāt) of the Maliki scholar Aḥmad al-ʿAdawī (d. argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 1591775)). in the explanatory work (sharḥ) of the Maliki scholar ʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad al-Manfūfī (d. 1532) on the This was rather done by representativesprominent legalof the compendium contemporary “Risālat Salafi Ibn movement. Abī Zaid (Epistles Two ofprominent Ibn Abī Zaid)”, written by the Maliki scholar books containing a comprehensive critiqueMuḥammad of Sufism Ibn Ab areī Zaid “These al-Qairaw are theānī Sufis(d. 996). (Hādhihī Almost hiya needless l-ṣūfiyya to say,)” Salafis regard this connection as and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ beingal-taṣ tooawwuf vague,)”, written which is by why ʿAbd they ar refuse-Raḥ mtoā attributen al-Wak thisīl ( quoted. 1971), to Mālik. the See Islamweb (2005). third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website “Islam Q&A”. Although they differentiate between different Sufi movements, both conclude that Sufism would have to be rejected in its entirety (Ibn Bāz n.d.; al-Munajjid 2014). Against this historical background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these Salafi criticisms, which were published by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya.

3. A Sufi Critique of Salafism One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which is part of the Naqshbandi-tradition in Sufism.5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated with the order.6 The order in its present form was founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī al-Ḥaqqānī, known as Shaykh Nazim, who was born 1922 in what is now the Turkish part of Cyprus. During his studies in Damascus, he became the student of ʿAbd Allah al-Dāghistānī (d. 1973), a local leader of the Naqshbandiyya-Khālidiyya. He told Shaykh Nazim to go back to Lefke in Cyprus in order to spread his message to the western world. The center of his activities in Europe was a mosque in London, which he visited annually for several months, almost up until his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, pp. 42–45). The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch and denies other orders to be on the same level (Dantschke et al. 2001, p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This claim is unsurprisingly disputed by other branches of the Naqshbandiyya, for example, by the Istanbul-

Religions 2020, 11, 144 14 of 24

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24 According to Abu Hudhayfah this interpretation has simply never been made by Ibn H. anbal. The chain (Dziri 2014; Schneidersof narration 2014) (.isn Duringad¯ ) for his this lif reportetime, wasSufism weak was and only has in to its be infancy rejected., and For from him, what this makesis much more known so far, hissense stance insofar towards as there the wouldearly Sufis be countless was rather authentic ambivalent. reports Although which state he thatbelieved Ibn H. inanbal the always relied on power of the relicsa literal of the interpretation Prophet as well of the as religiousin the abdāl proof, “extraordinarily text, something pious already Muslims Ibn Taymiyya” (Melcher hadt acknowledged 2006, p. 356),3 he(Abu was Hudhayfah skeptical about 1999h the). dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary innovation (MelchertGetting 2001, pp. back 356 at–60). Ibn Taymiyya’s and Ibn Uthaym¯ın’s apparent comparison of God with the moon There is alsoand some the sun, dispute respectively, among Abuscholars Hudhayfah on the cannotattitude understand towards Sufism Kabbani’s of A problem.ḥmad Ibn Both scholars had Taymiyya (d. 1328),explicitly who aisffi promrmedinently the prohibition featured of in likening Salafi writings God to his (Krawietz creation. 2014) They. simplyHis polemics wanted to illustrate the against well-knownArabic mystics word such “with” as Ibn (ma ʿaArab), asī in(d. the 1240) Sura are 57, well Verse documented 4 “And He (Knysh is with 1999). you wheresoever On the ye may be” other hand, scholars(Abu such Hudhayfah as George 1999a Makdisi). In fact, (d. 2002) for Abu have Hudhayfa, argued that Kabbani’s he was criticism himself a of membe Ibn Taymiyyar of was nothing a Sufi ṭarīqa (Makdisishort 1973) of disparaging. This view the has Prophet, been challenged who has ( usedMeier the 1981; same Ansari comparison 1985). Contemporary when he told his companions: research suggests“You that will “it certainly should see nonetheless your Lord as be you clear see that this moon, Sufism, and within there willthe beboundaries no trouble of in seeing Him”.43 traditionalist theology,Kabbani had is furthera place advisedin Ibn Taymiyya’s to have better wor listenedldview” to (Post his own 2016, master, p. 161). who, in his book “Mercy Oceans” The antipathywrote: towards “Allah Sufism Almighty is more called obvious Muhammad in the writings ( ... ) to of His Mu Divineḥammad Presence, Ibn ʿAbd and al the- Prophet ( ... ) Wahhāb (d. 1792),went the as ordered,founder justof the as a Wahhabi dignitary movement is received fromby the which Queen contemporary of England” ( Qibrisi Salafism 1980 , p. 7). Again, emerged.4 The ideathe rhetorical of an unbroken strategy heart employed-based link at this (rāb pointiṭa) between by the Salafis the student is one (mur of accusingīd) and his the Sufis of being shaykh, blind obedienceinconsistent towards and contradictory, him, and his whichclaim wasto stand a trademark in a spiritual of deviant line all beliefs. the way to the Prophet Muhammad (silsila) were for ʿAbd al-Wahhāb signs of manifest unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes 1999, p. 159). Still,4.2. “Wahhābism, Further Points in ofits Contention early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular practice and daily routines.The same Discourse is true forwas Abu not Hudhayfahcarried out on concerning the level theof sophisticated story of the slavetheological girl. From the Salafis’ argumentation” perspective,(Peskes 1999, the p. answer159). given by the girl (“Allah is in the heaven”) was the only acceptable answer, This was rathersince don everythinge by representatives else would be of speculation.the contemporary The proof Salafi is thatmovement. the Prophet Two wasprominent satisfied by her answer. ṣ books containingTo a substantiatecomprehensive this critique claim, Abu of Sufism Hudhayfah are “These quotes are Ab theu¯ HSufis. an¯ıfa, (Hādhihī whose hiya quote l- ū fromfiyya his)” “al-fiqh al-akbar and “The demise(The of Sufism Greatest (Ma Insight)”ṣraʿ al-ta44ṣawwufis to be)”, found written in by Kabbani’s ʿAbd ar- bookRaḥm himself:ān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization (Gauvain 2015). OtherAllah examples has no can limits, be found nor anyin the rivals writings... He of whoʿAbd says: al-ʿAz ‘Iīz do Ibn not Bā knowz (d. 1999), if my the Lord is in the former grand mufti ofheavens Saudi Arabia or on, earth’as well is as a Ṣ disbeliever,āliḥ al-Munajjid, and he who who administrates says: ‘He is the on Salafi the Throne, website and I do not “Islam Q&A”. Althoughknow they whether differentiate the Throne between is in the different heaven Sufi or on movements, the earth,’ he both is also conclude a disbeliever. that (Kabbani Sufism would have to1996 be rejected, p. 136) in its entirety (Ibn Bāz n.d.; al-Munajjid 2014). Against this historical background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these Salafi criticisms, whichKabbani were published has used thisby the quote Ṭar asīqa a al proof-Nāẓimiyya that whoever. describes a place to Allah was an unbeliever. He relies thereby on the interpretation of this passage by the famous scholar of Islamic creed ( aq¯ıda) 3. A Sufi CritiqueAb ofu¯ MansSalafism.ur¯ al-M atur¯ ¯ıd. ¯ı (d. 941). This view is discarded as erroneous by Abu Hudhayfah because it apparently neglects the context in which this statement was made. The narration goes as follows: One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which is part of the NaqshbandAbooi- Mutee’tradition al-Hakam in Sufism. ibn5 ‘AbdullahSeveral websites al-Balkee on said: Islam “I in asked English Aboo are Haneefah affiliated about the one with the order.6 The whoorder says: in its ‘I present do not knowform was whether founded my Lordby Mu isḥ inammad the sky N orāẓim the ʿĀ earth.’”dil al-Q Soibr heīṣīsaid: ‘He is al-Ḥaqqānī, known asa Shaykh kaafir, forNazim, Allaah, who the was Most born High, 1922 says: in what “The is Most now Mercifulthe Turkish has part ascended of Cyprus over. the Throne” During his studies in andDamas Hiscus Throne, he became is above the the student heavens.’ of ʿAbd So I Allah said: “Ifal-D heāgh says:istān ‘Iī say(d. 1973), that He a local ascended above leader of the Naqshbandtheiy Throneya-Khālid butiyya I. do He not told know Shaykh whether Nazim the to Throne go back is to in Lefke the heavens in Cyprus or thein order earth.’” He said: to spread his message‘If to he the denies western that Heworld is above. The center the sky of then his heactivities is a kaafir’. in Europe (Abu was Hudhayfah a mosque 1999g in ) London, which he visited annually for several months, almost up until his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, pp. 42–45). Thus, Abu Hudhayfah concludes that al-Matur¯ ¯ıd¯ı’s and subsequently Kabbani’s reading is wrong, The order regardand whoevers itself as denies the most that Allahauthentic is above representative his throne was of the a k afir¯Naqshbandiyya. What is interesting Sufi branch about this passage is and denies otherthat orders it is to originally be on the found same in level an explanatory (Dantschke work et al. (2001,sharh. ) p. of 92 the; Atay prominent 2012, p. work 226). “Al- ThisAq ¯ıda al-.tah. awiyya¯ claim is unsurprisingly(The Creed disputed of al- byT. a hother. aw¯ ¯ı)” branches by the supposedly of the Naqshbandiyya Hanafi scholar, for exampleAl¯ı bin, byAl the¯ı Ibn Istanbul Ab¯ı l- -Izz (d. 1390) (Ibn Ab ¯ıl-’Izz 1997 , p. 222). “Al- Aq¯ıda al-.tah. awiyya¯ ” goes back to the Hanafi Egyptian scholar Abu¯ Ja far 3 It is unclear if the description of abdāl as “extraordinarily pious Muslims” is taken from the writings of Ibn Ḥanbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdāl are more than just pious. They are seen as saints, without43 whomThe Hadith the isuniverse to be found would in al-Bukh be thrownar¯ ¯ı in the off “Book balance of Times (Goldziher of the Prayers”, and Kissling chapter: 2012). Superiority of the Fajr [early morning] 4 For a depiction of prayerthis process (fad. l s.al fromat¯ al-fajr the). perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). 44 On this book see (Van Ess 1991). 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/.

Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

(Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is known so far, his stance towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). Religions 2020, 11, 144 15 of 24 There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominently featured in Salafi writings (Krawietz 2014). His polemics al-T. ah. aw¯ ¯ı (d. 933). He lived approximately at the sameagainst time as well the other-known two mystics famous such scholars as Ibn of ʿaqArab¯ıda,ī (d. 1240) are well documented (Knysh 1999). On the Abu¯ l-H. asan al-Ash ar¯ı (d. 936) and al-Matur¯ ¯ıd¯ı. Hisother work hand, was an scholars attempt such to provide as George a theological Makdisi (d. 2002) have argued that he was himself a member of consensus on basic Islamic creedal positions, which werea Sufi fiercely ṭarīqa fought (Makdisi over 1973) during. This that view time has (Calder been challenged (Meier 1981; Ansari 1985). Contemporary 2012). Since the theological schools of today were not fullyresearch formed suggests during that that “it time, should both Salafis nonetheless and be clear that Sufism, within the boundaries of non-Salafis try to interpret “Al- Aq¯ıda al-.tah. awiyya¯ ” throughtraditionalist their own theology, theological had a lenses.place in As Ibn for Taymiyya’s Ibn worldview” (Post 2016, p. 161). Ab¯ı l- Izz, despite being a Hanafi in madhhab, he belonged toThe the antipathy textualists, towards which is Sufism why his is sharhmore. is obvious in the writings of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- famous among Salafis. Their critics on the other handWahh go asāb far (d. as 1792),denying the the founder existence of of the Ibn Wahhabi Ab¯ı movement from which contemporary Salafism l- Izz. Some even claim it was just a pseudonym foremerged. Ibn Qayim4 T al-Jawziyyahe idea of an (d. unbroken 1350), the heart famous-based link (rābiṭa) between the student (murīd) and his student of Ibn Taymiyya (Haddad 2015).45 This passageshaykh, illustrates blind thatobedience both Salafis towards and him Sufis, and try tohis claim to stand in a spiritual line all the way to the co-opt partially the same medieval authorities to giveProphet more legitimacy Muhammad to their (silsila claims.) were for ʿAbd al-Wahhāb signs of manifest unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes As has been shown in Section 3.3 of this paper, “On1999, the p. bad 159). character Still, “Wahhābism, of Salafis”, thein its Sufis early of stages, the confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular Na¯z. imiyya accuse the Salafis of tampering with the classicalpractice works and by addingdaily routines. to and subtracting Discourse passages was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological from the originals. The Salafis, in turn, accuse the Sufisargumentation” of a selective reading, (Peskes which 1999, leaves p. 159 out). decisive passages and thereby gives a totally wrong impression of the author’sThis was original rather don intent.e by The representatives case in point isof the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent a quote where Ibn Taymiyya had seemingly described a bodybooks to containing Allah (Kabbani a comprehensive 1996, p. 66). According critique of to Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” Abu Hudhayfah, Ibn Taymiyya was quoting someone elseand in “The this demise passage of in Sufism order to (Ma portrayṣraʿ al the-taṣ falsityawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the of anthropomorphist views. Leaving out the informationthird that leader Ibn Taymiyyaof “Anṣār wasal-Sunna already al-Mu referringḥammadiyya to ”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization someone else was an act of deliberate deception. (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website How ludicrous then are the words of Kabbani: ‘We warn the reader not to be deceived by “Islam Q&A”. Although they differentiate between different Sufi movements, both conclude that the disclaimer invoked by some of Ibn Taymiyya’s admirers that he did not really hold all Sufism would have to be rejected in its entirety (Ibn Bāz n.d.; al-Munajjid 2014). Against this historical these beliefs but merely quoted them in his review of the positions of those he criticized.’. background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these (Abu Hudhayfah 1999e) Salafi criticisms, which were published by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya. As stated before, the Sufis try to reinforce their arguments through statements by prominent legal scholars of the Islamic tradition. At the same time, they3. continue A Sufi Critique to insist on of theSalafism claim that the spiritual leaders of the Sufi .turuq are superior to legal scholars, sinceOne they of are the able most to vocal receive anti direct-Salafi inspiration Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which from God (ilham¯ ). The Salafis therefore look for other worksis part than of the the “Encyclopedia Naqshbandi-tradition of Islamic in Doctrine” Sufism.5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated authored by the Na¯z. imiyya in order to confront them withwith contradictory the order.6 statements. The order Onein its of present the passages form was founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī quoted is taken from Kabbani’s “Mercy Oceans Shoreal of-Ḥ Safety”,aqqānī, known where as it saysShaykh that Nazim, the knowledge who was born 1922 in what is now the Turkish part of Cyprus. of previous generations of scholars had “become as nothingDuring inhis the studies ocean in of Damas knowledgecus, he of became the saints the student of ʿAbd Allah al-Dāghistānī (d. 1973), a local of this present day umma” (Kabbani 1993, p. 93). Withleader regard of the to Naq thissh statement,bandiyya-Kh Abuālidiy Hudhayfahya. He told Shaykh Nazim to go back to Lefke in Cyprus in order ironically asks: to spread his message to the western world. The center of his activities in Europe was a mosque in What benefit, therefore, is there in Kabbani quotingLondon, the earlier which scholars he visited if, as annually he would for have several months, almost up until his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, us understand, their knowledge is over and donepp. with, 42–45) it. is now limited to its own time and place? (Abu Hudhayfah 1999e) The order regards itself as the most authentic representative of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi branch and denies other orders to be on the same level (Dantschke et al. 2001, p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This The final issue to be discussed here is about terminology.claim is unsurprisingly The previous section disputed has by depicted other branches the of the Naqshbandiyya, for example, by the Istanbul- Sufi defense of the term tasawwuf as a legitimate Islamic science. The Salafis use a similar argumentation with regard to the term bi-dhatihi¯ (“with his essence”) in relation to the establishment of Allah over the 3 It is unclear if the description of abdāl as “extraordinarily pious Muslims” is taken from the writings of Ibn throne. For the Sufis, the use of this term is illegitimate, since it has no precedence in the Qur’an and Ḥanbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdāl are more than just pious. They are seen Sunna. This point of criticism by Sufis is, in turn, taken upas by saints, the Salafis,without whowhom say: the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012). 4 There are a number of phrases and terminologies used For withina depiction the variousof this process Islamic from sciences, the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015). 5 Ḥ Ḥ ẓ such as the science of hadeeth, fiqh, tajweed and theirAlso like,known which as Naqshbandiyya are not to beaqq foundāniyya in, aqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nā imiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or either the Qur’aan or hadeeth. Should all these terms then be rejected? ( ... ) Accordingly, https://eshaykh.com/. the term bi dhatihi, although not employed to begin with, came into use at the appropriate time when it was helpful for the People of Knowledge to clarify the false interpretations of the various sects. (Abu Hudhayfah 1999f)

45 So far I have not come across an academic study on Ibn Ab¯ı l- Izz. He is not mentioned in the Encyclopaedia of Islam. Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24

established by the Book and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWparameters. (Kabbani 1996, p. 266). 3 of 24 Religions 2020, 11, 144 16 of 24 (Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014)From. Duringa scholarly his lif perspective,etime, Sufism this was claim only needs in its to infancy be questioned, and from insofar what asis certain mystics and known so far, his stanceSufi practicestowards the have early been Sufis subject was to rather strong ambivalent. criticism by Although currents other he believed than Salafism in the throughout Islamic power of the relics ofhistory. the Prophet The institutionalization as well as inThis the statementabdāl of Sufism, “extraordinarily is in quite modern remarkable, Egypt, pious sinceMuslimsfor example, it gives” (Melcher the went impression handt in hand that the with argumentative the standpoints 2006, p. 356),3 he wasban skeptical of certain about rituals theof deemed dhikr both-ceremonies, groups unislamic had (De switched.which Jong he 1999, regarded While p. 311). the as Sufis an unnecessary insist in this context on the necessity of a verbatim innovation (Melchert 2001,It ispp. noticeable 356–60). thatreference among of the terms Hadiths in the quoted Qur’an in andthis Sunna,context, the there Salafis are two adopt which the previousare frequently argument about tasawwuf There is also someused by dispute Salafis among to referand scholars to arguethemselves. onin support the The attitude first for neologismsstates towards that the Sufism as Prophet long of as theseAhasḥmad said do Ibn notthat contradict the Muslim the Umma Sharia. This is exactly the Taymiyya (d. 1328), willwho split is prom into inently73 sects,way featured only of argumentationone in of Salafi which writings will used be both(Krawietz saved. by the14 The 2014) Sufis second. with His regardsayspolemics that to tasawwuf(true) Muslimsas well will as traditionally-trained against well-known feelmystics like suchstrangers as Ibn (ghurabā ʿulamAraba¯īʾ (d.,in who a1240) world defend are surrounded well the documented use of by rationalist people (Knysh who arguments 1999). follow On the and the wrong terminology faith.15 On by the Asharis against the other hand, scholarsone such hand, as George Salafis Makdisi sayopponents that (d.they 2002) are of the theirhave saved time.argued group,46 that since he was they himself only rely a membe on whatr of is found in the Quran a Sufi ṭarīqa (Makdisiand 1973) in .the This Hadith view has (Meijer beenBased 2009, challenged onp. 5). the This, ( analysisMeier in 1981;turn, presented Ansariwould above,1985).make themContemporary it should feel as have strangers become in clear the wider that the depiction of Sufis research suggests thatMuslim “it shouldcommunity nonetheless as(Köpfer mere 2014, spiritualists, be clear p. 454). that whoThe Sufism, Sufis, do not on within pay the tooother the much boundarieshand, attention say that of to if theSufism proof is texts,part and and the Salafis as mere traditionalist theology,parcel had of a placeIslam, in then Ibntextualists, Taymiyya’sthe saved whogroup wor willldview” can not only accept (Post be Muslims anything2016, p. 161). who not mentioned have joined verbatim a ṭārīqa. in In these Kabbani’s sources, is a simplification. The antipathy towardsview, it is Sufism because is ofmoreThe the debate obviousongoing therefore inonslaught the writingsserves on asSufism ofa vivid Mu atḥ exampleammadthe hands Ibn to of show ʿ Abdthe howSalafis al- both that groups Sufis arefeela asffected by each other’s Wahhāb (d. 1792), strangers the founder in the of contemporary the arguments, Wahhabi movementMuslim even if theyworld from claim (Kabbani which to have contemporary1996, nothing pp. 284 in common.– 87). Salafism The interpretation of the emerged.4 The idea Hadiths of an unbroken among both heart groups-based is link virtually (rābiṭ athe) between same, they the just student use different (murīd) andlabels. his shaykh, blind obedience Intowards the attempt him, toand5. portray Discussion his claim Sufism to standas an integralin a spiritual part of line the allIslamic the way tradition, to the Kabbani extensively Prophet Muhammadquotes (silsila )the were founders for ʿAbd of althe-ThisWahh four part ālawb signs of schools the of article manifest as well will asunbelief summarize other luminaries(kufr the bawā argumentsḥ of) (Peskes Islamic made legal in thought. the previous One parts and comment 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism,of the most famousin its early quoteson stages, the he discursive confronteduses is attributed relationship Sufism to primarily Imam between Mālik at both the Ibn level groups. Anas of popular (d. It will 795 then): place the results in the wider context practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological Whosoever practicesof contemporary Sufism without western legal intra-Muslim knowledge debates is a heretic, and their whosoever role concerning [in turn] identity formation. It will argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). practices jurisprudenceend by outlining without someSufism suggestions is a deviator for and further who research combines in thisbetween field. the two This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent has found the truth (Theman firsttaṣawwafa thing wa-lam to note yatafaqqih is that some fa-qad arguments tazanndaqa in wa-man the Sufi tafaqqaha discourse wa- discussed in this paper are books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” lam yataṣawwaf fa-qadof a defensive tafassaqa nature.wa-man Theyjamaʿa address bainahum theā legitimacyfa-qad taḥaqqaqa of certain) (Kabbani Sufi practices 1996, p. and the compatibility of and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the 278).16 a Sufi-inspired understanding of Islam with the legal prescriptions of the Sharia. This sort of vindication ṣ ḥ third leader of “An ār al-Sunna al-Mu ammadiyyaindicates that”, Egypt’s ignoring oldest the Salafi and accusationsbiggest Salafi against organization Sufism is not an option for the Na¯z. imiyya, because (Gauvain 2015). Other examplesIf almost can all beprominent foundthe fear in scholars ofthe losing writings of Muslim Islamic of ʿAbd youthhistory al- toʿAz have Salafismīz Ibn ruled B loomsā zin (d. favor 1999), large. of Sufism the so the logic goes, former grand mufti ofthere Saudi does Arabia not ,remain as well anyasOther Ṣ āauthorityliḥ al arguments-Munajjid, the Salafis arewho more administratescould accusatory, rely on thein especially their Salafi critique website when of it Sufism. comes toAs the stated theological views of the “Islam Q&A”. Althoughbefore, they this differentiate holds trueSalafis. only between for The what aim different was of the regarded Sufi Sufis movements, here by the is to religious insinuate both concludeestablishment anthropomorphic that as orthodox tendencies Sufism. among the Salafis, since Sufism would have toThe be questionrejected in of its what entiretyanthropomorphism constitutes (Ibn Bāz orthodox n.d.; al has-Munajjid and been non-orthodox regarded 2014). Against as heretical Sufi this beliefs in hist the oricaland Islamic practices tradition has byalways consensus. The argument background, the followingbeen an chapter ongoing will process analyzegoes of that negotiation some since of Salafis the (Green most have extensive2012). already Sufi been responses declared asto deviants,these there is no further need to deal with Salafi criticisms, which wereGiven published that, according bytheir the criticismṬ toar īKabbani,qa al- ofNā Sufism.ẓ imiyyacertain. Theknowledge Salafis are(yaqīn further) cannot disparaged be obtained by the by accusationsthe study of of a deficient Islamic books alone, it is mandatoryeducation, to unjustifiedfollow a shaykh defamation, since and“every slander true ofSufi respected is a scholar past in and Sacred present Law, scholars, the deliberate 3. A Sufi Critique ofthough Salafism the reverse istampering not necessarily of texts true“ from (Kabbani the Islamic 1996, tradition, p. 396). as wellThe aspuritanical being influenced approach by of western the hermeneutics and Salafis was a deviation from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufiepistemology. orders situated Thus, in the the West Salafis is the are Ṭ depictedarīqa al-Nā bothẓimiy asya a,group which similar to heretical sects of Islamic history, inspired by western notions of epistemology: is part of the Naqshbandi-tradition in Sufism.as well5 asSeveral a modern websites phenomenon on Islam which in English is not are rooted affiliated in Islam at all. with the order.6 The orderThe in delusion its present that form ‘noThe Islamicwas ways founded knowledge in which by Mu the isḥ hidden Sufisammad try from toNā generateẓ imme ʿifĀ onlydil religious al I- Qdecideibrī authorityṣī to find it seems in the ambiguous to some extent. al-Ḥaqqānī, known as Shaykhbooks, Nazim,’ is the who WesternizedThe was value born of 1922belief books in of what andthe is the'Salafis' now science the who Turkish of rebel Hadith partagainst is of being Cyprus the idea portrayed. of having as less an worthy compared to the During his studies in DamasImamcus of, he fiqh became orknowledge tasawwuf the student ( of… ).theof Therefore ʿ SufiAbd shuyAllah itukh¯ [Islamical,-D butāgh in istknowledge] orderānī (d. to 1973), make is takena this local claim,and understood the authors rely on material which leader of the Naqshbandiyya-Khālidiyya. Hehas told been Shaykh authenticated Nazim to go by back exactly to Lefke these in sciences. Cyprus Givingin order the status of the shaykh in Sufi thought, it seems odd that Shaykh Nazim is rarely mentioned, and that the bulk of the “Encyclopedia” is made to spread his message14 to It isthe transmitted western inworld different. The versions center inof the his Hadith- activitiescollections in Europe of Abū was Dāwūd a mosque (d. 889) in in the “Book of Sunna”, London, which he visitedchapter annually “Explanation for severalof Qur’anicof the months Sunna” verses,, almost (shar Hadiths,ḥ al up-sunna until and), al-Tirmihis the death opinionsdh īin (d. 2014 892) of medieval (inAtay the “Book2012 authorities., of Faith” according It is therefore to possible to assume pp. 42–45). the prophet, chapterthat “What the has “Encyclopedia” been told about is the not split so much of this directedUmma” (mā at members jāʾa fī ftirāq of hā thedhihNī l-ummaa¯z. imiyya) and, but rather at its critics The order regards Ibnitself Mā asja (d.the 887) most inwho theauthentic “Book would of representative not Tribulations” accept arguments ( fitnaof the), chapter Naqshbandiyya not directly “The splitting related Sufi upbranch to of a peoples quote from (iftirāq the al-umam Qur’an). and the Sunna. and denies other ordersIt to is benot on to bethe found same in level theThe collections (Dantschke flip side of al-et of Bual. thiskh 2001,ār approach,ī (d. p. 870) 92; orAtay however,Muslim 2012, (d. p. is875). 226 that ). This the material is methodologically virtually 15 claim is unsurprisingly disputed It can be foun by dother in Ibnindistinguishable branches Māja in the of the“Book Naqshbandiyya from of Tribulations”, Salafi writings., for chapter example This “Islam is, by also the began something Istanbul as something- other strange” Muslim ( currentsbadaʾa who participate in l-Islām gharīban). the critical examination of Salafism have noticed. The reformist scholar Khaled Abou El Fadl, Professor 16 This quote was first mentioned in the marginal notes (ḥāshiyāt) of the Maliki scholar Aḥmad al-ʿAdawī (d. 3 of Law at the UCLA School of Law, writes about the “Encyclopedia”: It is unclear if the description1775) in of the abdāl explanatory as “extraordinarily work (shar ḥpious) of the Muslims” Maliki scholar is taken ʿAl fromī Ibn the Mu writingsḥammad of al-Manf Ibn ūfī (d. 1532) on the Ḥanbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdāl are more than just pious. They are seen prominent legal compendiumKabbani “Risālat generally Ibn Abī presentsZaid (Epistles a series of Ibn of Abī anecdotal Zaid)”, written and juristic by the statements Maliki scholar for most issues he as saints, without whomMu theḥammad universe Ibn would Abī Zaid be thrown al-Qairaw off balanceānī (d. 996).(Goldziher Almost and needless Kissling to 2012).say, Salafis regard this connection as 4 addresses. However his treatment lacks a critical analysis of the material. Rather his conclusions, For a depiction of this processbeing too from vague, the perspectivewhich is why of they the history refuse toof attributeideas see this Lauzière quote (2015).to Mālik. See Islamweb (2005). 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or 46 https://eshaykh.com/. For a primary literature case example see Al-But¯ .¯ı(1988).

Religions 2020, 11, 144 17 of 24

whether on the legality of wiping over one’s socks for ritual ablutions or the permissibility of juristic difference, are simplistic and unequivocal. (Abou El Fadl 2001, p. 202)

Interestingly enough, it is also the Salafis themselves who partially take up this argument, as has been shown in the previous section. They question the merit of quoting the primary texts, if the skill of receiving ilham¯ is generally understood by the Sufis as being superior to textual knowledge. The Salafis also criticize the Sufis’ interpretation of the Qur’anic verses and the Hadiths found in the “Encyclopedia”. They lament a neglect of a contextual placement for certain narrations, false analogical reasoning, as well as a misunderstanding of special Islamic terms and concepts. This can be interpreted as an appropriation of the critique normally levelled against them, which is an approach to the text without the right methodological tools. By doing so however, they actually give up on their premise that the religious sources speak for themselves and are self-explanatory for everybody; a presumption which precludes a variety of interpretations, even if only one of them was true. These insights from the debate reinforce the necessity of questioning stereotyping depictions of Sufis and Salafis in public discourse on Islam and Muslim life in the West. As shown in the introduction, Sufis are often portrayed in such debates as the liberal and less textualist face of Islam, while Salafis are depicted as anti-modern zealots and the antithesis of anything “western”. Such notions might mirror the image Sufis and Salafis want to convey of themselves, but they partially contradict the statements found in the analyzed material, as the examples I have quoted have shown. This insight is corroborated through other passages as well. For while it is known that Salafis pay close attention to the way they dress, one actually finds similar guidelines for western Muslims in the “Encyclopedia”:

As for those who lead prayer and khutba in Western-style pants and other tight-ﬁtting garments, both they and those who follow them are behaving indecently and ignorantly, jeopardizing their worship, ignoring the excellent example of the Prophet, and instead following the model of non-believers. (Kabbani 1998c, p. 112)

Another similarity between the Na¯z. imiyya and the Salafis of “Salafipublications” is their rejection of modernist/reformist approaches to Islam. While modernists call for a critical reading of the Hadith literature (Kurzman 2002, p. 10), Haddad is as unequivocal as Salafis when it comes to questioning the content of these collections:

To reject a hadith that is in al-Bukhari and Muslim and claim that it is inauthentic is the mark of deviancy and innovation because it also contradicts the consensus of Ahl al-Sunna that everything attributed to the Prophet, upon him peace, in the Sahihayn is unquestionably authentic. (Haddad 2005)

The aforementioned reformist scholar Khaled Abou El Fadl has not only been attacked by Salafis (Abou El Fadl 2001), but also by Haddad, who called him “a Mu’tazili” who writes for a “Zionist magazine” and ignores the tradition in his “outlandish ijtihad” (Haddad 2003).47 These examples show that the fault lines in contemporary western Muslim debates run between Salafis and Sufis as much as between modernist and anti-modernist currents, with the Na¯zimiyya and “Salafipublications” Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of. 24 both belonging to the latter. (Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). DuringKeeping his lif theetime overall, Sufism picture was in only mind, in theits infancy topics of, and the from Sufi–Salafi what is apologetics discussed here do known so far, his stance towardsnot have the early any relationSufis was to rather the lived ambivalent. realities or Although the social he setting believed of the in the authors. It is a debate about the power of the relics of the Prophetright dogmaas well andas in manhaj. the abdāl Only, “extraordinarily a few scholars pious of the Muslims contemporary” (Melcher Muslimt world are cited, the focus 2006, p. 356),3 he was skepticallies onabout theological the dhikr quarrels-ceremonies, which which are several he regarded hundred as years an unnecessary old. This begs the questions of relevance innovation (Melchert 2001, pp.for 356 Muslims–60). living in the West. Although no empirical investigation in different Muslim communities There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominently featured in Salafi writings (Krawietz 2014). His polemics against well-known mystics such47 On as the IbnMu ʿtazilaArab, aī (d. rationalist 1240) movementare well documented in early Islam deemed (Knysh heterodox 1999). byOn most the contemporary Muslim currents, see other hand, scholars such as George(Gimaret Makdisi 2012). (d. 2002) have argued that he was himself a member of a Sufi ṭarīqa (Makdisi 1973). This view has been challenged (Meier 1981; Ansari 1985). Contemporary research suggests that “it should nonetheless be clear that Sufism, within the boundaries of traditionalist theology, had a place in Ibn Taymiyya’s worldview” (Post 2016, p. 161). The antipathy towards Sufism is more obvious in the writings of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhāb (d. 1792), the founder of the Wahhabi movement from which contemporary Salafism emerged.4 The idea of an unbroken heart-based link (rābiṭa) between the student (murīd) and his shaykh, blind obedience towards him, and his claim to stand in a spiritual line all the way to the Prophet Muhammad (silsila) were for ʿAbd al-Wahhāb signs of manifest unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website “Islam Q&A”. Although they differentiate between different Sufi movements, both conclude that Sufism would have to be rejected in its entirety (Ibn Bāz n.d.; al-Munajjid 2014). Against this historical background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these Salafi criticisms, which were published by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya.

Religions 2020, 11, 144 18 of 24 could be made in the scope of this article, the fact that these issues are fiercely fought over in different online forums indicates that they do indeed play a role. Not always, however, do the protagonists really delve into the details of the controversy. One case in point is a forum entry about a book which is quoted several times by Kabbani called “Al-Albani Unveiled”, written by Ahmed Ibn Muhammad Sayf al-Din, who belongs to the Deobandi-Movement (Sayf al-Din 1994). On a Salafi-Forum, an evidently upset user has posted the following quote:

Asalamu Alaykum wa Ramatullahee wa Barakatuhu, There is a big, big ﬁtnah in my community of Vancouver Canada. Some brother is passing out this horriﬁc book against our Sh.Albani(Raheemullah). I need to know if there is a book in english [sic] written in defence of the Shaikh, defending him against this book and it’s lies??????? Or if there isn’t who will stand up for the shaikh and write a piece in defence of him, and make Jihad against the people of desires and deceptions. I need to distribute this is in my community ASAP!!! Inshaa’ALLAH. Was Salaam Akhook Fil Islaam Abu Abdurrahman as Salafee al Kanadi. (Abu Abdurrahman 2002)

One of the answers hints to a refutation of that book, which seals the debate (Troid.org n.d.). Such incidents shed light on the process of identity formation and the construction of religious authority among—probably young—Muslims in a western setting. For the Na¯z. imiyya, their shaykh yields unrivalled spiritual authority.48 Anybody who speaks against him is wrong by default. As for the Salafis, it is interesting to note that the originally egalitarian approach of directly accessing the religious sources seems to have been partially replaced by a taql¯ıd of those who are supposed to have mastered this method, such as al-Alban¯ ¯ı.49 This attachment to a higher authority in both currents leads to a form of group solidarity, where the arguments of the out-group are often discarded a priori. There is no more need to deal with the exact arguments. It suffices to know that al-Alban¯ ¯ı has written a refutation of Kabbani or vice versa in order to be on the straight path. The sense of belonging to a group of like-minded worshippers and the unambiguous identity that results from this membership might be, for some Muslims, more important than an independent engagement with theological intricacies. Others do engage andReligions regard 2020, 10 these, x FOR disputes PEER REVIEW as a personal challenge to prove their religious 3 of 24 qualifications. An indication that these debates matter in contemporary western Muslim communities is given in an essay on(Dziri Salafi Islam2014; Schneiders written by 2014) the scholar. During Yasir his Qadhi.lifetime, He Sufism belonged was only to the in Salafiits infancy, and from what is movement himself, beforeknown turning so away far, his to anstance understanding towards the some early scholars Sufis was have rather coined ambivalent. “post-Salafism” Although he believed in the (Thurston 2018). Criticizingpower the of exclusivist the relics attitudeof the Prophet of the Salafi as well movement, as in the abdāl he writes:, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary No doubt, some people,innovation at some (Melchert level, do 2001, need pp. to 356 discuss–60). the reality of the mawlid, and the Attributes of Allah andThere other is also aspects some of dispute faith. But among these scholars are not the on problemsthe attitude of ourtowards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn time, nor do they presentTaymiyya major (d. challenges 1328), who to theis prom faithinently of our young featured men in and Salafi women. writings These (Krawietz 2014). His polemics are controversies ofagainst a bygone well era:-known the mystics Salaf¯ıs andsuch the as AshIbn ʿarArab¯ıs canī (d. go 1240) on debatingare well documented such (Knysh 1999). On the aspects amongst themselves,other hand, and scholars I too assuch a theologianas George Makdisi will be glad (d. 2002) to participate have argued in such that he was himself a member of debates, in appropriatea Sufi forums, ṭarīqa (Makdisi in front 1973) of appropriate. This view audiences.has been challenged But the vast (Meier majority 1981; Ansari 1985). Contemporary of our youth couldn’tresearch care less suggests about that such “it abstract should non-tangible nonetheless theoretical be clear thatdiscussions. Sufism, within the boundaries of They are strugglingtraditionalist to retain faith theology, in their religion, had a place problematizing in Ibn Taymiyya’s Darwinism wor andldview” secularism (Post 2016, p. 161). and post-modernism andThe humanism antipathy and towards liberalism Sufism and is more a thousand obvious other in the ‘isms’, writings while of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- Salaf¯ıs (and Deobandis,Wahh andāb Ash (d. 1792),ar¯ıs, and the Suf founder¯ıs) still debate of the in Wahhabi their circles movement matters that from only which contemporary Salafism concern the 0.1 %. (emerged.... ) And4 whileThe idea I might of an agree unbroken with theheart hard-core-based link Salaf (¯ırāb thatiṭa) Allah between has the student (murīd) and his indeed istawa¯ ‘ala¯ al-shaykh,arsh (risenblind overobedience the Throne) towards in ahim manner, and thathis claim befits Him,to stand his in myopic a spiritual line all the way to the narrow-mindednessProphet of theproblems Muhammad facing (silsila the) Ummah,were for ʿ andAbd self-righteous al-Wahhāb signs arrogance, of manifest and unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological 48 On the undisputed authorityargumentation” of the shaykh in Naqshbandi(Peskes 1999, thought, p. 159 see). (Meier 1994, pp. 259–304). 49 This holds obviously true for theThis quietist was spectrum rather only. don Thee by politically representatives activist and jihadi of the Salafis contemporary have their own Salafi authorities. movement. Two prominent books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the third leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, as well as Ṣāliḥ al-Munajjid, who administrates the Salafi website “Islam Q&A”. Although they differentiate between different Sufi movements, both conclude that Sufism would have to be rejected in its entirety (Ibn Bāz n.d.; al-Munajjid 2014). Against this historical background, the following chapter will analyze some of the most extensive Sufi responses to these Salafi criticisms, which were published by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya.

Religions 2020, 11, 144 19 of 24

his cultish mentality, will be major turn-oﬀs for me personally, and harmful to the Ummah as a whole. (Qadhi 2014)

This passages illustrates two things: First, some segments of the Western Muslim community obviously grew tired of the recurring theological debates about the same topics. Second, the point that they voice their dissatisfaction about this issue hints towards the fact that these debates still seem to dominate and divide some Muslim communities in the process of identity formation. To conclude, it shall be said that only a thorough analysis of primary material can provide insights about preconceived notions of the actors involved in intra-Muslim polemical debates. This is important insofar as reporting on Muslims living in the West is often abridged in that Salafism and its opponents are being portrayed as two antagonist black boxes, which are homogenous in themselves and have nothing in common, something which has been expounded in the introduction. These assumptions are false. Both the Salafi movement itself, but especially their opponents, are divided and differ significantly on a variety of subjects concerning the Islamic faith. Still, they sometimes resemble each other when it comes to specific demands concerning legitimate hermeneutics as opposed to some modernist approaches to Islamic scripture. It must be stressed that this can only be a case example. More in-depth analyses of Salafi-Sufi polemics could show to which extent the results and thoughts presented here can be generalized and if there is a substantial difference between the Muslim world and the western Diaspora.50 Other currents and their engagement with Salafism can then be compared with the results presented in this essay. In addition, field research in different Muslim communities could verify or falsify the assumptions about the relevance of these debates in the everyday life of the worshippers. Looking at the above quote by Qadhi, it seems that more than 20 years after the publication of the “Encyclopedia”, these debates seem far from being over.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

References

Abdul-Raof, Hussein. 2012. Theological Approaches to Qur’anic Exegesis. A Practical Comparative-Contrastive Analysis. New York: Routledge. Abou El Fadl, Khaled. 2001. Speaking in God’s Name. Islamic Law, Authority, and Women. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Abrahamov, Binyamin. 1995. The “Bi-la¯ Kayfa” Doctrine and Its Foundations in Islamic Theology. Arabica 42: 365–79. [CrossRef] Abu Abdurrahman. 2002. A Refutation of Albani Unveiled Desparately Needed!!!!!! Salafitalk. November 29. Available online: http://www.salafitalk.net/st/viewmessages.cfm?Forum=14&Topic=781 (accessed on 22 June 2018). Abu Hudhayfah. 1999a. Exposing Kabbani 1: On Comparing Allaah to the Sun and Moon. SalafiPublications. June 30. Available online: http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=NDV07&articleID= NDV070001&pfriend= (accessed on 8 November 2019). Abu Hudhayfah. 1999b. Exposing Kabbani 4: A Censure of Ta’weel. SalafiPublications. June 30. Available online: http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=NDV07&articleID=NDV070004& articlePages=1 (accessed on 8 November 2019). Abu Hudhayfah. 1999c. Exposing Kabbani 8: The Creed of Abu Hanifah and Mulla Ali al-Qari’s Statement. SalafiPublications. June 30. Available online: http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID= NDV07&articleID=NDV070008&pfriend=.Last (accessed on 8 November 2019).

50 Based on his field studies in Egypt, Richard Gauvain concludes: “Ultimately, charting the boundary lines that separate what is authentically Sufi from what is demonstrably Salafi in modern Egyptian religio-social realities has become an extraordinarily difficult, and arguably rather pointless task” (Gauvain 2013, p. 81). Religions 2020, 11, 144 20 of 24

Abu Hudhayfah. 1999d. Exposing Kabbani 9: Kabbani and the Apparent Meanings of the Book & Sunnah. SalafiPublications. June 30. Available online: http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID= NDV07&articleID=NDV070009&articlePages=1 (accessed on 8 November 2019). ReligionsAbu Hudhayfah. 2020, 10, x FOR 1999e. PEER REVIEW Exposing Kabbani 10: Kabbani’s Slander of Tajseem against Ibn Taymiyyah.5 of 24 SalafiPublications. June 30. Available online: http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID= establishedNDV07&articleID by the=NDV070010&pfriend Book and the Sunna= (accessed and never on 8 did November it step 2019). out of the bounds of these Abu Hudhayfah.parameters. 1999f.Religions (Kabbani Exposing 2020 1996,, 10, Kabbanix FORp. 266). PEER 12: REVIEW Kabbani and the Usage of the Term ‘Bi Dhaatihi’. SalafiPublications. 3 of 24 June 30. Available online: http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=NDV07&articleID= FromNDV070012&pfriend a scholarly(Dziri perspective,2014;= (accessed Schneiders onthis 8 Novemberclaim2014) .needs During 2019). to hisbe questionedlifetime, Sufism insofar was as only certain in its mystics infancy and, and from what is SufiAbu practices Hudhayfah. have 1999g.known been Exposing sosubject far, Kabbanihis to strongstance 16: criticismtowards Allaah’s Uluww theby currents early in the Sufis Lightother was of than the rather Wayof Salafism ambivalent. the Salaf.throughoutSalafiPublications Although Islamic he . believed in the history.June The 30. institutionalization Availablepower online:of the relicshttp: of Sufism// ofwww.salafipublications.com the inProphet modern as Egypt,well as for in/sps example,the/sp.cfm?subsecID abdāl, went“extraordinarily hand=NDV07&articleID in hand pious with Muslims the= ” (Melchert ban ofNDV070016&pfriend certain rituals2006, deemed p. =356),(accessed 3unislamic he was on 8 skeptical November(De Jong about1999, 2019). p.the 311). dhikr -ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary AbuIt Hudhayfah. is noticeableinnovation 1999h. that among Exposing (Melchert the KabbaniHadiths 2001, 17:quotedpp. Kabbani’s356 –in60). this Attemptscontext, there to Ascribe are two Ta’wil which to are Imaam frequently Ahmad. used SalafiPublicationsby Salafis to refer.There Juneto themselves. 30. is also Available some The online: first dispute states http: among that//www.salafipublications.com the scholars Prophet on has the said attitude that/sps the /sp.cfm?subsecIDtowards Muslim Umma Sufism= of Aḥmad Ibn will splitNDV07&articleID into 73Taymiyya sects,= NDV070017&pfriendonly (d. one 1328), of which who =iswill(accessed prom be saved.inently on 814 November featuredThe second 2019).in Salafisays thatwritings (true) (Krawietz Muslims will2014) . His polemics 15 feelAhl like al-Hadeeth. strangers 2009.against (ghurabā M a¯well raʾ ain-known l-muslim a world mysticsun¯ surroundedh. asanan such fa-huwa as by Ibn people ʿindaArab llwhoī ah¯(d.h. 1240)asan,follow wa-mare the well a¯wrong ra documentedau saiyi faith.an fa-huwaOn (Knysh the 1999). On the one hand,inda Salafis llah¯ saiyiother say. Available that hand, they scholars online: are the http: suchsaved//www.ahlalhdeeth.com as group, George since Makdisi they /onlyvb(d./ showthread.php?t2002) rely onhave what argued is= found20378 that (accessed inhe the was Quran himself on 31 a member of and inJanuary the Hadith 2018).a Sufi (Meijer ṭarīqa 2009, (Makdisi p. 5). 1973)This, .in T histurn, view would has beenmake challenged them feel (asMeier strangers 1981; inAnsari the wider 1985). Contemporary MuslimAl-Alban¯ community¯ı, Nas¯ .¯ır al-Dresearch¯ın. (Köpfer 1998. suggestsS. 2014,ah. ¯ıh. wa-d p. that. 454).a ¯ıf sunan “it The should at-TirmidhSufis, on nonetheless¯ı .the Ryad: other Maktaba hand, be clear al-Masay that arif¯ if wa-l-Tauz Sufism, Sufism ¯ıis within. part and the boundaries of parcelAl-But¯ . ¯ı,of Sa Islam,¯ıd Ramad traditionalistthen. an.¯ the 1988. savedAl-Salafiyya. theology, group can Marhhad only. aala place zamaniyya be inMuslims Ibn mub Taymiyya’saraka ¯who l a¯have madhab wor joined islldview”am¯ ¯ıa. Damascus:ṭā r(Postīqa. In 2016, Kabbani’s Dar¯ p. al-Fikr. 161). view,Al-Munajjid, it is because Muh. ammad ofThe the Salih. antipathyongoing 1998. onslaught towards Ruling on Sufismon using Sufism the is moreat masbahah the obvioushands (prayer of in the thebeads). Salafis writingsIslamQA that of Sufis . Mu November ḥfeelammad as Ibn ʿAbd al- strangers11. Available in the Wahhcontemporary online:āb https: (d. 1792),// Muslimislamqa.info the world founder/en/ answers(Kabbani of the/3009 1996, Wahhabi/ruling-on-using-the-masbahah-prayer-beads pp. 284 movement–87). The frominterpretation which contemporary of the Salafism Hadiths(accessed among on bothemerged. 5 December groups4 T 2019). heis virtually idea of anthe unbrokensame, they heart just -usebased different link (rāb labels.iṭa) between the student (murīd) and his Al-Munajjid,In the attempt Muhs. ammadhaykh, to portray Salih.blind Sufism obedience 2014.A as brief an towards integral look at him Abdul-Qadirpart, ofand the his Islamic Jilaniclaim and tradition,to Moinuddinstand inKabbani a Chishti,spiritual extensively and line their all the way to the Islam Q&A quotes‘aqeedah the founders (doctrine).Prophet of the Mu fourhammad law. April schools (silsila 28. Available)as were well for as online: ʿotherAbd alhttps:luminaries-Wahh//islamqa.infoāb signsof Islamic of/en manifest/ 143615legal thought. (accessedunbelief One on(kufr 5 bawāḥ) (Peskes February 2020). of the most famous1999, quotes p. 159). he St usesill, “Wahhābism, is attributed to in Imam its early Mālik stages, Ibn confronted Anas (d. 795 Sufism): primarily at the level of popular Anonymous. 2015. Ali Jumaa’s Answers to the Wahhabi Run JAKIM of Malaysia, Regarding Naqshbandis. June 6. practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological WhosoeverAvailable online: practices https: // Sufismwww.youtube.com without legal/watch?v knowledge=eNXAR-M_VpM is a heretic, (accessed whosoever on 6 February [in turn] 2020). argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). Anonymous.practices 2016. jurisprudence Imam’s Panel without Discussion: Sufism Salafis is/ Sufisa deviator Finding and Common who Ground.combines August between 22. Available the two online: This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent hashttps: found//www.youtube.com the truth (man/watch?v taṣawwafa=825GBEOS6EM&t wa-lam yatafaqqih=89s fa-qad (accessed tazanndaqa on 19 June wa-man 2017). tafaqqaha wa- books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” Ansari,lam Muhammad yataṣawwaf Abdul fa-qad Haq. tafassaqa 1985. wa-man Ibn Taymiyyah jamaʿa andbainahum Sufism.ā Islamicfa-qad ta Studiesḥaqqaqa24:) 1–12.(Kabbani 1996, p. and “The demise of Sufism (Maṣraʿ al-taṣawwuf)”, written by ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the Atay,278) Tayfun..16 2012. A Muslim Mystic Community in Britain. Meaning in the West and for the West. Bremen: Europäischerthird Hochschulverlag. leader of “Anṣār al-Sunna al-Muḥammadiyya”, Egypt’s oldest and biggest Salafi organization If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, Brown, Jonathan A.(Gauvain C. 2011. 2015) Salafis. Other and Sufis examples in Egypt. canCarnegie be found Endowment in the writings for International of ʿAbd Peace al- (TheʿAzī Carnegiez Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the there Papers)does not. December. remainformer Availableanygrand authority mufti online: of the Saudihttp: Salafis// www.carnegieendowment.orgArabia could, as werelyll ason Ṣ ināli theirḥ al-Munajjid, critique/2011/12 /of 20who /Sufism.salafis-and-sufis-in- administrates As stated the Salafi website before,egypt this/8kfk holds (accessed“Islam true only Q&A”. on for 28 June what Although 2015). was regarded they differentiate by the religious between establishment different Sufi as orthodox movements, Sufism. both conclude that TheÇakmak, question Cenap. of 2017.SufismwhatIslam: constitutes would A Worldwide have orthodox to be Encyclopedia rejected and non-orthodox .in Santa its entirety Barbara: (IbnSufi ABC-CLIO, Bāzbeliefs n.d. and vol.; al- Munajjid 1.practices 201has4 )always. Against this historical been an ongoing process of negotiation (Green 2012). Calder, Norman.background 2012. Al-T. ah. aw¯, the¯ı. In followingEncyclopaedia chapter of Islam will, 2nd analyze ed. Edited some by of Peri the Bearman, most extensive Thierry Bianquis,Sufi responses to these GivenClifford that, Edmund Salafiaccording Bosworth, criticisms, to Kabbani, Emeri which Johannes certain were published vanknowledge Donzel by and ( theyaqīn Wolfhart Ṭar) cannotīqa al Peter-N beāẓ Heinrichs.imiyyaobtained. by Available the study online: of bookshttp: alone,//dx.doi.org it is mandatory/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1150 to follow a shaykh, since (accessed “every ontrue 10 Sufi February is a 2020).scholar in Sacred Law, thoughChurchill, the Robert reverse3. Paul. A is Sufi 1991.not Critiquenecessarily Interpreting of Salafismtrue“ the Jihad (Kabbani of Islam. 1996, Militarism p. 396). versus The puritanical Muslim Pacifism. approachThe Acornof the6: Salafis20–28. was [aCrossRef deviation] from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which inspiredCook, David. by western 2006. Apostasy notions from of epistemology: Islam: A Historical Perspective. Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 31: 248–88. is part of the Naqshbandi-tradition in Sufism.5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated Curtiss, Richard H. 2009. Dispute Between U.S. Muslim Groups Goes Public. Washington Report on Middle Eastern The delusionwith that the ‘no order. Islamic6 The knowledge order in isits hidden present from form me was if only founded I decide by toMu findḥammad it in the N āẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī Affairs. June 22. Available online: https://www.wrmea.org/1999-april-may/dispute-between-u.s.-muslim- books,’ is theal- ḤWesternizedaqqānī, known belief as Shaykhof the 'Salafis'Nazim, who wasrebel born against 1922 the in whatidea isof now having the Turkishan part of Cyprus. groups-goes-public.html (accessed on 31 October 2017). Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is takenʿ and understood Dantschke, Claudia.During 2014. his Da studies habe ich in etwas Damas gesehen,cus, he was became mir einen the Sinn student gibt. of Was Abd macht Allah Salafismus al-Dāgh attraktivistānī (d. 1973), a local und wie kannleader man diesemof the Naq entgegenwirken?shbandiyya-Kh InālidSalafismus.iyya. He Auftold der Shaykh Suche nachNazim dem to Wahren go back Islam to. Lefke Edited in by Cyprus in order 14 It isBehnam transmitted T. Saidto in spread anddifferent Hazim his versions message Fouad. in Freiburg the to Hadith-the imwestern Breisgau:collections world Herder, of. Abū The pp.Dāwūd center 474–502. (d.of 889)his activitiesin the “Book in ofEurope Sunna”, was a mosque in Dantschke,chapter “Explanation Claudia,London, Ali of Yildirim, thewhich Sunna” he and visited ( Eberhardsharḥ al annually-sunna Seidel.), al-Tirmi for 2001. severaldhPolitikī (d. months 892) im Namen in, the almost “Book Allahs: up of Der untilFaith” Islamismus: his according death Einein to 2014 (Atay 2012, theHerausforderung prophet, chapterpp. für42 “What– Europa45). has. Berlin: been Fraktiontold about der the Sozialdemokratischen split of this Umma” Partei(mā jāʾ Europas.a fī ftirāq hādhihī l-umma) and Ibn Māja (d. 887) in Thethe “Book order of regard Tribulations”s itself as(fitna the), chaptermost authentic “The splitting representative up of peoples of (theiftirāq Naqshbandiyya al-umam). Sufi branch It is not to be foundand denies in the collections other orders of al- toBu bekh onārī the(d. 870) same or levelMuslim (Dantschke (d. 875). et al. 2001, p. 92; Atay 2012, p. 226). This 15 It can be foundclaim in Ibn is Mā unsurprisinglyja in the “Book of disputed Tribulations”, by other chapter branches “Islam of began the Naqshbandiyya as something strange”, for example (badaʾa, by the Istanbul- l-Islām gharīban). 16 This quote was first mentioned in the marginal notes (ḥāshiyāt) of the Maliki scholar Aḥmad al-ʿAdawī (d. 3 1775) in the explanatory It is unclear work if(shar theḥ description) of the Maliki of abdālscholar as “extraordinarilyʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad pious al-Manf Muslims”ūfī (d. is taken1532) fromon the the writings of Ibn prominent legal compendiumḤanbal or if it“ Risālatis an explanation Ibn Abī Zaid by (Epistles Melchert. of InIbn later Abī Sufism, Zaid)”, the written abdāl byare the more Maliki than scholar just pious. They are seen Muḥammad Ibn Abas īsaints, Zaid al-Qairawwithout whomānī (d. the 996). universe Almost would needless be thrown to say, off Salafis balance regard (Goldziher this connection and Kissling as 2012). 4 being too vague, whichFor a depictionis why they of refusethis process to attribute from thethis perspective quote to Mālik. of the See history Islamweb of ideas (2005). see Lauzière (2015). 5 Also known as Naqshbandiyya Ḥaqqāniyya, Ḥaqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nāẓimiyya. 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/.

Religions 2020, 11, 144 21 of 24

De Jong, Frederick. 1999. Opposition to Sufism in Twentieth-Century Egypt (1900–1970). A Preliminary Survey. In Islamic Mysticism Contested. Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Polemics. Edited by Frederick De Jong and Bernd Radtke. Leiden: Brill, pp. 310–23. De Jong, Frederick, and Bernd Radtke, eds. 1999. Islamic Mysticism Contested. Thirteen Centuries of Controversies and Religions 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWPolemics . Leiden: Brill. 3 of 24 Duderija, Adis, and Ghulam Rasool. 2019. Bilal Philips as a Proponent of Neo-Traditional Salafism and His (Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014).Significance During his for lif Understandingetime, Sufism Salafismwas only in in the its West. infancyReligions, and10: from 1–22. what [CrossRef is ] known so far, his stance Duran,towards Khaled. the early 1991. Sufis Muslim was Diaspora: rather ambivalent. The Sufis in Although Western Europe. he believedIslamic Studiesin the 30: 463–83. power of the relics of theDziri, Prophet Bacem. as well 2014. as Das in Gebetthe abdāl des, Propheten“extraordinarily als ob du pious es sehen Muslims würdest.” (Melcher Der Salafismust als Rechtsschule des 2006, p. 356),3 he was skepticalPropheten? about the In Salafismus.dhikr-ceremonies, Auf der Suche which nach he dem regarded Wahren Islam as .an Edited unnecessary by Behnam T. Said and Hazim Fouad. innovation (Melchert 2001, pp.Freiburg 356–60). im Breisgau: Herder, pp. 132–59. There is also some Gauvain, dispute Richard. among 2013. scholars Salafi on Ritual the Purity. attitude In thetowards Presence Sufism of God. London:of Aḥmad Routledge. Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), whoGauvain, is prom Richard.inently featured 2015. Egyptian in Salafi Sufism writings under (Krawietz the Hammer. 2014) A Preliminary. His polemics Investigation into the Anti-Sufi against well-known mystics suchPolemics as Ibn of ʿAbdArab al-Rahmanī (d. 1240) al-Wakilare well (1913–1970). documented In (KnyshSufis and 1999). Salafis On in the the Contemporary Age. Edited by other hand, scholars such as GeorgeLloyd Ridgeon. Makdisi New (d. 2002) York: have Bloomsbury argued Publishing, that he was pp. himself 33–57. a member of a Sufi ṭarīqa (Makdisi 1973)Geaves,. This Ron. view 2005. has Tradition,been challenged Innovation, (Meier andAuthentication. 1981; Ansari 1985). Replicating Contemporary the ‘Ahl as-Sunna wa Jamaat’ in Britain. research suggests that “it shouldComparative nonetheless Islamic Studies be clear1: 1–20. that [CrossRef Sufism,] within the boundaries of traditionalist theology, hadGesink, a place Indira in Ibn Falk. Taymiyya’s 2010. Islamic wor Reformldview” and (Post Conservatism. 2016, p. Al-Azhar161). and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam. The antipathy towards SufismLondon isand more New obviousYork: Tauris in Academicthe writings Studies. of Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhāb (d. 1792), the founderGharaibeh, of Mohammad. the Wahhabi 2014. movement Zur Glaubenslehre from which des Salafismus. contemporary In Salafismus. Salafism Auf der Suche nach dem wahren emerged.4 The idea of an unbrokenIslam. Edited heart by-based Behnam link T. Said (rābi andṭa) between Hazim Fouad. the student Freiburg ( immur Breisgau:īd) and Herder, his pp. 106–31. shaykh, blind obedienceGimaret, towards Daniel. him, 2012.and his Mu claimtazila. to In Encyclopaediastand in a spiritual of Islam. Second line Editionall the. Editedway to by the Peri Bearman, Thierry Bianquis, Prophet Muhammad (silsila) wereClifford for EdmundʿAbd al-Wahh Bosworth,āb signs Emeri of Johannes manifest van unbelief Donzel (kufr and bawā Wolfhartḥ) (Peskes Peter Heinrichs. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0822 (accessed on 10 February 2020). 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular Goldziher, Ignaz, and Hans Joachim Kissling. 2012. Abdal.¯ In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. Edited by practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological Peri Bearman, Thierry Bianquis, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Emeri Johannes van Donzel and Wolfhart argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). Peter Heinrichs. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0132 (accessed on 5 This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent February 2020). books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” Green, Nile. 2012. Sufism. A Global History. Malden: Wiley-Blackwee. ṣ ʿ ṣ ʿ ḥ and “The demise of SufismHaddad, (Ma ra Gibril al-ta Fouad.awwuf 2000.)”, written Al-Albani. by ConciseAbd ar Guide-Ra m toān the al Chief-Wak Innovatorīl (d. 1971), of Ourthe Time. Living Islam. June 24. third leader of “Anṣār al-SunnaAvailable al-Mu online:ḥammadiyya http://www.livingislam.org”, Egypt’s oldest and/alb_e.html biggest (accessed Salafi organization on 5 November 2017). (Gauvain 2015). Other examplesHaddad, can Gibril be Fouad.found in 2003. the writings On the Fitna of ʿAbd of Women. al-ʿAzīLivingz Ibn B Islamāz (d.. December 1999), the 29. Available online: https: former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia//www.livingislam.org, as well as Ṣāliḥ/o al/ftnw_e.html-Munajjid, (accessed who administrates on 10 February the 2020).Salafi website “Islam Q&A”. AlthoughHaddad, they differentiate Gibril Fouad. between 2005. different Deviancy Sufi from movements, Ahl al-Sunna. bothLiving conclude Islam. that February 20. Available online: Sufism would have to be rejectedhttp: in//www.livingislam.org its entirety (Ibn Bāz/fiqhi n.d./;sp2-gfh_e.html#25 al-Munajjid 2014 (accessed). Against on this 10 Februaryhistorical 2020). background, the followingHaddad, chapter Gibril will Fouad. analyze 2009. someAlbani of the & His most Friends. extensive A Concise Sufi Guide responsesReligions to the 2020 Salafi to, these10 Movement, x FOR PEER. Birmingham: REVIEW AQSA 5 of 24 Salafi criticisms, which were publishedPublications. by the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya. Haddad, Gibril Fouad. 2015. New Kharijism. Living Islam. February 28.established Available online: by thehttps: Book//www.livingislam. and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these 3. A Sufi Critique of Salafismorg /n/nkhar_e.html (accessed on 26 November 2019). parameters. (Kabbani 1996, p. 266). Halverson, Jeffry R. 2010. Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash’arism and Political Sunnism. One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which New York: Palgrave Macmillan. From a scholarly perspective, this claim needs to be questioned insofar as certain mystics and is part of the Naqshbandi-tradition in Sufism.5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated Hamid, Sadek. 2008. The Development of British Salafism. ISIM Review:Sufi practices International have Institute been subject for the Study to strong of Islam criticism by currents other than Salafism throughout Islamic with the order.6 The order in its present form was founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī in the Modern World 21: 10–11. history. The institutionalization of Sufism in modern Egypt, for example, went hand in hand with the al-Ḥaqqānī, known as Shaykh Nazim, who was born 1922 in what is now the Turkish part of Cyprus. Hamid, Sadek. 2009. The Attraction of ‘Authentic’ Islam. Salafismban and of British certain Muslim rituals Youth. deemed In Global unislamic Salafism. (De Jong 1999, p. 311). ʿ During his studies in DamascusIslam’s, he Newbecame Religious the student Movement of. EditedAbd Allah by Roel al- Meijer.Dāghist London:ānī (d. Hurst1973),It is noticeable & a Company,local that pp. among 384–403. the Hadiths quoted in this context, there are two which are frequently leader of the NaqshbandiyHamid,ya-Khālid Sadek.iyya. 2016.He toldSufis, Shaykh Salafis andNazim Islamists. to go The back Contested to Lefke Ground inused Cyprus of British by Salafis in Islamic order to Activism refer to. London:themselves. I.B. Tauris. The first states that the Prophet has said that the Muslim Umma to spread his message to the western world. The center of his activities in Europe was a mosque in 14 Ibn Abd al-Fattah¯ . , Abd ar-Rah. man.¯ 1986. Kitab¯ al-Fataw¯ a.¯ Al- Izzwill Ibn splitAbd as-Salinto 73am¯ .sects, Beirut: only Dar¯ one al-Ma ofrifa. which will be saved. The second says that (true) Muslims will London, which he visited annually for several months, almost up until his death in 2014 (Atay 2012, 15 Ibn Ab¯ıl- Izz, Al¯ıbin Al¯ı. 1997. Sharh. al-T. a¯h. awiyya¯ f¯ı l- aq¯ıda as-salafiyyafeel like. Ryad: strangers Wizarat¯ (ghurabā al-Shuʾ un¯in al-Isla worldamiyya¯ surrounded by people who follow the wrong faith. On the pp. 42–45). wa-l-Auqaf¯ wa-l-Da¯ wa wa-l-Irshad.¯ one hand, Salafis say that they are the saved group, since they only rely on what is found in the Quran The order regards itselfIbn B asaz,¯ theAbd most al- Azauthentic¯ız. n.d. representative Aqsam¯ al-s.ufiyya.¯ of the Al-Mauqi Naqshbandiyyaal-Rasmand in¯ı Sufi li-Sam the branch Haditha¯h. at al-Shaykh (Meijer al-Im2009,am¯ p. Ibn5). This, Baz.¯ in turn, would make them feel as strangers in the wider and denies other orders to be Availableon the same online: level http: (Dantschke//www.binbaz.org.sa et al. 2001,/noor p. /921368; Atay (accessed 2012,Muslim on p. 5226 Februarycommunity). This 2020). (Köpfer 2014, p. 454). The Sufis, on the other hand, say that if Sufism is part and claim is unsurprisingly disputedInge, Anabe. by other 2017. branchesThe Making of of the a Salafi Naqshbandiyya Muslim Woman., for example Paths to Conversionparcel, by the of Istanbul. Islam, New York: -then Oxford the saved University group Press. can only be Muslims who have joined a ṭārīqa. In Kabbani’s view, it is because of the ongoing onslaught on Sufism at the hands of the Salafis that Sufis feel as 3 It is unclear if the description of abdāl as “extraordinarily pious Muslims” is taken from strangersthe writings in of the Ibn contemporary Muslim world (Kabbani 1996, pp. 284–87). The interpretation of the Ḥanbal or if it is an explanation by Melchert. In later Sufism, the abdāl are more than just pious.Hadiths They among are seen both groups is virtually the same, they just use different labels. as saints, without whom the universe would be thrown off balance (Goldziher and Kissling 2012).In the attempt to portray Sufism as an integral part of the Islamic tradition, Kabbani extensively 4 For a depiction of this process from the perspective of the history of ideas see Lauzière (2015).quotes the founders of the four law schools as well as other luminaries of Islamic legal thought. One 5 Ḥ Ḥ ẓ Also known as Naqshbandiyya aqqāniyya, aqqāniyya or Naqshbandiyya Nā imiyya. of the most famous quotes he uses is attributed to Imam Mālik Ibn Anas (d. 795): 6 http://naqshbandi.org/; https://sufilive.com/; http://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/ or https://eshaykh.com/. Whosoever practices Sufism without legal knowledge is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] practices jurisprudence without Sufism is a deviator and who combines between the two has found the truth (man taṣawwafa wa-lam yatafaqqih fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- lam yataṣawwaf fa-qad tafassaqa wa-man jamaʿa bainahumā fa-qad taḥaqqaqa) (Kabbani 1996, p. 278).16 If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, there does not remain any authority the Salafis could rely on in their critique of Sufism. As stated before, this holds true only for what was regarded by the religious establishment as orthodox Sufism. The question of what constitutes orthodox and non-orthodox Sufi beliefs and practices has always been an ongoing process of negotiation (Green 2012). Given that, according to Kabbani, certain knowledge (yaqīn) cannot be obtained by the study of books alone, it is mandatory to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the Salafis was a deviation from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, inspired by western notions of epistemology: The delusion that ‘no Islamic knowledge is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in the books,’ is the Westernized belief of the 'Salafis' who rebel against the idea of having an Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is taken and understood

Islamweb. 2005. ‘Man tas.auwafa wa-lam yatafaqqah ... ’ la¯ tas.ih. h. u nisbatuha¯ li-l-imam¯ Malik.¯ September 3. Available online: http://fatwa.islamweb.net/fatwa/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=59757 (accessed on 6 February 2017). Iyad, Abu. n.d. A Brief Introduction to the Salafi Dawah. SalafiPublications. Available online: http://www. salafipublications.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=SLF02&articleID=SLF020001&pfriend= (accessed on 18 March 2020). Jenkins, Philip. 2009. Mystical Power. Why Sufi Muslims, For Centuries the Most Ferocious Soldiers of Islam, Could Be Our Most Valuable Allies in the Fight Against Extremism. Boston. January 25. Available online: http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/01/25/mystical_power/?page=full (accessed on 5 February 2019). Juynboll, Gautier H. A. 2001. (Re)Appraisal of Some Technical Terms in H. ad¯ıth Science. Islamic Law and Society 8: 303–49. [CrossRef] Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham. 1993. Mercy Oceans Shore of Safety. Fenton: Haqqani Islamic Trust. Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham. 1996. Islamic Beliefs & Doctrine According to Ahl Al-Sunna. A Repudiation of ‘Salafi’ ReligionsInnovations 2020, 10, x .FOR Mountain PEER REVIEW View: As-Sunna Foundation of America. 5 of 24 Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham. 1997. The ‘Salafi’ Movement Unveiled. Mountain View: As-Sunna Foundation of establishedAmerica. by the Book and the Sunna and never did it step out of the bounds of these Kabbani,parameters. Muhammad (Kabbani Hisham. 1996, 1998a. p. 266).Remembrance of Allah and Praising the Prophet. Mountain View: As-Sunna Foundation of America. Kabbani,From Muhammad a scholarly Hisham. perspective, 1998b. thisIntercession claim .needs Mountain to be View: questioned As-Sunna insofar Foundation as certain of America. mystics and SufiKabbani, practices Muhammad have been Hisham. subject 1998c. to strongForgotten criticism Aspects by ofcurrents Islamic Worship:other than Part Salafism 1. Mountain throughout View: As-Sunna Islamic history.Foundation The institutionalization of America. of Sufism in modern Egypt, for example, went hand in hand with the banKabbani, of certain Muhammad rituals deemed Hisham. unislamic 1998d. Forgotten (De Jong Aspects 1999, of Islamicp. 311). Worship: Part 2. Mountain View: As-Sunna ItFoundation is noticeable of America.that among the Hadiths quoted in this context, there are two which are frequently usedKhemissi, by Salafis Hamidi, to refer Ricardo to Renthemselves.é Larémont, The and first Taybi states Taj Eddine.that the 2012. Prophet Sufism, has Salafism said that and the State Muslim Policy Umma towards will splitReligion into in73 Algeria. sects, only A Survey one of Algerianwhich will Youth. be saved.The Journal14 The of Northsecond African says Studies that (true)17: 547–58. Muslims [CrossRef will ] feelKnysh, like Alexander.strangers 1999.(ghurabāIbn ʾ Arabiin a world in the Later surrounded Islamic Tradition. by people TheMaking who follow of a Polemical the wrong Image faith. in Medieval15 On Islamthe . one hand,Albany: Salafis State say University that they of are New the York saved Press. group, since they only rely on what is found in the Quran andKnysh, in the Alexander. Hadith 2007.(Meijer Contextualizing 2009, p. 5). This, the Salafi-Sufi in turn, would Conflict. make From them the Northern feel as strangers Caucasus toin Hadramawt.the wider MuslimMiddle community Eastern Studies (Köpfer43: 2014, 503–30. p. [CrossRef454). The] Sufis, on the other hand, say that if Sufism is part and parcelKoç, Mehmet of Islam, Akif. then 2005. the Isnsavedads¯ andgroup Rijal ¯can Expertise only be in Muslims the Exegesis who of Ibnhave Abi joined Hatim a (327ṭārīqa/939).. In DerKabbani’s Islam 82: view, 146–68.it is because [CrossRef of ]the ongoing onslaught on Sufism at the hands of the Salafis that Sufis feel as strangersKöpfer, Benno. in the 2014. contemporary Ghuraba’—Das Muslim Konzept world der Fremden(Kabbani in 1996, salafistischen pp. 284– Strömungen.87). The interpretation In Salafismus. of Auf the der HadithsSuche among nach demboth wahren groups Islam is .virtually Edited by the Behnam same, T.they Said just and use Hazim different Fouad. labels. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, Inpp. the 442–73. attempt to portray Sufism as an integral part of the Islamic tradition, Kabbani extensively quotesKrawietz, the Birgit.founders 2014. of Ibnthe Taymiyya,four law schools Vater des as islamischenwell as other Fundamentalismus? luminaries of Islamic Zur legal westlichen thought. Rezeption One eines mittelalterlichen Schariagelehrten. In Salafismus in Deutschland. Ursprünge und Gefahren einer of the most famous quotes he uses is attributed to Imam Mālik Ibn Anas (d. 795): islamisch-fundamentalistischen Bewegung. Edited by Thorsten Gerald Schneiders. Bielefeld: Transcript, Whosoeverpp. 67–88. practices Sufism without legal knowledge is a heretic, whosoever [in turn] Kurzman,practices Charles. jurisprudence 2002. Introduction. without In SufismModernist is a Islam deviator 1840–1940. and who A Sourcebook combines. Edited between by Charles the two Kurzman. hasOxford found and the New truth York: (man Oxford taṣawwafa University wa-lam Press, yatafaqqih pp. 3–27. fa-qad tazanndaqa wa-man tafaqqaha wa- Lauzilamère, yata Henri.ṣawwaf 2015. fa-qadThe tafassaqa Making of wa-man Salafism. jama Islamicʿa bainahum Reform inā thefa-qad Twentieth taḥaqqaqa Century) (Kabbani. New York: 1996, Columbia p. 278)University.16 Press. Makdisi, George. 1973. Ibn Taimiya: A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order. American Journal of Arabic Studies 1: 118–29. If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, Makdisi, George. 1979. The Significance of the Sunni Schools of Law in Islamic Religious History. International there doesJournal not of Middleremain East any Studies authority10: 1–8. the [CrossRef Salafis] could rely on in their critique of Sufism. As stated before,Makdisi, this George. holds 1985.true onlyIbn Qudama’s for what Censure was regarded of Speculative by the Theology religious. Cambridge: establishment Gibb Memorial as orthodox Trust. Sufism. TheMakin, question Al. 1999. of Thewhat Influence constitutes of Zahir¯ orthodox¯ı Theory and on Ibnnon-orthodox Hazm’s Theology: Sufi beliefs The Case and of Hispractices Interpretation has always of the been anAnthropomorphic ongoing process Text of “the negotiation Hand of God”.(GreenMedieval 2012). Encounters 5: 112–20. [CrossRef] Meier,Given Fritz. that, 1981. according Das Sauberste to Kabbani, über die Vorbestimmung.certain knowledgeSaeculum (yaqīn32:) cannot 74–89. [beCrossRef obtained] by the study of booksMeier, alone, Fritz. 1994.it is Zweimandatory Abhandlungen to follow über diea shaykh Naqšbandiyya, since. Stuttgart:“every true Fran Sufi Steiner is a Verlag. scholar in Sacred Law, thoughMeijer, Roel.the reverse 2009. Introduction.is not necessarily In Global true“ Salafism. (Kabbani Islam’s 1996, New p. Religious 396). The Movement. puritanical. Edited approach by Roel of Meijer. the SalafisLondon: was a deviation Hurst & Company, from the pp. tradition 1–32. and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, inspired by western notions of epistemology: The delusion that ‘no Islamic knowledge is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in the books,’ is the Westernized belief of the 'Salafis' who rebel against the idea of having an Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is taken and understood

(Dziri 2014; Schneiders 2014). During his lifetime, Sufism was only in its infancy, and from what is known so far, his stance towards the early Sufis was rather ambivalent. Although he believed in the power of the relics of the Prophet as well as in the abdāl, “extraordinarily pious Muslims” (Melchert 2006, p. 356),3 he was skeptical about the dhikr-ceremonies, which he regarded as an unnecessary innovation (Melchert 2001, pp. 356–60). Religions 2020, 11, 144 23 of 24 There is also some dispute among scholars on the attitude towards Sufism of Aḥmad Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), who is prominently featured in Salafi writings (Krawietz 2014). His polemics Meijer,against Roel. well 2011.-known Politicizing mystics Al-Jar suchh. Wa-L-Ta as Ibn ʿdArab¯ıl: Rabī (d.¯ı b. 1240) Had¯ ¯ıare al-Madkhal well documented¯ı and the Transnational (Knysh 1999). Battle On for the otherReligious hand, Authority.scholars such In The as George Transmission Makdisi and Dynamics (d. 2002) of have the Textual argued Sources that he of Islam.was himself Essays ina membe Honour ofr of a SufiHarald ṭarī Motzkiqa (Makdisi. Edited 1973) by Nicolet. This view Boekho hasff-van been der challenged Voort, Kees (Meier Versteegh 1981; and Ansari Joas Wagemakers.1985). Contemporary Leiden: researchBrill, pp. suggests 375–99. that “it should nonetheless be clear that Sufism, within the boundaries of Melchert,traditionalist Christopher. theology, 1997. hadThe Formationa place in of Ibn the SunniTaymiyya’s Schools ofwor Law,ldview” 9th–10th (Post Centuries 2016, C.E p.. 161). Leiden: Brill. Melchert,The Christopher. antipathy 2001. towards The H . Sufismanabila¯ and is more the Early obvious Sufis. inArabica the writings48: 352–67. of [CrossRef Muḥammad] Ibn ʿAbd al- Melchert,Wahhā Christopher.b (d. 1792), 2006. the Ahmad founder Ibn ofHanbal the. Oxford:Wahhabi Oneworld movement Publications. from which contemporary Salafism Peskes,emerged. Esther.4 T 1999.he idea The of Wahh an unbrokenabiyya¯ and heart Sufism-based in the link Eighteenth (rābiṭa) Century. between In theIslamic student Mysticism (murī Contested.d) and his shaykh,Thirteen blind Centuries obedience of Controversies towards and him Polemics, and. Editedhis claim by Frederick to stand De in Jong a spiritual and Bernd line Radtke. all the Leiden: way Brill,to the Prophetpp. 145–61. Muhammad (silsila) were for ʿAbd al-Wahhāb signs of manifest unbelief (kufr bawāḥ) (Peskes Pirický, Gabriel. 2012. The Ismaila˘gaCommunity.˙ Shifting Religious Patterns in Contemporary Turkey. Archív 1999, p. 159). Still, “Wahhābism, in its early stages, confronted Sufism primarily at the level of popular Orientální 80: 533–61. practice and daily routines. Discourse was not carried out on the level of sophisticated theological Post, Arjan. 2016. A Glimpse of Sufism from the Circle of Ibn Taymiyya. An Edition and Translation of argumentation” (Peskes 1999, p. 159). al-Ba labakk¯ı’s (d. 734/1333) Epistle on the Spiritual Way (Risalat¯ al-Suluk).¯ Journal of Sufi Studies 5: 156–87. This was rather done by representatives of the contemporary Salafi movement. Two prominent [CrossRef] books containing a comprehensive critique of Sufism are “These are the Sufis (Hādhihī hiya l-ṣūfiyya)” Qadhi, Yasir. 2014. On Salafi Islam. MuslimMatters. April 22. Available online: http://muslimmatters.org/wp- ṣ ʿ ṣ ʿ ḥ andcontent “The /demiseuploads /ofOn-Salafi-Islam_Dr.-Yasir-Qadhi.pdf Sufism (Ma ra al-ta awwuf)”, written (accessed by onAbd 5 July ar- 2015).Ra mān al-Wakīl (d. 1971), the Qibrisi,third Shaykhleader of Nazim. “Anṣā 1980.r al-SunnaMercy al Oceans.-Muḥammadiyya The Teachings”, ofEgypt’s Maulana oldest Abdullah andal-Faizi biggest ad-Daghestani Salafi organization Part 1. (Gauvain 2015). Other examples can be found in the writings of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Bāz (d. 1999), the Unknown:Religions Unknown.2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24 Ridgeon,former Lloyd, grand ed. mufti 2015. ofSufis Saudi and Arabia Salafis,in as the we Contemporaryll as Ṣāliḥ al Age-Munajjid,. New York: who Bloomsbury administrates Publishing. the Salafi website Roy,“Islam Olivier. Q&A”. 2004.established GlobalizedAlthough by Islam. theythe TheBook differentiate Search and for the a New betweenSunna Ummah and different. Newnever York: didSufi Columbia it movements, step out University of boththe bounds Press.conclude of thesethat Salafipublications.Sufism wouldparameters. have n.d. to be (Kabbani Shaikh rejected ul-Islam 1996,in its entiretyp. Ibn266). Taymiyyah (Ibn Bāz n on.d.; theal-Munajjid Mawlid. 201 Available4). Against online: this histhttp:orical// backgroundwww.salafipublications.com, the following chapter/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID will analyze= somebdh06&articleID of the most=bdh060002&pfriend extensive Sufi responses= (accessed to onthese 6 SalafiFebruary criticisms,From 2020). whicha scholarly were perspective,published by this the claim Ṭarīqa needs al-Nā ẓtoimiyya be questioned. insofar as certain mystics and Sayf al-Din,Sufi Ahmed practices Ibn have Muhammad. been subject 1994. toAl-Albani strong criticism Unveiled. by An currents Exposition other of His than Errors Salafism and Other throughout Important Islamic 3. AIssues Sufihistory.. PublishedCritique The Online.institutionalizationof Salafism Available online: of Sufism http://www.masud.co.uk in modern Egypt,/ISLAM for example,/misc/albintro.htm went hand (accessed in hand on with the 28 Novemberban of certain 2019). rituals deemed unislamic (De Jong 1999, p. 311). One of the most vocal anti-Salafi Sufi orders situated in the West is the Ṭarīqa al-Nāẓimiyya, which Schacht, Joseph.It 2012a.is noticeable Ahl al-H thatad¯ı th.amongIn Encyclopaedia the Hadiths of Islam quoted, 2nd in ed. this Edited context, by Peri there Bearman, are two Thierry which Bianquis, are frequently is part of the Naqshband.i-tradition¯ in Sufism.5 Several websites on Islam in English are affiliated Cliffusedord Edmund by Salafis Bosworth, to refer to Emeri themselves. Johannes The van first Donzel states and that Wolfhart the Prophet Peter Heinrichs. has said Availablethat the Muslim online: Umma with the order.6 The order in its present form was founded by Muḥammad Nāẓim ʿĀdil al-Qibrīṣī http:will//dx.doi.org split into/10.1163 73 sects,/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0379 only one of which will (accessed be saved. on 714 February The second 2020). says that (true) Muslims will al-Ḥaqqānī, known as Shaykh Nazim, who was born 1922 in what is now the Turkish part of Cyprus15 . Schacht,feel Joseph. like 2012b.strangers As. h.(abghurabā¯ al-Raʾ y.in Ina worldEncyclopaedia surrounded of Islam. by Secondpeople Edition who .follow Edited the by wrong Peri Bearman, faith. On the During his studies in Damascus, he became the student of ʿAbd Allah al-Dāghistānī (d. 1973), a local Thierryone hand, Bianquis, Salafis Cliff ordsay Edmundthat they Bosworth, are the saved Emeri group, Johannes since van they Donzel only and rely Wolfhart on what Peter is found Heinrichs. in the Quran leaderAvailableand of the in online: Naqthe shHadith http:band//iydx.doi.org (Meijerya-Khālid 2009,/10.1163iyya .p. He /5).1573-3912_islam_SIM_0775 told This, Shaykh in turn, Nazim would to gomake (accessed back them to onLefke feel 7 February as in strangersCyprus 2020). in in order the wider Schleifer,to spreadMuslim Suleiman his messagecommunity Abdullah. to the 1983.(Köpfer western Understanding 2014, world p. 454).. The Jihad: The center DefinitionSufis, of on his the andactivities other Methodology. hand, in Europe sayIslamic that was if Quarterly aSufism mosque is27: partin and London,118–31.parcel which of Islam,he visited then annually the saved for group several can months only ,be almost Muslims up until who hishave death joined in 2014 a ṭā r(īAtayqa. In 2012 Kabbani’s, Schneiders,pp. 42view,–45) Thorsten. it is because Gerald. of 2014. the Ahmadongoing Ibn onslaught Hanbal- on Sein Sufism Leben, at sein the Ruhm, hands seine of the Lehre. Salafis Wie that sich Sufis die feel as OrthodoxieThestrangers order im regardin sunnitischen the scontemporary itself Islamas the etablierte. most Muslim authentic InworldSalafismus representative(Kabbani in Deutschland. 1996, of pp. the Ursprünge284 Naqshbandiyya–87). The und interpretation Gefahren Sufi branch einer of the andislamisch-fundamentalistischen deniesHadiths other among orders both to begroups on Bewegung the is samevirtually. Edited level the by(Dantschke same, Thorsten they et Gerald just al. 2001,use Schneiders. different p. 92; Atay labels. Bielefeld: 2012, p. transcript, 226). This claimpp. is 45–66. unsurprisinglyIn the attempt disputed to portray by otherSufism branches as an integral of the Naqshbandiyya part of the Islamic, for example tradition,, by Kabbani the Istanbul extensively- Sedgwick, quotes Mark J.the 2015. founders Sufis as of ‘Good the four Muslims’. law schools Sufism inas the well Battle as other Against luminaries Salafi Jihadism. of Islamic In Sufis legal and thought. Salafis One 3 in the Contemporary Age. Edited by Lloyd Ridgeon. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 105–117. It isof unclear the mo ifst the famous description quotes of abdālhe uses as “extraordinarilyis attributed to piousImam Muslims” Mālik Ibn is takenAnas from(d. 795 the): writings of Ibn Sirriyeh,Ḥanbal Elizabeth. or if it is 1999. an explanationSufis and anti-Sufis. by Melchert. The Defence,In later Sufism, Rethinking the andabdāl Rejection are more of than Sufism just in pious. the Modern They Worldare seen. Richmond:as saints,Whosoever without Curzon. whom practices the universe Sufism would without be thrown legal off knowledge balance (Goldziher is a heretic, and Kissling whosoever 2012). [in turn] Stjernholm,4 For a depiction Simon.practices 2015. of thisjurisprudence The process Centre from of the without the Universe: perspective Sufism Shaykh of is the Nazima deviatorhistory and of His andideas Murids who see Lauzière incombines Lefke, (2015). Cyprus. between Journal the oftwo 5 MuslimsAlso known inhas Europe asfound Naqshbandiyya4: the 38–57. truth [CrossRef Ḥ(manaqqāniyya ta] ṣawwafa, Ḥaqqā niyyawa-lam or yatafaqqihNaqshbandiyya fa-qad Nā ẓtazanndaqaimiyya. wa-man tafaqqaha wa- Sunnah.net.6 http://naqshbandi.org/ 2011.lam yata Halṣ shabbahaawwaf; fa-qad l-Albhttps://sufilive.com/ tafassaqaan¯ ¯ı al-ah. wa-mannaf¯ bi-l-k; jamaafir¯ ¯ınʿa minhttp://www.nurmuhammad.com/pbuh/bainahum ahl al-kitā faab?¯-qad 11.06.2011. taḥaqqaqa) Available (Kabbani online: 1996,or p. http:https://eshaykh.com///www.dd-sunnah.net278).16 . /forum/showthread.php?t=129094 (accessed on 16 February 2018). Swartz, Merlin. 2002. A Medieval Critique of Anthropomorphism: Ibn al-Jawzi’s Kitab Akhbar as.-s.ifat.. Leiden: Brill. If almost all prominent scholars of Islamic history have ruled in favor of Sufism so the logic goes, Tariq, Mir. 2012. Kashmir: From Sufi to Salafi. Pulitzer Centre. November 5. Available online: https: //pulitzercenter.orgthere does not/reporting remain /anykashmir-sufi-salafi authority the (accessedSalafis could on 5 November rely on in 2019). their critique of Sufism. As stated Thurston,before, Alexander. this holds 2018. Antrue Emerging only for Post-Salafiwhat was Currentregarded in by West the Africa religious and Beyond.establishmentMaydan as. October orthodox 15. Sufism. AvailableThe question online: https: of what//www.themaydan.com constitutes orthodox/2018 /and10/emerging-post-salafi-current-west-africa-beyond non-orthodox Sufi beliefs and practices has/ always (accessedbeen an on ongoing 13 December process 2018). of negotiation (Green 2012). Given that, according to Kabbani, certain knowledge (yaqīn) cannot be obtained by the study of books alone, it is mandatory to follow a shaykh, since “every true Sufi is a scholar in Sacred Law, though the reverse is not necessarily true“ (Kabbani 1996, p. 396). The puritanical approach of the Salafis was a deviation from the tradition and proof that they were a new phenomenon in Islam, inspired by western notions of epistemology: The delusion that ‘no Islamic knowledge is hidden from me if only I decide to find it in the books,’ is the Westernized belief of the 'Salafis' who rebel against the idea of having an Imam of fiqh or tasawwuf (…). Therefore it [Islamic knowledge] is taken and understood

Troid.org. n.d. Full Text of a Reply to the Slanderous Book of Falsehood: Al-Albani: Unveiled. Available online: https://archive.org/stream/bookoffalsehood/bookoffalsehood_djvu.txt (accessed on 22 June 2018). Ukeles, Raquel M. 2010. The Sensitive Puritan? Revisiting Ibn Taymiyya’s Approach to Law and Spirituality in Light of 20th-century Debates on the Prophet’s Birthday (mawlid al-nabi). In Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Edited by Yossif Rapoport and Shahab Ahmed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 319–37. Van Ess, Josef. 1991. Theologie und Gesellschaft im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert Hidschra. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, vol. 1. Wiktorowicz, Quintan. 2006. Anatomy of the Salafi Movement. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29: 207–39. Woodward, Mark, Umar Muhammad Sani, Rohmaniyah Inayah, and Yahya Mariani. 2013. Salafi Violence and Sufi Tolerance? Rethinking Conventional Wisdom. Perspectives on Terrorism 7: 58–78. ZDF. 2017. ZDF Info—Sufis in Deutschland. August 30. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ua- 6mGMO8jQ (accessed on 5 February 2020).

© 2020 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).