Goat Medicine

Second Edition

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL

1 Fundamentals of Goat Practice

Overview 3 Special Considerations for Hobby Farms 11 Distribution of Goats 3 Special Considerations for Organic Goat Production 11 Use of Goats 3 Special Considerations for Transgenic Goats 11 Current Interest in Goats 4 Physical Examination 13 Distinguishing Goats from Sheep 4 Inspection from a Distance 13 Goat Behavior 5 Direct Physical Examination of Individual Goats 14 General Characteristics 5 General Inspection 14 Ingestive and Eliminative Behavior 5 Examination of the Integument 15 Sexual Behavior 6 Examination of the Head 16 Maternal Behavior 6 Examination of the Neck 17 Handling Goats 7 Examination of the Chest 17 Group Considerations 7 Examination of the Abdomen 18 Individual Restraint 7 Examination of the Limbs 18 Administering Medications 7 Examination of the Reproductive System 18 Clinical Examination of Goats 9 Examination of the Environment 19 History Taking 9 Field Necropsies and Slaughterhouse Checks 20 Special Considerations for Range and Pastured Goats 10 References 20 Special Considerations for Intensively Managed Goats 10

OVERVIEW larly as models of ruminant digestion and human heart disease and as transgenic animals), commercial Distribution of Goats antibody production, and companionship. Goat horn According to the Food and Agriculture Organization and bone are sometimes used for ornamental purposes (FAO) of the United Nations, in 2006 there were an and musical instruments, while goat skins are used for estimated 837.2 million goats in the world, approxi- drum making. mately 64.2% of which were in Asia, 28.8% in Africa, Meat production is the major use of goats on a 4.3% in South and Central America, 2.2% in Europe, worldwide basis, particularly in Asia, Africa, the 0.3% in North America, and 0.1% in Oceania. Approxi- Middle East, and Latin America, and world goat meat mately 4.2% of the world’s goats are found in devel- production more than doubled between 1980 and 2000 oped countries and 95.8% in developing countries (FAO (Morand-Fehr et al. 2004). In 2006, the seven leading 2007). Goats are highly adaptable to a broad range of goat meat producing nations in descending order were climatic and geographic conditions and are more China, India, Pakistan, Sudan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, widely distributed than any other mammalian live- and Iran (FAO 2007a). A myriad of local and regional stock. Goats are managed under every imaginable pro- breeds exists around the world that are used mainly duction system, including feral, transhumant, nomadic, for meat. In recent years, more attention has been paid extensive, intensive, and total confi nement systems. to selective breeding in goats for meat production, leading to the development of two highly effi cient, Use of Goats purpose-bred meat goat breeds. These are the South Goats are exploited for diverse purposes, including African Boer goat (Mahan 2000) and the Kiko goat of meat production, cashmere and mohair fi ber produc- New Zealand (Batten 1988), both of which have gained tion, milk and cheese production, and skins for leather popularity in the United States, particularly in the making. Specialty uses include brush and weed control, southeast where commercial goat meat production has pack and draft use, animal experimentation (particu- been expanding.

3 4 Goat Medicine

The major milking breeds of goats originated pri- Fortunately, a number of resources have become marily in Europe. These breeds include the Saanen, available to provide information in these areas. The Toggenburg, Anglo-Nubian, and Alpine breeds. The International Goat Association (www.iga-goatworld. more recently developed La Mancha breed originated org/) sponsors a quadrennial international conference in the United States. The Jamnapari and Beetal breeds on goats and regularly publishes the peer-reviewed, of India are also important dairy breeds that are well international research journal, Small Ruminant Research, adapted to and becoming more widely distributed in which reports research fi ndings on all aspects of goat the humid tropics. The use of goat milk to manufacture production including health, nutrition, genetics, cheese is an important industry in France, Spain, and physiology, and husbandry from all over the world. The other European countries. American Sheep Industry Association regularly pro- Angora goats, the source of mohair fi ber, have tra- duces a similar, multidisciplinary research publication, ditionally been concentrated in a number of distinct Sheep and Goat Research Journal, which focuses specifi cally areas, notably Turkey, where they originated, South on small ruminant production in North America and is Africa, Texas, Argentina, and some central Asian available on the Internet (http://www.sheepusa.org/). republics formerly in the USSR. Cashmere or Pash- The American Association of Small Ruminant Prac- mina goats, which produce cashmere fi ber, are found titioners (AASRP) is an excellent resource for veteri- primarily in the mountainous regions of Central Asia, nary practitioners in North America. This member including parts of Tibet, China, Mongolia, Iran, organization produces a regular newsletter, Wool and Afghanistan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Wattles, full of current, relevant information on regula- Skins are usually a byproduct of goat slaughter for tory and clinical issues as well as an e-mail discussion meat, but skins of certain goat breeds such as the Red forum for AASRP members. The AASRP Website Sokoto of Niger are prized for high-quality leather (www.aasrp.org/) provides links to other useful goods such as kidskin gloves and purses. Details of the resources for goat health and production. Another various goat industries are beyond the scope of this useful Web-based resource for veterinarians is Consul- veterinary text. The interested reader is referred to tant, which generates differential diagnoses based on other sources (Gall 1981; Coop 1982; DeVendra and clinical signs entered by the user on a species basis, Burns 1983; Dubeuf et al. 2004; Morand-Fehr et al. with goats recognized as a distinct species. It is avail- 2004). able on the Internet at http://www.vet.cornell.edu/ consultant/consult.asp. Finally, many state extension Current Interest in Goats agencies now have much more information available Worldwide interest in goats has continued to on goat husbandry and production than they had in increase dramatically during the last decade. There is the past, and much of it accessible on the Internet. greater understanding of the importance of goats in agricultural systems in low-income countries. A Distinguishing Goats from Sheep number of humanitarian organizations, such as Heifer International and FARM-Africa, have recognized the Source of Confusion value of using goats as a tool in rural development For those whose experience with sheep and goats is programs to improve the social and economic condi- limited to the common European wool breeds of sheep tions of subsistence farmers and the rural poor. Meth- and the European dairy breeds of goats, the notion that odologies for improved goat production in the tropics individuals of the two species could be confused may in support of rural development have been published seem ridiculous. However, in tropical and subtropical (Peacock 1996). regions, various breeds of hair sheep are common. There is also increased demand for goat products in These breeds are often maintained in mixed fl ocks developed countries, especially goat cheese, cashmere with local breeds of goats, and may not be readily goods, and even goat meat. Demand for goat meat in differentiated. The following information can help in the United States has exceeded domestic supply in distinguishing the two species. recent years. In 2004, the United States imported 2,400 metric tons of goat meat, mostly from Australia (Ward Genetic Distinctions 2006). Goats have 60 chromosomes and sheep have 54. This expanding interest in goats has increased the Though very uncommon, fertile goat-sheep hybrids demand for goat-related veterinary services in the have been reported. These hybrids have 57 chromo- areas of clinical medicine, research, and extension. In somes. The phenomenon is discussed in Chapter 13. response to this need, interested veterinarians must familiarize themselves with goats as a species distinct Behavioral Distinctions from sheep and cattle, recognizing their often charac- A major difference between sheep and goats is teristic behavior, physiology, and response to disease. feeding behavior. Sheep are grazing animals, consis- 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 5 tently feeding at ground level, while the goat is more make a characteristic sneezing noise. In keeping with of a browsing animal, readily feeding on shrubs, their browsing behavior, goats orally investigate every- bushes, and trees. While both species are social, indi- thing in their environment. This includes veterinary vidual goats are less anxious than sheep when sepa- equipment, paperwork, clothing, and jewelry brought rated from the group. Goats are less tolerant of rain within their reach. When drawing blood samples or and more readily seek shelter in wet weather. writing health papers, it is essential to keep the paper- The males of both species will fi ght, buck goats by work in a safe place or it will be eaten or destroyed. rearing up on their hind feet and coming down force- Goats will chew on pen partitions and other structures fully to butt heads, while rams back up and then charge made of wood, and a large group of goats can actually forward to butt heads. The anatomic structure of the devour pen walls over a period of months. They will horns, frontal sinuses, and neck muscles of each species also eat the paint off walls, so lead paint should be is appropriate to its method of fi ghting, minimizing avoided. the risk of injury to combatants (Reed and Schaffer Goats are very agile and are excellent climbers. They 1972). When young bucks and rams are maintained are occasionally found in barn rafters, in trees, or on together, the rams become dominant because they pre- the hood of the veterinarian’s vehicle, if allowed access. emptively strike bucks in the abdomen while the male Providing a rock pile in paddocks or pastures can goats are still in the act of rearing up. foster recreation and will help to control hoof over- Whereas lambs are almost constantly at the side of growth. Goats will stand on their hind legs and lean ewes in early life, goats practice “lying out” or “plant- against fences, causing considerable damage over ing” behavior with kids left in “camps” for a good part time. Broken limbs may occur if legs are caught in the of the day while does feed. openings of chain link fences. The goats’ agility com- bined with their curiosity can be fatal if their heads get Anatomic Distinctions caught and they are strangled in fences, gates, doors, When wool is not obvious in sheep, other anatomic windows, or other structures. Backward curving horns differences may be observed. Most goat breeds have contribute to this problem. an erect tail, while the tail of sheep always hangs down. Goats are notorious for successfully undoing simple The sheep has an upper lip divided by a distinct phil- gate closures and latches. This is a common occurrence trum and the goat does not. Male goats, and to a lesser in accidental grain overload cases, so goat keepers extent female goats, have beards, which are lacking in must ensure that gates are securely fastened. Goats can sheep. Goats do not have infraorbital, interdigital, or easily jump fences designed for sheep and also will dig inguinal glands, while sheep do. Goats have sebaceous under fences that do not closely skirt the ground. Goat glands beneath the tailhead that sheep lack. fencing should never have interior sloping support posts because goats will use them to climb out of the GOAT BEHAVIOR enclosure. Goats ignore barbed wire and therefore it should not be used because it can infl ict serious General Characteristics damage. Thus, electric fencing has become popular for Goats exhibit some very distinct behavior patterns goat operations because the animals quickly learn to (Hafez 1975; Kilgour and Dalton 1984). Many aspects respect it. of goat behavior are conditioned by the circumstances in which the animals are kept. Many natural behavior Ingestive and Eliminative Behavior patterns observed in free-ranging feral goats may be A key to the adaptability of goats worldwide is altered or not expressed at all under different degrees their effi cient browsing ability. This same effi ciency, of confi nement. Nevertheless, some behavior patterns however, has given the goat notoriety as an important are widely characteristic. cause of desertifi cation in some regions of the world. Goats tend to fl ock together in extended family The reputation is not always deserved because over- groups. They have a strong hierarchical structure in grazing by numerous livestock species may be at fault, the fl ock or herd. Both males and females will establish but only the goats are left surviving when vegetation social dominance in their respective groups through is almost gone (Dunbar 1984). Goats may climb into head to head fi ghting. Goats use their horns to advan- trees to reach food when it is scarce. If permitted, they tage when fi ghting to establish their social dominance. can girdle the bark from trees, thus killing them. Goats Therefore, all goats in a group should be either horned are used to clear brush to reclaim pasture land for or hornless to avoid excessive bullying by horned sheep and cattle. When run simultaneously with sheep goats. and cattle, they may improve pasture quality for these When goats are accustomed to human contact, they other species by contributing manure for fertilization, will approach strangers rather than fl ee. When threat- removing toxic plants such as oak to which they are ened or upset, they will turn and face an intruder and more resistant than the other ruminant species, and 6 Goat Medicine eliminating brush to allow more sunlight for improved and demonstrate the fl ehmen reaction, curling his grass growth (Ward 2006). upper lip. Second, the buck possesses sebaceous scent Owners feeding goats in confi nement often com- glands on his head, caudomedial to the base of the plain that the animals waste a good deal of hay, par- horn, which during active rutting produce an odifer- ticularly leaving behind the nutritious leafy parts of ous compound identifi ed as 6-trans nonenal (Smith et good legume hay. This tendency can be countered to al. 1984). This compound may also be released from some extent by feeder designs that inhibit the goat the sebaceous gland under the tail. It acts as a potent from pulling hay out of the feeder and dropping it on pheromone and the odor alone can induce estrus in the fl oor. Goats are also fi nicky about contaminated the doe. feed and water supplies and may refuse water contain- Bucks show active fi ghting behavior at the begin- ing fecal pellets or hay and grain in wet troughs that ning of and during the breeding season to establish smell moldy. dominance. Veterinarians and owners should exercise In free-ranging feral and Angora goats, approxi- caution when working around sexually active bucks. mately 30% of the day is spent in feeding, usually A full grown buck striking from the standing position divided into sunrise, midday, and sunset periods. One- can produce serious or fatal injury. For this reason, third of this is grazing time, two-thirds browsing. bucks of different sizes in confi nement operations About half the day is spent resting, 10% ruminating, should be segregated so that smaller, younger bucks and 12% traveling (Askins and Turner 1972; Kilgour are not injured or killed. Do not turn your back to an and Ross 1980). In contrast, intensively managed unrestrained buck! Saanen milking goats eat for 20% of the day, ruminate During courtship, the buck will sniff the urine of 25%, travel 20%, sleep 11%, rest recumbent 14%, and does and follow with the fl ehmen response. To display rest standing approximately 8% of each day. They def- to does, a buck holds his head erect and high or he ecate on average 11.2 times and urinate 8.3 times daily lowers his extended head and neck to the ground. He (Pu, personal communication 1990). may also kick out at the doe with an extended fore- Goats raise their tails to defecate and normally limb, but rarely actually strike her. Courtship is accom- produce pelleted feces. Female goats squat to urinate. panied by much frenzied vocalizing and fl icking the During the non-breeding season, males urinate on tongue in and out. Sexually active bucks commonly the ground with little or no extension of the penis lose weight during the breeding season. beyond the prepuce. However, during the breeding season, the pattern of urination is markedly different Maternal Behavior and associated with sexual behavior as discussed Free-ranging goats separate from the herd and hide below. Goats cannot be prompted easily to urinate to kid. Confi ned goats may attempt to conceal them- by holding off their nares, as is done with sheep. selves. As parturition approaches, does become rest- This makes simple collection of a urine specimen less and paw at the ground, making rudimentary problematic. efforts to “nest build.” Details of parturition and the recognition of dystocia are discussed in Chapter 13. Sexual Behavior Following parturition, the doe actively licks the kids, In tropical and subtropical regions, estrus generally and this is considered to be critical to successful occurs year-round while in temperate regions goats bonding. If does are frightened or disturbed at this are seasonally polyestrus, with breeding season trig- point, or if licking is delayed longer than one hour, gered by decreasing day length. Breed factors may also bonding may be impaired and kids may be abandoned play a role in this pattern because relocation of some or mothered less effectively. indigenous breeds to new climatic zones does not Kids are precocial, standing and seeking the hairless result in a change of estrus pattern. Specifi c informa- udder shortly after birth. In free-ranging herds, there tion on the frequency, signs, and patterns of estrus are is a “lying-out” period of several days to several weeks provided in Chapter 13. Male sexual behavior refl ects when does may leave kids in sheltered areas for periods the pattern seen in does. Libido and sperm quality may of two to eight hours while they feed. Does must be be depressed during anestrous seasons. However, if familiar with the geography to return successfully to females are brought into estrus by hormonal manipu- their kids. Therefore, it is not advisable to move does lation, bucks quickly respond out of season. to new grazing areas immediately before kidding. The obnoxious behavior and strong odor of bucks Does will respond to alarm calls from their distant kids during breeding season are notorious. At least two and return to defend them if bonding is strong. Kids factors contribute to buck odor. First, the aroused buck gradually begin to follow their dams, learning to repeatedly urinates on himself, soaking his head, neck, browse and graze. The infrequent nursing pattern of and forequarters. He will sometimes take his erect young kids makes the goat adaptable to the twice-a- penis into his mouth. Afterwards, the buck may yawn day feeding regimens that are often practiced under 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 7 intensive management. If given boxes to hide in, kids handler (Figure 1.1). If a goat is horned, the horns raised in confi nement will use them for the fi rst week, should be held when restraining goats in close quar- coming out only to suckle the dam. ters to avoid injury to the handler. Bearded goats can be led by the beard and non-bearded goats by the HANDLING GOATS ears, though some owners may object to the latter practice. For smaller, uncooperative goats, fl ipping the Group Considerations animal into lateral recumbency and then placing Goats are highly adaptable and trainable animals. the handler’s knee on the goat’s neck may provide Feral goats captured in Australia and New Zealand effective restraint. may become used to handling in confi nement within Goats do not become passive when tipped up on the weeks, although if frightened suddenly they can rump in the manner used for sheep, so this method of clear sheep fences with ease. Dairy goats are readily restraint is less useful; this is a problem regarding trained into milking routines involving parlors and shearing. A modifi cation of the technique to avoid machine milking. Although Angora kids may scream struggling is to fi rst tip up the goat, and then allow the the fi rst time they are sheared, they get used to the head to fall backward between the handler’s thighs so procedure. that the goat’s back is resting on the handler’s shins. Goats used to human contact can be mustered by This redistributes the goat’s weight from the bony calling. Moving less tame goats on open range is rump to the back, making it more comfortable for similar to moving sheep. Dogs can be used, but they the goat. Tipping up the goat is useful for examining must be well trained. The fl ight distance of feral goats the prepuce and penis of male goats suspected of is eight to ten meters. Goats are more likely to turn and urolithiasis. In this case, the weight of the goat’s fi ght than sheep if provoked by a dog. Animals that upper body needs to be shifted forward to facilitate break away from the group should be left to follow extension of the penis. Foot trimming is most easily along rather than chased. The presence of sheep with carried out by raising the distal limbs of the standing the goats can actually facilitate fl ocking and driving, goat. although on hills, goats tend to move upward and sheep downward. When collected in yards, anxious Administering Medications goats may pile up in a corner and some may suffocate, so they should be divided into small groups. When Oral Medications possible goats should be allowed to spend 24 hours in Mass medication of feed and water is no more reli- a handling facility before they are worked so they are able in goats than in other species, because sick animals more comfortable with their surroundings. Horned are likely to have reduced feed and possibly water goats may be very wary of entering narrow races and intake. In addition, goats, being fastidious about water gates. When working horned goats in close quarters, supplies, may detect a change in the odor or fl avor of the danger of face and eye injuries to handlers is high, the water and refuse to drink it. and protective eye wear should be used. When drenching individual goats, the head should be held horizontally and not tilted up, reducing the Individual Restraint chances of aspiration pneumonia. The drenching gun Tame goats will stop when caught by the gastrocne- should be inserted at the commissure of the lips and mius tendon. However, if a frightened or wary goat is the nostrils held off while the medication is quickly actively fl eeing or struggling, capture by the limb can dispensed. To successfully administer boluses with a lead to serious dislocations of joints or fractures of long balling gun, the gun must be carefully worked over the bones, particularly in young animals. It is preferable base of the tongue before dispensing the bolus or the to catch animals by hooking an arm around the neck pill will be chewed and spit out. Put the gun into the or torso or by grabbing the collar, horns, beard, or, less mouth at the commissure of the lips to facilitate this desirably, the ears. process. Do not force the gun into the pharynx or trau- Goats used to human contact can be trained to lead. matic injury can occur. Balling and drenching guns Goats that pull strongly against neck chains will com- should be examined before use to ensure that they do monly cough and, rarely, cause trauma to the trachea. not have sharp defects that could injure the goats. Goats used to handling are usually easily restrained Passing a stomach tube in goats via the mouth is not for examination, administration of medication, or particularly diffi cult if proper restraint and a suitable routine sample collection. Such goats can be haltered speculum are available. Commercially available sheep or lead shanks can be tied to neck straps and then speculums work well with goats, as does a block of secured. Uncooperative goats can be straddled over wood with a circular hole cut through it. Small diam- the withers by a handler with the goat’s hind end eter, well lubricated tubes can be passed through the backed into a corner and the head held fi rmly by the nose to the stomach. 8 Goat Medicine

Figure 1.1. Useful restraint methods for intravenous blood sampling or medicine administration via the jugular vein of a goat. Backing the goat into a corner, as shown, improves control. In Figure. 1.1a, the goat is restrained so that an assistant, kneeling in front of the goat, can easily take the sample or give the medicine. In Figure. 1.1b, the goat is positioned with the head tucked under the handler’s arm so that sampling or medicine administration can be accomplished by the handler alone. (Illustrations by Mr. Nadir Kohzad.)

Injections If skins are marketed from a goat herd, the veteri- Mass medication or vaccination using a common narian should avoid injections of any kind in regions needle has long been practiced by some farmers and of the body that become part of the marketed skin, veterinarians. In the case of goats, as with other species, because defects can occur secondary to injection site it is time to rethink this practice, particularly in light reactions and devalue the skin. Therefore, the back and of the growing importance of caprine arthritis enceph- upper fl anks should be avoided even though they are alitis virus (CAEV) in goats. This retrovirus may be often convenient. transmissible by blood-contaminated needles. Cer- Intramuscular injections can cause diffi culties in tainly, in herds where the virus is known to exist, or goats. The preferred site is in the neck, in a triangular attempts are under way to control it, it would be coun- region bounded by the vertebral column ventrally, the terproductive and negligent to use common needles. nuchal ligament dorsally, and the shoulder caudally. Additional discussion of this important caprine disease The triceps can also be used. If skin quality is not a is found in Chapters 4 and 5. consideration, the longissimus muscles over the back Another reason to use individual needles in con- in the lumbar region may also be used. In all cases, the junction with other good hygienic practices during volume of drug administered in one site should not be vaccination is the tendency for goats to develop large greater than 5 ml. Needles should be 2 to 3 cm long swellings and even abscesses at injection sites after and no larger than 18-gauge unless the medication is vaccination with clostridial, chlamydial, and paratu- highly viscous. Shorter needles should be used for berculosis vaccines. If the veterinarian’s technique is young kids. exemplary, he or she is unlikely to be held accountable The thigh muscles should be avoided as a site of for any problems that develop later. intramuscular injection in adults and especially young 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 9 goats. The muscle mass is small compared to other CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF GOATS ruminants, and sciatic nerve damage is not uncom- A complete clinical examination consists of three mon. Owners should be counseled against using this major elements: history taking, physical examination, site. Even when the nerve is not damaged, marked and inspection of the environment. Many diseases lameness can occur when irritating drugs such as oxy- seen in individual goats are likely to represent poten- tetracycline are given in the leg. Permanent muscle tial herd problems; therefore, prompt diagnosis of damage can also occur that devalues the carcasses of clinical cases is essential so that, in addition to therapy, meat goats. appropriate preventive measures can be introduced Subcutaneous injections are commonly given in the into the overall management program. In many caprine neck in the same region described for intramuscular diseases, subclinical cases often exist in addition to the injections, or on the chest wall about 5 cm behind the obvious clinical ones, and additional diagnostic testing point of the elbow. Injections ahead of the shoulder may be required to identify them. The existence of should be avoided in show goats, because local reac- subclinical infections and carrier states is a trouble- tions near the superfi cial cervical (prescapular) lymph some one for veterinarians performing prepurchase node may be confused with caseous lymphadenitis. health examinations or writing health certifi cates for Needles should be 18- to 20-gauge. The risk of acciden- exportation or interstate travel. A list of such caprine tal intramuscular injection may be increased if long diseases that the veterinarian must be aware of is given needles are used. in Table 1.1. Intravenous drugs are given via the jugular vein generally using 2 to 3 cm long needles of 18- or 20- gauge. Blood samples can be taken from the jugular History Taking vein using an 18-gauge needle. Intradermal injections Very few diseases or health-related problems are are given using 26-gauge, 1-cm long tuberculin needles. randomly distributed in a fl ock or herd of goats; rather, Intraperitoneal injections are rarely used except to they are concentrated in specifi c groups, usually by sex, treat neonates for hypoglycemia with glucose solu- function, production status, or age. Always establish tions or navel infections with aqueous based antibiot- early on what age, sex, breed, or group of goats is ics. With the kid held hanging by the front legs, an dying, showing signs of illness, aborting, or showing 18- or 20-gauge needle is inserted perpendicular to the decreased productivity. If it is a mixed farm operation, skin about 1 cm to the left of the navel no deeper than the number of other types of livestock and their degree 1 cm. of contact with goats should be ascertained. When intramammary infusions are given, the teat Detailed history should include a determination of should fi rst be cleaned and swabbed with alcohol. As the total fl ock or herd population and estimation of its in cattle, single use teat cannulae should be used for breakdown by sex, age, breed, and pregnancy status. each infusion with the cannula inserted into the teat Having determined the total animal population, the only enough to gain entry into the teat cistern. For very population at risk, and the number of animals affected small teat openings, sterile tomcat catheters can be and dying, it is possible to determine rates of disease used to infuse the teat. occurrence and case fatality rates. By counting cases,

Table 1.1. Goat diseases characterized by chronic infection or a carrier state.

Viral/prion Rickettsial Bacterial Protozoal Unknown

Caprine arthritis Chlamydiosis Caseous Toxoplasmosis Udder warts in white encephalitis Coxiellosis lymphadenitis goats Foot and mouth (Q fever) Paratuberculosis disease Salmonellosis Scrapie Listeriosis Brucellosis Melioidosis Tuberculosis Mycoplasmosis Staphylococcal mastitis 10 Goat Medicine the investigator is also in a better position to determine lected on visits to shows or fairs and on the origin of the actual signifi cance of a problem as compared to the purchased animals, be it other farms, stockyards, or farmer’s perception of it. In some cases, the loss of a specialized goat sales. If animals have come from out few animals may be insignifi cant compared to a more of state, the relevant health certifi cates should be exam- serious unrecognized problem such as endoparasitism ined and the disease situation in the state of origin or ectoparasitism. reviewed. Such an epidemiologically based history should Finally, the reliability of information obtained aim to identify not only specifi c problems but also should be checked with the actual goat keepers if the specifi c risk factors that appear to be associated with owner is not involved with day-to-day management mortality, morbidity, or suboptimal performance. For decisions. If the veterinarian has prior knowledge of example, when a primary complaint of kids develop- the local disease patterns in goats, such knowledge ing diarrhea after weaning suggests coccidiosis, addi- should not be used to make hasty and possibly incor- tional questions concerning the segregation of kids rect judgments. from adults, the manner that kids are fed, the design of feeders, the frequency and manner of barn cleaning, Special Considerations for Range and and details on the use of coccidiostats are necessary. In Pastured Goats such cases, modifi cation of management practices may Extensively managed animals may not be closely halt the spread of disease. observed, and histories can be sketchy. With large Temporal relationships are important to note. Some fl ocks, it should be determined if the animals are diseases may occur seasonally, in association with managed as a single fl ock or in smaller, self-contained abrupt weather changes, or in relation to specifi c events units. The seasonal pattern of grazing and the length such as breeding, pregnancy, shearing, parturition, of grazing periods should be noted. Pasture composi- and lactation. For example, an unexpected cold snap tion, seasonal stocking rates per acre, the degree of or heavy rain right after shearing of Angora goats can pasture subdivision, and length of resting periods increase pneumonia, abortion, and death rates, partic- between grazing should be established. Note if supple- ularly if adequate shelter and supplemental feed have mental feeding is practiced and the types of feed used. not been provided. This may be important in terms of meeting specifi c Localization of death or disease to specifi c areas nutritional needs, and, in the case of silage, may be on the premises is helpful. For example, if losses are associated with diseases such as listeriosis or rumen seen only in certain areas of the farm, specifi c pastures, acidosis. Inquiries should also be made about whether or particular barns, then suspicion of poisoning is crops are fed or grazed, the type and stage of growth, increased. and whether there is a recent history of fertilizer or Other important aspects of the history include ques- herbicide application. Knowledge of local trace element tions pertaining to the actual ration being fed and its defi ciencies or excesses may be helpful. consumption, methods of feeding, changes in feeding, The type of grazing, whether set stocked or rota- access to grazing, and water supply type and water tional, may be relevant to some disease outbreaks, par- availability. ticularly to gastrointestinal helminthiasis. The presence If management interventions or preventive health of other livestock species and feral, predatory, or procedures have been undertaken recently, they should scavenging animals or birds should be established if be identifi ed. Shearing, drenching, dehorning, spray- relevant to the problem under investigation. ing or dipping, castration, or vaccination can be associ- ated with increases in morbidity and mortality. When Special Considerations for Intensively range animals are mobbed for such procedures, sudden Managed Goats close confi nement, temporary feed deprivation, and A complete history can usually be obtained from the abrupt weather changes can predispose to outbreaks owner or herdsman of intensively managed goats. The of conditions such as abortion, coccidiosis, salmonel- patterns of disease are also likely to be different, with losis, hypocalcemia, or starvation as a result of mis- pneumonia and enteric diseases of young goats assum- mothering. When drugs or vaccines are used, the ing much greater signifi cance than the foot rot, helmin- products and dosages, number of treatments, and thiasis, predation, or toxic plant problems more often method of administration should be determined, par- seen under grazing systems. Feed composition and ticularly because many goat farmers traditionally intake are more regulated but the veterinarian must obtain their drugs and biologicals from nonveterinary inquire about episodes of sudden changes, excesses, or sources. deprivations in the feed and water supplies. If animals have been transported recently, dates, Under close quarters, the movement, mixing, or origins, means of transportation, and quarantine times introduction of new animals is more likely to cause an should be determined. Information should also be col- outbreak of disease. Kidding is often assisted in inten- 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 11 sively managed operations, and artifi cial kid rearing acceptable for use in organic food production, includ- methods are commonly used. These procedures should ing veterinary inputs used to maintain animal health. be carefully reviewed when morbidity and mortality As a general rule, all natural materials are allowed for are concentrated in young kids. Weather, per se, should use in organic agriculture, unless specifi cally prohib- not adversely affect intensively managed animals. ited, while all synthetic materials are prohibited unless However, extremes in temperature may tax the venti- specifi cally permitted, following a successful petition latory capacity of confi nement buildings and extremely process to the NOSB. The specifi c regulations of the cold weather may freeze water supplies or incapacitate National Organic Program are found in the United mechanized feeding equipment. Answers to questions States Code of Federal Regulations at 7 CFR 205. These about changes in dairy herd milking procedures or regulations became effective in 2002. personnel may help to explain mastitis problems. Vaccination is promoted as an organic livestock health care practice under 7 CFR 205, but the use of Special Considerations for Hobby Farms antibiotics and most anthelmintics is prohibited. Vet- Because hobbyists often have little previous agricul- erinarians must approach therapeutic interventions in tural or livestock experience, it might be helpful to organically raised animals differently than in conven- practitioners to gauge the owners’ knowledge and atti- tionally raised animals, relying heavily on so-called tudes regarding basic animal husbandry before history natural treatments, including botanicals, acupuncture, taking. Some fundamental misunderstandings about homeopathy, etc. The standards of livestock health the care and management of goats may be revealed, care practice which must be observed under the OFPA such as non-recognition of basic ruminant physiology are given in 7 CFR 205.238. Veterinarians should be and the need for roughage in the diet. In other situa- aware, however, that 7 CFR 205.238 considers the tions, owners may know about basic husbandry and welfare of organically raised livestock by stipulating disease problems, but may have seemingly unortho- that an organic livestock producer may “not withhold dox ideas about management and treatment. A good medical treatment from a sick animal in an effort to deal of tact may be required to obtain a useful history preserve its organic status. All appropriate medica- and prescribe appropriate therapy while not offending tions must be used to restore an animal to health when the hobbyist’s sensibilities. methods acceptable to organic production fail. Live- In addition, hobby farmers often perceive goats stock treated with a prohibited substance must be more as companion animals than as livestock produc- clearly identifi ed and shall not be sold, labeled, or tion units. While they may seek the expertise of a live- represented as organically produced.” The synthetic stock clinician, they often expect the “bedside manner” substances allowed for use in organic livestock pro- of the companion animal practitioner. Therefore, the duction are found in 7 CFR 205.603. The full text of the veterinarian who appears insensitive to the client’s regulations can be found at www.ams.usda.gov/nop/ emotions or indifferent to pain of the goat or who NOP/standards/FullRegTextOnly.html. emphasizes only the economic value of the animal In Europe, organic production is regulated through- may not be called to the farm again. out the European Union (EU). EU regulation number 1804/99, which became effective in 2000, sets forth the Special Considerations for rules for organic livestock production including animal Organic Goat Production health and veterinary interventions. All EU member Consumer interest in organically produced food has states at a minimum comply with these rules, but some grown considerably over the past twenty years or so individual countries have included additional rules and producers have responded by producing and mar- of their own. Specifi cations of the European and U.S. keting an expanding variety of foodstuffs certifi ed as regulations have been compared (Nardone et al. 2004). organic. Increasingly, this includes foods of animal origin. Goat owners may choose to raise their goats Special Considerations for Transgenic Goats under organic conditions. Veterinary practitioners Production of transgenic animals using microinjec- with such clients need to be aware of and familiar with tion or nuclear transfer and the propagation of desir- the constraints on conventional therapy that are associ- able animals using cloning are no longer just scientifi c ated with organic livestock production, which is now research endeavors. They have become established strictly regulated by law (Karreman 2006). production systems for the propagation and manage- In the United States, the Organic Food Production ment of transgenic goats. It behooves veterinarians Act (OFPA) was signed into law in 1990, creating the with active goat practice to be familiar with the basic framework for regulation and certifi cation of organi- techniques and health issues associated with trans- cally produced foods of plant and animal origin. The genic goat production. OFPA created the National Organic Standards Board Transgenic technology began in 1980 when the fi rst (NOSB) which reviews materials for consideration as transgenic mouse was developed (Gordon et al. 1980). 12 Goat Medicine

The fi rst transgenic goat was developed in 1989, pro- from the transgenic animal, the FDA may also have ducing rhtPA (recombinant human tissue plasminogen regulatory oversight and impose its own set of rules activator) in the milk (Ebert et al. 1991) as a potential and regulations. human therapeutic agent. Since then, the fi eld has The use of microinjection to produce a transgenic markedly expanded with transgenic animals becoming animal involves microinjection of the transgene into commonplace within many programs and facilities. the pronucleus of a fertilized, one-cell embryo and The applications for transgenic animals are consid- then the transfer of surviving embryos to a surrogate erable and include not only the investigation of gene mother. One of the fi rst areas for possible concern, and function but also the development of animal models, for which observation and monitoring are appropriate, increased disease resistance through either transgene is the physical/mechanical effects on the nucleus/gene insertion or knock-out techniques, and production of due to the actual microinjection process at the one-cell recombinant, biopharmaceutical proteins in a number stage. If any negative impacts occur or gene functions of biological fl uids such as milk, blood, urine, and are altered or impaired, one may see outcomes ranging semen (Nieman and Kues 2003). In fact, distribution of from decreased pregnancy rates from transferred the fi rst transgenically derived human therapeutic embryos to increased pregnancy loss, late term abor- recombinant protein from goat milk (ATryn®) was tions, or possible physiological abnormalities at birth approved by the European Agency for the Evaluation with clinical sequelae. However, years of experience of Medicinal Products in 2006 and by the Food and now indicate that these phenomena, while possible, Drug Administration in the United States in 2009. occurs at a very low incidence. The two main techniques employed for making Regardless of the technique used to produce a trans- transgenic animals are microinjection and nuclear genic goat, another possible concern involves endoge- transfer (cloning). While microinjection was the fi rst nous gene function and potential transgene insertional technology to be used in making large transgenic site effects. The gene of interest inserts randomly into animals (Hammer et al. 1985), and specifi cally the goat the genome following transgene introduction. Hence, (Gavin 1996), the process is ineffi cient with only a there is a chance that an endogenous gene could be small percentage of the resulting animals being trans- negatively impacted, leading to potential adverse genic. Large animal nuclear transfer (Campbell et al. physiological effects and a transgenic goat presenting 1996; Wilmut et al. 1997) was developed later and pro- with clinical signs of abnormal physiology or health. vides for a near 100% transgenic rate when compared Therefore, appropriate post-parturitional monitoring to microinjection. The cloning of the fi rst transgenic of animal health is warranted for any transgenic goat soon followed (Baguisi et al. 1999; Keefer et al. founder animal. 2001). There are other techniques for producing trans- Introduction of a transgene produces a goat that is genic animals such as retroviral gene transfer and arti- hemizygous for that given transgene. Subsequent fi cial chromosome insertion. However, these techniques breeding within a lineage may be aimed at achieving have not been used yet in goats and are not mentioned a homozygous state for the transgene. Possible con- further. cerns may arise through this approach. First, inbreed- Most transgenic goats are maintained in USDA- ing of related goats is the primary route to achieving APHIS-AC Licensed Research Facilities. Under the a homozygous animal. Therefore, inbreeding coeffi - auspices of the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), these cients need to be considered and animals need to be licensed facilities must maintain strict adherence to monitored for ill effects from this relatedness and for rules and regulations specifi cally governing animal possible impacts on overall health and ability to thrive. care, health, and welfare (housing, lighting, feeding, Second, achieving a homozygous state may bring to veterinary care, and environmental enrichment at a light an insertional gene effect since both copies of an minimum). Depending upon the type of research and endogenous gene may now be affected thereby causing the funding source, the National Institutes of Health physiological or clinical issues that were not seen in (NIH) may also be involved through their Offi ce of the hemizygous state. Again, appropriate monitoring Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW) as government of animal health is warranted for the fi rst homozygous funding brings along its own slightly different set of animals produced. Lastly, the potential exists that rules and regulations for animals used in a research breeding for the production of a transgenic homozy- setting. A growing number of institutions are also gous animal will reveal a lethal outcome. A lethality striving for accreditation by the Association for the issue may be suspected when: breedings of two hemi- Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal zygous animals produce no detectable pregnancies; Care, International (AAALAC-Int.), considered by pregnancies do not hold to term with either resorp- many to set the gold standard for animal care in tions or abortions; or, offspring succumb soon after licensed research programs and facilities. Lastly, birth. Thus, production of a homozygous transgenic depending upon the intended use of any tissues/fl uids animal may not always be possible and close animal 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 13 health monitoring is warranted when homozygosity are then transferred to recipient goats using traditional is pursued. embryo transfer techniques. One additional set of concerns related to transgene With nuclear transfer, a decreased in utero fetal sur- effects is the possibility of systemic circulation of the vival rate can be seen very early in pregnancy and has recombinant protein being expressed and the potential been well documented in many species (Campbell et health impacts arising from expression of pharmaco- al. 1996; Wilmut et al. 1997; Baguisi et al. 1999). This logically active molecules. Depending on the tissue or inability to thrive may be associated with inappropri- fl uid where the recombinant protein may be directed ate or inadequate reprogramming (Dean et al. 2001) of for expression (e.g., milk, blood, urine, semen, etc.), the nuclear/genetic material of the donor cell line or one must be vigilant for systemic effects as the protein karyoplast and has been postulated to be at the level usually will be found systemically due to leaky vascu- of the DNA (e.g., methylation pattern). An altered lature and normal lymphatic drainage. Therefore, the inheritance of cellular mitochondria (Wells 2005) has biological nature and function of the recombinant also been shown to occur in cloned embryos, adding protein being introduced must be known so that any to the possible causes for some of the abnormalities in effects which may be exerted can be anticipated and homeostasis. Both of these phenomena may be directly recognized. Consideration must also be given to poten- linked to the small percentage of physiological prob- tial adverse health impacts if this is a new gene and lems seen in utero for some cloned animals such as novel protein not normally physiologically found in abnormal placentation and/or organogenesis (Farin et the genome or animal. Lastly, the quantity of the al. 2006; Loi et al. 2006; Fletcher et al. 2007). Abnormal recombinant protein that is expressed and then found placentation can also lead to abnormal uterine fl uid systemically in the transgenic animal must be consid- homeostasis and fl uid retention in does carrying cloned ered. Even if the target protein is endogenous to the embryos, which may warrant close clinical monitoring animal, it may be found at signifi cantly higher levels or intervention where appropriate. Other possible out- than normal and may cause physiological effects that comes of abnormal placentation include: a tendency alter normal homeostasis. toward decreased pregnancy rates for animals receiv- As with any traditional goat agricultural production ing cloned embryos, an increased in utero loss rate operation for meat, milk, or fi ber, optimizing health through resorption, or an increased level of abortions and product output starts with a sound nutritional if there is late term fetal loss. program. Relative to transgenic production, nutritional The potential abnormal physiology with or without programs should consider the nature of the recombi- clinical presentations may continue after birth and into nant protein to be produced. Specifi cally, if the recom- the neonatal and early prepuberal stages (Hill et al. binant protein is novel to the physiological output of 1999). Documented abnormalities in a few large animal the goat’s normal cellular machinery, or if quantities species have been shown at the level of the renal, are above what is normally produced in vivo, then one cardiac, respiratory, hepatic, hematopoietic, and may need to augment the diet. This modifi ed or forti- immune systems. However, if the small percentage of fi ed diet may need to contain increased levels of vita- animals, including goats, that present with these mins, minerals, or specifi c amino acids. One should abnormal physiological entities can be clinically sup- understand the normal cellular machinery and bio- ported over time, as the animals grow, many of these chemical pathways involved in protein production to abnormalities resolve and they can lead normal and know if or what supplementation may be appropriate healthy lives (Chavatte-Palmer et al. 2002). or necessary. The vast majority of transgenic and cloned animals With the development of cloning technology, nuclear are normal and healthy (Walsh et al. 2003; Enright et transfer has become the preferred method for produc- al. 2002; Tayfur Tecirlioglu et al. 2006) and subsequent ing transgenic goats and has greatly improved the generations of animals produced from fi rst generation overall effi ciency of the process. However, the use of clones have not shown any of the health related issues nuclear transfer has added some additional health con- seen in a small percentage of original clones (Wells cerns in a small percentage of animals. 2005). In fact, passage through the germ line has been Nuclear transfer starts by removing the maternal reported to reverse any abnormal patterns detected at DNA from an unfertilized oocyte through enucleation. the DNA level in fi rst generation clones (Wells 2005). A full complement of genetic material is subsequently replaced by addition of a somatic cell (e.g. fetal or PHYSICAL EXAMINATION adult skin fi broblast cell) through a process termed reconstruction. Thereafter, in vitro techniques are used Inspection from a Distance to fuse the oocyte and somatic cell and activate the It is often useful diagnostically to observe a group couplet to begin dividing. Following a brief in vitro of goats from a distance prior to disturbing them for culture period, these newly developed cloned embryos “hands-on” examination. This is especially true at the 14 Goat Medicine time of the initial visit to identify the existence of highly suggestive of caseous lymphadenitis in the common problems in the herd or fl ock. The animals fl ock or herd. A high rate of subcutaneous swellings should be observed at rest, while eating or drinking, is often associated with injection site reactions in and during spontaneous and forced movement. goats in response to certain adjuvanted vaccines General impressions of body condition, mental atti- or bacterins or when aseptic injection techniques are tude, and social hierarchy may be acquired and abnor- not followed. mal behaviors characteristic of certain diseases may be When kids are left with does, careful observation noted. Estimated prevalence of common disease prob- of suckling behavior can indicate kids that are not lems such as kid pneumonia, diarrhea, and pinkeye successfully nursing. Their does should be examined can be roughly assessed, respectively, by counting particularly for signs of mastitis or other udder coughers, stained hindquarters, and runny eyes. Other problems. specifi c observations that might suggest commonly seen disease problems in goats are briefl y discussed Direct Physical Examination of Individual Goats below. This is for illustration and is not meant to be A topographical approach to physical examination comprehensive. is presented here. Because of the small size of goats, Individual goats that appear listless, separate them- rectal palpation is limited to insertion of a fi nger into selves from the herd, or are not actively feeding when the rectum to assess the pelvic structures and to deter- others are should be noted and later caught for careful mine the presence and character of feces. When eco- examination as should animals in very poor body nomics permit, physical examination fi ndings should condition. Reluctance to feed may be due to a wide be supplemented through use of appropriate imaging range of systemic diseases or localized conditions techniques, diagnostic procedures, and laboratory such as dental or pharyngeal problems, or the result tests. When numerous individuals in a herd or fl ock of inadequate bunk space or bullying by dominant show signs of disease, fi eld necropsy examination may does. be the most effective way to establish or confi rm a Latent signs of respiratory disease or anemia diagnosis. associated with parasitism can be brought out by forced movement of a fl ock. Anemia is manifested General Inspection by rapid fatigue, increased heart and respiratory Body condition, mental attitude, and the status of rates, and sometimes collapse. Increased respiratory the superfi cial lymph nodes should be noted. The tem- rate, dyspnea, and coughing indicate respiratory perature, pulse, and respiration should be recorded. problems. Fleece in Angora goats makes visual assessment of Signs of skin irritation or pruritus manifested as body condition diffi cult. Digital palpation of the ribs, hair loss, fl eece biting, or rubbing against fences or spinous and transverse processes of the vertebrae, and other solid objects usually suggest ectoparasitism, the loin muscle may be necessary to evaluate condi- though scrapie, pseudorabies, and migrating Par- tion. A word of caution about condition scoring in elaphostrongylus tenuis are other possibilities. Goats goats: scoring systems derived for sheep are not scratching at their ears with their hind limbs or shaking directly applicable to goats because goats as a species their heads vigorously probably have ear mites. tend to deposit stored fat intra-abdominally rather Goats observed resting or walking on their knees than subcutaneously. Scoring systems for dairy goats often have chronic CAEV infection or sore feet. Any combine palpation of the sternal and lumbar regions animals with abnormalities of gait or lameness after and are discussed in Chapter 19. In general, any pal- forced exercise should be carefully examined for evi- pable back fat in a dairy goat would classify her as dence of arthritis, fractures, laminitis, and lesions of obese. A scoring system applied to the Small East foot rot or foot scald. African goat in Zimbabwe showed a good correlation A variety of clinical signs may be observed in goats between a backbone condition score and changes in with neurologic disease. Among the more common are bodyweight (bw), with a 1-point change in condition ataxia, posterior paresis, circling, depression, head score representing an average change of 12% in bw pressing, unilateral facial paralysis, and blindness. (Honhold et al. 1989). Details on carrying out a neurologic examination and Normally goats have an alert, attentive, and inquisi- differential diagnosis for signs of neurologic disease tive mental attitude. A depressed attitude is character- are provided in Chapter 5. ized by dullness, separation from the fl ock, and Straining while attempting to urinate, particularly indifference to handling. Depression is present in a in bucks and wethers, should suggest the possibility wide variety of septic and toxemic conditions but is a of urolithiasis or posthitis. particularly prominent sign in pregnancy toxemia and Cutaneous swellings or discharges may be observed. listeriosis. An anxious or apprehensive state is often Draining abscesses associated with lymph nodes are associated with urethral obstruction in males, sudden 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 15 blindness as may occur in polioencephalomalacia, or with persistent irritations such as fl ies and nasal myiasis. An attitude of extreme excitation is most often associated with neurological diseases such as tetanus and meningitis that may be accompanied by muscular rigidity, or encephalitic conditions such as pseudora- bies and rabies. Digital palpation of all superfi cial lymph nodes should always be a part of the physical exam because of the clinical importance of caseous lymphadenitis in goats. The mandibular, parotid, retropharyngeal, superfi cial cervical (prescapular), subiliac (prefemo- ral), and superfi cial inguinal (supramammary) lymph nodes should be inspected. Normal sized nodes may not be palpable in some of these locations but affected nodes should be readily evident. Any other swellings on the body surface should be noted. Temperature, pulse, and respiration should be measured when the animal is calm because the activity of catching the animal for examination may elevate all three parame- ters. When taking the goat’s rectal temperature, an accumulation of brown, waxy material may be noted near the anus. This is the normal secretion of the sebaceous gland located below the base of the tail (Figure 1.2). The normal body temperature of goats is usually reported in the range of 38.6° to 40°C (101.5° to 104°F). However, the body temperature of a normal Angora goat with a full fl eece on a hot, humid day can reach 40.3°C (104.5°F) or higher, and goats of lighter body- weight are more likely to have higher temperatures when exposed to sun than bigger goats (McGregor Figure 1.2. Typical waxy secretion found at the base of 1985). To accurately assess the febrile state of the the tail of goats which is produced by the sebaceous patient, it is useful to record body temperatures in glands in that area. This secretion should not be con- apparently normal herd mates. fused with diarrhea, vaginal discharge, or lochia. (Repro- The pulse can be measured by stethoscope over the duced by permission of Dr. C.S.F. Williams.) heart or by digital palpation of the femoral artery. Normal pulse rate ranges from 70 to 90 beats per minute (bpm) in resting adults, but can be double that other species is available through the Online Mende- in young, active kids. Fetal heart rates up to 180 bpm lian Inheritance in Animals (OMIA) database at http:// have been recorded by ultrasound. It may be useful to omia.angis.org.au/. assess respiratory rate both at rest and after exercise. Goat stature is quite diverse. Many small breeds of Any abnormalities of respiration should also be noted, goats such as the Pygmy or West African Dwarf goat including fl aring of nostrils, extension of head and are in fact achondroplastic dwarfs. They appear dis- neck, grunting, abdominal press, and so forth. Normal proportionate with short legs and normal size torsos. resting respiratory rate is 10 to 30 per minute in adults This may draw visual attention to the degree of abdom- and 20 to 40 in kids. inal distension present, which though quite pro- Neonates should be inspected particularly for con- nounced, is usually normal. Dwarfi sm because of genital defects. More commonly observed problems pituitary hypoplasia is also seen in goats. These small include brachygnathia, cleft palate, hydrocephalus, goats are proportionate in appearance; the Sudan goat atresia ani, or rectovaginal fi stula, and abnormalities is an example (Ricordeau 1981). of the genitalia associated with the intersex condition as discussed in Chapter 13. A list of congenital and Examination of the Integument inherited diseases is provided in Table 1.2. Not all of In goats the character of the skin and haircoat is a these, of course, will be evident at birth. Up-to-date good indicator of general health. A rough, dry, unglossy information on inherited conditions of goats as well as coat; excessive dander or fl akiness; and failure to shed 16 Goat Medicine

Table 1.2. Congenital and inherited abnormalities in goats.

Known inherited conditions Known acquired conditions Conditions of unclear status

Afi brinogenemia in Saanen goats Anthrogryposis and hydranencephaly Absence of hair Beta mannosidosis in Nubian goats caused by Akabane virus Atresia ani Bipartite scrotum in Angora goats Border disease Atresia coli Brachygnathia superior or inferior Congenital copper defi ciency Cleft palate Cryptorchidism in Angora goats Cyclopia due to Veratrum californicum Congenital goiter of Boer goats Excessive facial hair in Angora goats Freemartins Double or fused teats Gynecomastia Entropion Hereditary goiter in Dutch goats Hydrops Inherited abortion in South African Patellar luxation Angora goats Precocious milking Intersexes associated with polled Progressive paresis of Angora goats condition Rectovaginal fi stula Myotonia congenita Skeletal malformations N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulphatase Spastic paresis defi ciency in Nubian goats Sticky kid syndrome of Golden (mucopolysaccharidosis IIID) Guernsey goats Recessive atrichosis Umbilical hernia Robertsonian translocation Short tendons in Australian Angora goats Sperm granulomas Supernumerary teats Testicular hypoplasia

out in the spring are all suggestive of poor nutritional Oral Cavity status, parasitism, or other chronic diseases. The hair Evidence of brachygnathism, cleft palate, mucosal or fl eece should be parted and the skin examined for lesions, dental abnormalities, or dysphagia such as lice, ticks, fl eas (in the tropics), nodules, swellings, drooling, salivation, dropping food from the mouth, or crusts, eczema, necrosis, neoplasia, photosensitization, accumulating food in the buccal space should be noted. and sunburn and focal or regional alopecia. The dif- The differential diagnoses for these signs are given in ferential diagnoses for these fi ndings are discussed in Chapter 10. Necrotic odors of the breath may occur. Chapter 2. They may refl ect necrotic stomatitis, alveolar periosti- Because many goats are used primarily for cash- tis, pharyngitis, or even pneumonia. mere or mohair production, the veterinarian should Thorough examination of the oral cavity requires know something about the nature of goat hair used in good restraint, a speculum, a towel, and a penlight. All textiles. Detailed information on the subject is given in oral structures should be examined and the molar Chapter 2. arcades digitally palpated for missing teeth from Examination of the Head outside the mouth. If more direct examination of the teeth is required, extreme caution should be taken Many conditions can cause general asymmetry or because the molars may have sharp, jagged edges and focal swellings around the head and these abnormali- exert powerful grinding motion. Tranquilization is ties should be noted. The differential diagnoses for indicated, because fi ngers can be badly injured. such swellings are discussed in Chapter 3. Wearing gloves during oral examination is a wise pre- Membranes cautionary measure, particularly if the goat shows neurologic signs. Inspection of the conjunctivae and mucous mem- branes of the mouth may reveal paleness due to anemia, icterus resulting from hemolysis or hepatic dysfunc- Eyes tion, or hyperemia and congestion associated with Facial hair covering the eyes is a heritable trait in acute febrile or toxemic states. Angora goats. Affected goats tend to do poorly on 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 17 range because their ability to selectively browse is on older goats as a result of incomplete removal of impaired. The body condition of such individuals germinal horn tissue at the time of disbudding. Tech- should be noted as well as their prevalence in the niques for, and problems with, disbudding and dehorn- fl ock. Blindness is initially assessed by testing the ing are discussed in Chapter 18. The glands partially menace response, but facial nerve paralysis can render responsible for the characteristic odor of buck goats in a sighted animal unable to blink. Intact pupillary light the breeding season are located in skin folds just cau- responses in a blind goat suggest a cerebrocortical domedial to the horn buds. lesion. Lacrimation and hyperemia of the conjunctiva, cloudiness of the cornea, and hypopyon in the anterior Examination of the Neck chamber should be noted if present. The differential Traumatic injuries to the pharynx from balling guns diagnoses for these various fi ndings are given in and drenching equipment occur in goats. The throat Chapter 6. should be palpated for swelling, heat, and pain associ- ated with cellulitis from traumatic injury. A number of Nares normal and abnormal structures and swellings in the Both nostrils should be evaluated for symmetry of neck must be differentiated on physical examination, air fl ow. If nasal discharge is observed, determine if it including goiters, thymus, branchial cleft cysts, wattles, is unilateral or bilateral and note its character. Collapse and abscesses. Their differentiation is discussed in of a nostril may result from facial nerve paralysis. Chapter 3. Thorough examination of the neck should Crusting of the nares occurs when the sick animal include palpation of the jugular furrows for evidence does not clean the nostrils or it may be a sign of of phlebitis, palpation of the esophagus for evidence specifi c disease problems. The differential diagnoses of obstruction, and auscultation of the trachea. Promi- for nasal discharge and crusting of the nares are given nent distension of the jugular vein, though possibly in Chapter 9. suggestive of congestive heart failure, is most com- monly due to overly tight collars or neck chains in Ears goats. This should be brought to the owner’s attention Ear mites, if suspected, can be identifi ed by collect- if found. ing debris from the ear canal on a cotton swab and smearing it on a slide for examination. Examination of the Chest Goats are often identifi ed by tattoos inside the ear; The extent and severity of respiratory disease is tattoo numbers may have to be checked against health often diffi cult to assess in goats. To improve the chances papers at shows and sales. It may be necessary to clean of accurate diagnosis and prognosis, careful attention the inside of the ear with soap and water and use a should be given to auscultation. When possible, the powerful light source to backlight the tattoo to make animal should be moved to quiet surroundings. The it readable. Metal and plastic ear tags commonly tear fl eece in Angora goats should be parted to place the out of goats’ ears and their use should be avoided, stethoscope in contact with the skin. The trachea and especially in pet and show animals. the lungs should be ausculted to identify the presence Ear tips may be lost on young goats due to pro- of referred sounds. Eliciting a cough by compression longed exposure to freezing temperatures. Goats of the of the pharynx may clear the trachea or reveal the pres- La Mancha breed lack a well-developed external ear. ence of bronchial exudate. Care should be taken to Only a vestigial pinna is present and is referred to as listen with a stethoscope placed well forward under an elf (up to 5 cm, with some cartilage) or gopher (up the elbow and in front of the shoulder, otherwise to 2.5 cm, with little or no cartilage) ear. These animals cranial ventral pneumonias, which are common, may are usually tattooed on the underside of the tail. be overlooked. The intensity of identifi able sounds can be augmented by forced activity of the animal before Horns auscultation or by placing a plastic bag or exam glove Goats may be horned or polled. Horn buds may be over the nares to increase the depth of respiration by present at birth or become palpable within several rebreathing of carbon dioxide. Radiographic examina- days of birth. Generally, horned kids have two irregu- tion is indicated when questions about the severity of lar whorls of hair over the location of the horn buds lung disease persist. whereas hornless kids have a smooth poll with a single Normally the heart can be heard about evenly on central symmetrical whorl of hair. It is important to both the right and left sides of the chest at the fourth establish and record which offspring are naturally or fi fth rib space. Mediastinal abscesses may displace polled because homozygous polled goats have a high the heart, resulting in a shift in intensity of cardiac incidence of infertility. The relationship of the polled sounds. Muffl ing of the heart sounds because of peri- trait and the intersex condition is discussed in detail carditis is uncommon in goats. Murmurs are rarely in Chapter 13. Deformed horns, or scurs, are often seen heard and are discussed in Chapter 8. 18 Goat Medicine

Examination of the Abdomen ary teats may be present. Their identifi cation and The abdominal contour should be inspected to removal are discussed in Chapter 14. assess conditions such as bloat, advanced pregnancy The milk of lactating does should be observed on a in females, and ruptured bladder in wethers and intact black plate or strip cup to assess color, consistency, and males. Characteristic contours and their clinical signifi - the presence of clots or fl akes. Bovine screening tests cance are discussed in Chapter 10. Ballotment may for subclinical mastitis such as the California Mastitis help to detect abdominal fl uid accumulations, preg- Test must be used cautiously in goats because normal nancy, or rumen impaction. Auscultation of the rumen goat milk tends to have higher cell counts. The somatic in the left paralumbar fossa is essential. Normal rumen cell count issue and interpretation of test results are contractions occur at a rate of one to two per minute. discussed in Chapter 14. Observation of cud chewing suggests normal rumen activity. Vulva Swelling and hyperemia of the vulva may be signs Examination of the Limbs of heat or impending parturition, but may also be seen Locomotor problems are common in goats. Lame- in herpes vulvovaginitis in conjunction with vesicles ness and abnormalities of gait may result from neuro- or scabs. Any vulvar discharges should be noted. As logical disease, conformational defects, muscular females come out of heat, the vulvar discharge, ini- dysfunction, skeletal trauma, infectious and noninfec- tially serous and mucoid, may become white and tena- tious arthritides, and diseases of the foot. Localization cious. This is often misinterpreted as a purulent of the problem by careful physical examination is the discharge by the inexperienced observer. Often, there fi rst step in making an accurate diagnosis. Differential is a sanguinous discharge after termination of a pseu- diagnoses of locomotor problems are discussed in dopregnancy. Speculum examination of the vaginal detail in Chapter 4. canal and cervix should be carried out when there is Overgrown hooves must be pared with shears or a doubt about the source and nature of the discharge. hoof knife to adequately assess the health of the foot. Occasionally, otherwise normal does may have ectopic Hyperemia and swellings at or above the coronary mammary tissue present at the vulva which may swell band should be noted. They may represent either local during lactation. infections or systemic disease. Does may show vaginal eversion or frank prolapse All joints should be carefully palpated. Distensions in advanced pregnancy or immediately post partum. of the joint capsule, heat, pain, swelling or fi brosis of After uncomplicated births, normal lochia may be dis- periarticular structures, limitations on the range of charged for a period of one to three weeks. It is reddish joint motion, and enlargement of bursae should all be brown in color and odorless. Placentas are usually noted. The degree of joint enlargement may not neces- passed within four hours of parturition and are fre- sarily correlate with the severity of lameness. quently eaten. The vertebral column and the long bones of the legs It is important to carefully examine the external should be palpated for evidence of fractures in acutely genitalia of young does, particularly when there is a lame or recumbent animals. A major goal of physical complaint of infertility, because of the high incidence examination in recumbent goats is to differentiate of intersexes among polled goats. Malformations of the musculoskeletal, metabolic, toxemic, and neurologic genitalia range from the clinically subtle, such as a causes of recumbency. The differential diagnoses for slightly enlarged clitoris, to the overt, such as male recumbency are discussed in Chapter 4. phenotypes in genetically female individuals. Accu- rate record keeping may help to identify homozygous- Examination of the Reproductive System polled individuals.

Mammary Gland Scrotum Careful examination of the udder is always war- The scrotum and its contents should be palpated. ranted. Visual inspection may reveal weakness of the Normally there is bilateral symmetry of all structures. suspensory apparatus, slack halves, abnormal swell- A bipartite or split scrotum is a common congenital ings, and discolorations of the skin. Digital palpation condition that some breeders consider a fault. The dif- of the gland will identify udder edema, active infl am- ferential diagnoses for abnormalities of the scrotum, mation, fi brosis, scarring, or abscesses in the paren- testes, and spermatic cord structures are given in chyma or teats. In gangrenous mastitis the udder skin Chapter 13. Semen samples can be collected for evalu- may be blue-black and cold and in time the gland may ation by electroejaculation or by use of an artifi cial slough if the animal survives. Patency of the teats vagina. These procedures are described in Chapter 13. should be assessed in lactating animals. Supernumer- Gynecomastia occurs in male goats and it is not 1/Fundamentals of Goat Practice 19 extraordinary to detect distended teats anterior to the as a source of infection for the remainder of the fl ock scrotum during physical examination, as discussed in or herd. Chapter 13. In recent years, in association with the expansion of international trade in livestock and livestock products Penis and Prepuce and increasing concerns about bioterrorism, there has Examining the penis of male goats, especially been a growing emphasis on food safety and biosecu- wethers, can be diffi cult and is not ordinarily attempted rity, with recognition that food safety encompasses all unless there is a history of urinary or breeding prob- aspects of food production, from the farm to the table. lems. Details on special examination and catheteriza- As such, quality management assurance programs tion of the penis are given in Chapter 12. have grown in popularity as have procedures to ensure The preputial opening should be routinely exam- biosecurity to limit the introduction and spread of ined, particularly in wethers, for the presence of ulcer- disease on and between farms. Environmental inspec- ative posthitis. The preputial orifi ce may become tions should include an assessment of biosecurity and occluded in this condition. Crystals or drops of blood aspects of management and sanitation that can affect may be noted at the orifi ce in cases of obstructive food quality. urolithiasis. Special Considerations for Examination of the Environment Range and Pasture Operations An examination of the environment where goats are The quality and quantity of pasture and the avail- raised should include a detailed review of all feeds ability of supplementary or conserved feed should be used, the feeding facilities, water sources and water assessed. This may require a specialized knowledge of delivery systems; the yards, pastures, range, or build- pasture species, weeds, or other potentially toxic ings where the animals are kept; and any mechanical plants. A list of plants known to be poisonous to goats or manual equipment used as part of the routine farm is provided in Chapter 19. If possible, animals should procedures. Too often, farmers attempt to make do be observed while feeding. The source of water avail- with equipment and buildings that are inadequate for able both year-round and seasonally, its quality, and its an expanding operation. Because of prolifi cacy, goat quantity, should also be inspected. Feed and water herds tend to expand faster than owners anticipate. samples should, if necessary, be collected for labora- Inadequate feeder space for does, a smell of ammonia tory examinations. in the air due to poor ventilation and/or soaked On range or pasture, goats may congregate in certain bedding, and overcrowded kid pens are three exam- shaded or sheltered areas, particularly during periods ples of common faults found on environmental inspec- of high or low temperatures or precipitation, and after tion. Besides visual inspection of equipment, farmers shearing. Provision of adequate shelter should be doc- could be asked to demonstrate how common proce- umented. Heat stress can be reduced by ensuring the dures are carried out to detect if they are using inap- animals have adequate shade and water when the live- propriate techniques. stock weather safety index is in the danger or emer- Equipment used for treatment should be examined gency zone. Cold stress is particularly likely in recently for its potential to cause injury. Poorly maintained shorn animals, and temporary shelter and extra feed syringes with either contaminated or overly long, are necessary for these animals. If shelter areas are large-gauge needles can result in injection abscesses or limited or overused, buildup of infectious agents can systemic infections. Drug and vaccine stocks should occur, leading to increases in enteric and other dis- be examined to determine if they are appropriate, eases, especially in kids. This is aggravated by poor clean, unexpired, and maintained at proper tempera- drainage under feeders and water troughs. tures. Storage facilities for these items should be prop- Fencing for these types of operations should also be erly secured. If the farmer blends his own feed or inspected, particularly regarding its effectiveness in components, the techniques and constituents used keeping goats in and keeping predators out. should be examined, particularly when toxicities are suspected. Accidental inclusion of agricultural or other Special Considerations for farm chemicals is not uncommon. Milking machines Confi nement Operations used for goats should also be examined to determine In semiconfi nement operations adult animals and their effi ciency and the milking procedures studied if sometimes young stock are grazed on pasture during it appears that mastitis is a signifi cant problem. Finally, the warmer months but confi ned during the winter the facilities available and routinely used to dispose of and early spring. As herds expand, there is a tendency any dead animals should be particularly noted to see for small pastures to be overused, with poor nutrition that they are consistent with any legal requirements and increased parasitism as the result. Stocking rates and do not serve as environmental contaminants or should be noted and deworming history verifi ed. 20 Goat Medicine

In confi nement systems, the type of buildings used ropsy can confi rm the suspected diagnosis or suggest for housing should be evaluated for the following: new avenues of investigation. All necropsies should be available area (square feet or square meters) per adult carried out following a systematic procedure with breeding animal, type of fl ooring and bedding, degree special regard to the likelihood of any zoonotic infec- of insulation, presence of supplemental heating if any, tions being transmitted and the safe and legal disposal adequacy of natural or mechanical ventilation systems, of carcasses. source and availability of water, and the amount of Necropsy of all or a random sample of young trough or bunk space per goat. Requirements for goats animals born dead or dying in the fi rst two to three are given in Chapter 9. The distribution of animals weeks of life is an extremely valuable service that within buildings should be noted. Ideally, a separate veterinarians can provide to their clients. Categoriza- kidding facility should exist and be hygienically main- tion of deaths into preparturient, parturient, and post- tained. Artifi cially reared kids should be in a separate parturient causes can be done with a minimum of facility from adult stock, and bucks should be housed laboratory diagnostic techniques and immediately separately from milking does. Methods and times of direct the owner to possible ways of reducing these feeding for all groups within the herd should be noted. losses. If other species of livestock are present, consideration Whenever possible, goats slaughtered for meat or should be given to them as possible sources of disease culled from the herd or fl ock should be examined post for goats. mortem by a veterinarian as an inexpensive and worth- Unfortunately, many confi nement goat operations while means of disease surveillance. Such inspections have both rodent and associated feline populations. can provide information on the effi cacy of parasite Cats are a recognized source of Toxoplasma gondii, a control measures; the presence of subclinical pneumo- major cause of abortion in goats. Farmers should be nia; and the occurrence of injection site abscesses, encouraged to seek alternate means of rodent control. visceral caseous lymphadenitis, and hydatid disease. Opportunities to perform routine slaughter checks on Special Consideration for Hobby Farms goats at an abattoir are uncommon in the United States The principles and procedures of environmental because the goat meat industry is decentralized, though examination already described also apply to the hobby this may change as demand for goat meat continues to farm. Special considerations that occur are usually the increase. result of inexperience on the part of the hobbyist. 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