Study of Cupules: An Ethnographic Analogy of in , Peninsular

Mohana R.1

1. Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune – 411 006, Maharashtra, India (Email: mohangulya@ gmail.com)

Received: 17 July 2019; Revised: 13 September 2019; Accepted: 24 October 2019 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019): 849-866

Abstract: Much has been written on the natural and cultural history of Chitradurga. The area constitutes one of the major rock art regions of Karnataka. Geologically, the area is comprised of granite and Meta basalt. The present paper intends to discuss petroglyphs, mainly cupules. It may be noted that no dates can firmly be attributed to any form of rock art of this region. The petroglyphs comprising cupules, animals, footprints, etc. are likely to shed new light on some important aspects of the culture of the contemporary human past.

Keywords: Rock Art, Cupules, Votive Cupule, Game Board, Petroglyph, Ethnography, Chitradurga

Introduction Rock art sites are discovered in most countries around the world. One of the important components of rock art is the common depiction of animals, humans and geometric designs in different settings: hunting and gathering, pastoral life style, etc. Petroglyphs are divided into three categories such as bruising, engraving and cupules on the basis of application of hammering on the rock surface. Graffiti is very rare. The present paper mainly focuses on cupules. Cupules are human made cup shaped hollows in the rock surface. They can be distinguished from natural formation of hollows or pits. Bednarik (2008) described briefly the phenomenon. But the act of grinding, pounding, or polishing that leaves a reductive mark on the rock surface is precisely the same for creating cupules, sometimes in certain patterns (Robinson et al. 2010). In India, the antiquity of cupules is traced back to the Acheulian culture (Bednarik 1993). Cupules are made not only during the Palaeolithic period onwards but also continue to be made till today (Mohana 2014).

In North and Central India, numerous sites with cupules have been discovered and studied especially under the sponsorship of EIP (Early Indian Petroglyphs), a multidisciplinary project. The EIP Commission under the EIP project was a joint ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7: 2019

venture of Rock Art Society of India (RASI) and the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA) sponsored by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), and the Australia-India Council, Canberra under the aegis of the International Federation of Rock Art Organization (IFRAO) and the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in collaboration with scientific organizations and institutions in India and Australia to investigate systematically different problems relating to the early rock art of India by the application of scientific methods such as Carbon Isotope Analysis, Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating (OSL), Micro Erosion Analysis, Uranium-Thorium Analysis and also conducting archaeological exploration and excavation (Bednarik 2000-01; Ganjoo et al. 2002, Bednarik et al. 2005, Kumar et al. 2002).

In Southern India cupules are studied (or reported) in the recent past (Paddayya 1976, Telagavi 2006, Robinson et al. 2010, Mohana 2014, 2015, 2015a, 2016, 2019), but on a very small scale. Recent explorations carried out by the author have resulted in the discovery of numerous sites having cupules and other motifs in Chitradurga district which are located at , Ajji Gudda, Buddara Dibba, Chandravalli, Baggalu Rangavanahalli, Belaghatta, Bhinanagundu, Brahmagiri, Dharmapura, Goolihalli, Jatinga Rameshwara, Mallappana Gudda, Ganjikatte, Phandarahalli, Sollapura, Kavadigahatti, Bangaradevarahatti, Neralagunta, Sangenahalli, Salu Gudda, Medehalli, Himavat-Kedara, Davalappana Gudda, Cholagudda, Koonabevu, Chikkajagaluru, Kallenahalli, Hamppayyanamalige, Ajjanakanive, Veeramedikeripura, Goonuru, Ghattahosahalli, Nannihal, Siddeshwara Gudda, Sondekere, Appayyanahalli, Kunchiganahal, Talya and Janakallu.

For a scientific interpretation of cupules, they are classified into many groups (Bednarik 2008), based on their purported use such as preparation of paints, unspecified or specified cultic or magical rituals, pounding of medicines (mineral or plant), pigments or spices, the placement of offerings (‘Opferschalen’) including human blood and semen, the depiction of star constellations, the map-like depiction of topographic elements of nearby landscapes, geography (ingestion of mineral dust), board games and symbolism that is no longer recoverable.

The emerging discipline of ethnography in archaeological studies is nowadays applied to the study of prehistoric rock art as well. The author uses ethnography to understand the use of cupules in the study area of Chitradurga. His study shows that cupules appear to be of some significance to produce different notes of sound, to be votive, to serve as ground sockets for revolving doors, board game, to use them for the purpose of breaking areca nut or fixing poles for gates of a fort, or simply a hobby to pass time to ward off boredom, etc.

Cultural Background Much has been written on the natural and cultural history and archaeology of Chitradurga (Krishna 1931, Wheeler 1948, Lewis 2006). Its cultural history can be

850 Mohana 2019: 849-866 traced back to the beginning of the period. Excavations and explorations in the vicinity of the town at Chandravalli by Krishna in 1928, Wheeler in 1947 and Sundara in 1978 (Krishna 1931, Wheeler 1948, Sundara 1978) have consistently revealed a sequence of two cultures: Iron Age Megalithic preceded by the Neolithic culture and succeeded by the Early Historic, especially the Satavahanas. Earlier, quite a few Satavahana coins were discovered around the beginning of the last century (Narasihmachar 1909). The earliest inscription of the Early Kadamba dynasty belonging to the first king, Mayura Varma (Sharma) is found in the locality. Later, it was the capital of the Nayakas during the late and Post Vijayanagara which is well known for its extensive seven concentric forts.

Geomorphology The geomorphic setting of the district that has a direct bearing on the utilization of the terrain is dominated by a vast undulating plateau over the gneisses and granitoids. This plateau is ideal for agricultural, industrial and urban settlements. Besides, hills and valleys trending NNW-SSE stand out dominantly in central part of the district and are suitable for locating mineral based industries and afforestation measures (GSI 1999).

Figure 1: Chitradurga Fort: cupules scattered on granite boulder

The Present Research and Description of Cupules The present paper aims to discuss petroglyphs, especially cupules found in the study area. Previous scholars have reported petroglyphs from few above mentioned selected rock art sites. The cupules found in large numbers are often close to one another even

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on the vertical sides of the boulders. They seem to throw some light on the technique and the purpose of their creation.

Figure 2: Chitradurga Fort, Cupules on the gate wall Five

Chitradurga Zone Budara Dibba is located on the southern side of the fort. Earlier Sundara (1978) reported Neolithic cultural remains including pottery. Cupules and engravings of human and horse footprints are found inside the fort. Interestingly, there are cupules found on the dressed stone blocks of the fortification wall as well. They are both oval and circular in shape. The circular cupules are small in diameter and also in depth. Their locations on the wall do not obviously indicate any purpose. The cupules (Figure 1) located close to the humped bull of the Neolithic period inside the fort are likely to be of the same period. The cupules on the fort wall (Figure 2) are caused during or after the construction of the fort or on the mother rock before they were cut into blocks and dressed. The latter appears to be more probable. There are also cupules of the period of the Nayaks made for the purpose of grinding mortar and setting up poles between the gateways of the fort.

The Cupule Sites Outside of Chitradurga Town Bhimanagundu: The site is located 3 km on the western side of Chitradurga town, in the village of Jalikatte (Telagavi 2006). They are on three granite boulders (Figure 3).

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The grotesque, huge boulder rests on the two smaller boulders that in turn rest on the undulating bare rock of a small isolated low-lying hillock in the field, dominating the whole open area. They are near the edge of the hillock. The shape of the top boulder is roughly quadrangular. Rubble pieces are inserted beneath the bottom of the small boulders as if to keep them in position. These boulders are perhaps due to exfoliation (granitic torso) in situ. In recent years the hillock has been quarried for slabs up to the boulders whereas the other side is not quarried.

Figure 3: Bhimanagundu, General view of the granite boulders

Figure 3a: Eastern boulder of west face has a number of cupules

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Figure 3b: Eastern boulder with numerous cupules of east face

Figure 3c: Western boulder with cupules of east face

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Figure 3d: The lower eastern boulder of southwest face

Figure 3e: The large boulder which is placed on another two boulders has 15 cupules

Cupules are found on all the three boulders, altogether 253 in number. The lower two boulders produce sound like that of a metal when struck. In the lower eastern boulder of west face has 49 (Figure 3a), and east face has 116 (Figure 3b), and western boulder of east face has 25 (Figure 3bc), together 190 cupules are there over the entire surface, close to one another in somewhat horizontal lines. The lower eastern boulder of southwest face has 16 cupules (Figure 3d). The large boulder on the top has 15 cupules (Figure 3e), smaller in size, very shallow and looks fresh. The cupules are circular, oval, elongated in shape and are either shallow or deep.

Baggalu Rangavanahalli: Baggalu Rangavanahalli village is located about 13 km northeast of Chitradurga town, locally known as Marikattehalla, located 1 km northeast of the village (Thippeswamy 2007). Therock here bears cupules (Figure 4) mainly,

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footprints, cattle, and geometric designs etc. The cattle figures engraved on the rocks have horns turned backwards and upwards. Footprint is a symbol of fertility, generation and the beginning of life as well as the end of life. Associated with the ancient cults, the footprint became the mark of the creator and symbol of the sacred (Achrati 2008). They represent the ‘striding of the deity’ and mark the sacredness of the place (Cervicek 1986). The foot is a symbol of sexuality; it plays an important role as a phallic symbol (Culianu 1995). It also represents holistic role in the religion viz. Hinduism, Christianity.

Figure 4: Baggalu Rangavanahalli, Cupules in different patterns

Belaghatta: Belaghatta is situated 1 km on the southern side of Baggalu Rangavanahalli. In the locality there are many meta-basalt rock formations which is not suitable for carving. There are not only cupules but also engravings of cattle and footprints on the surface of three boulders (Telagavi 2004). In Belaghatta, the site is locally known as “Eddulu-bande” meaning cattle stones. Eddulu is a Telugu (one of the major southern Indian Dravidian languages) word meaning bulls (cattle). Among the engravings, the bulls, all in outline only, are the most numerous. Humped bulls are far more than the hump-less.

The cupules are invariably circular and generally deep. They are found in two parallel rows. Two such sets may be parallel to each other (Figure 5a-c). There are two patterns in the arrangement of the cupules. Most of the cupules are scattered all over the site (Figure 6a-d).

Figure 5: Belaghatta, Cupules similar to channemane or alugulimane game board

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Figure 6a: Belaghatta, Cupules are scattered on bedrock

Figure 6b: Belaghatta, Cupules in different pattern

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Figure 6c: Belaghatta, Cupules on weathering rock

Figure 6d: Belaghatta, Cupules are scattered on the surface

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Dharmapura: Dharmapura is located 32km on the eastern side of the taluk headquarters of . Here, the cupule site is located 1 km northwestern side of the locality, located very close to ‘Swabhimana’ a Higher Primary school. The cupule site is in an agricultural land located between the Dharmapura-Krishnapura and the Dharmapura- roads. The site is at an elevation of 588m (AMSL). There are cupules on the surface of all the three granite boulders, altogether 109 (Figure 7). One of the boulders is broken at the south-western side (Figure 7a). It might have had many more cupules. The cupules on the first two boulders are oval shaped but most of them are circular, deep and shallow. In a few, the bottom is very narrow. In one of the boulders the cupules which are very shallow are close to one another. The cupules are of different forms such as circular, roughly circular, semi-circular, roughly triangular, square, roughly square and oval shaped. They seem to belong to one period (Mohana 2013).

Figure 7: Dharmapura, Cupules on the surface of granite boulders

Figure 8: Ajji Gudda, General view of the site

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Ajji Gudda: The site (Figure 8) is located 2.5 km to the north-western side of Garaga village, Hosdurga taluk (Thippeswamy 2012). In this hill there are as many as 25 cupules (Figure 9) in good condition, invariably circular and of slightly varying sizes on a quartzite boulder.

Figure 9: Ajji Gudda, Cupules on quartzite hillock of the boulder

Cupules: An Ethnographic Approach As mentioned at the beginning, the purpose of the creation of cupules on the rock surface is still enigmatic, but obviously varied in view of their variety, number and mode. However, there appears to be a clue for understanding one of the possible purposes of the cupules implied at a few sites such as Belaghatta, , Bhimanagundu. Ambigara Kataginahalli, Hiregudda, Tenkasi (Tamil Nadu), Ajmer and Morajhari (Rajasthan), etc. (Kumar 1999, 2005; Boivin 2004). During the explorations the author has observed some popular religious practices relevant to the present study.

Mancala Board Game: With regard to the two parallel rows of the cupules (see Figure 5a-c) of the type found in Belaghatta, it reminds us of a kind of indoor game played till recently by people especially ladies after lunch in some parts of Karnataka. In the game, a rectangular box known as “channemane or alugulimane” (Mancala), a word, comprising two oblong flat planks joined with hinges that can be folded up into

860 Mohana 2019: 849-866 one, is used. On the inner side of one plank of the box two parallel rows of cupules having seven each are seen or there may be one row on each plank (Figure 10). The other plank is plain serving as lid only. Or there may be a single rectangular flat plank having two rows of seven cupules each. At one end there will be an open pouch for keeping the seeds required for the game. A particular type of seed (known in Kannada as channebiīa or huņasebīja tamarind seeds) is used as pawns in the play. At the beginning of the game the box is opened horizontally flat. Each person puts a few seeds in the first cupule. The game begins. Generally, shepherds play this game while the cattle are left for grazing in the forest areas.

Figure10: Mancala Board Game (‘channe-mane’ with ‘hunasebija’)

Figure 11: Tenkasi (Tamil Nadu): Game board (known as ‘chowka-bara’)

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Figure 12: Krishnapura, Votive cupules with hammertoe

Figure 13: Dodda Damali, Sound/Music cupules with hammertoes (Inset)

Chauka Bāra: This is also an indoor game usually played by people in the rural areas during their leisure time. A square comprising 25 square compartments is drawn on floor (Figure 11). The central compartment along the border and at the centre each contains two intersecting diagonals. There will be 4 players each sitting on one side of the square. They have each four pieces of some materials such as stone, small seed, etc. for respective identification. They are placed in the central compartment of the borders. Six cowries or tamarind seeds are used in the game. After shaking them well within the folded hands they are thrown on the ground by the players in turn. Depending upon the number of upper and the lower part of the cowries so thrown, the pieces from the

862 Mohana 2019: 849-866 border central compartment one by one will cleverly be moved through the other compartments from right to left. Suppose in the course of the game if one person’s piece reaches a compartment where there may be another’s piece, then the latter will have to move back to the his/her central compartment. Thus, the game goes on. A person who will be able to move first all his pieces into the centre portion he/she is declared as the winner.

Figure 14: Chikka Damali, Musical cupules

In Krishnapura located 4.5 km south-western side from Lingadahalli and 15 km on the southern side of Tarikere, a taluk headquarter, , two sites were discovered with cupules by the author. The cupules are located within the village settlement, in front of a small shrine dedicated to the village deity, “Būtappa” (a Kannada word meaning devil) and on the northern side of the “kep Chaudeshwari” shrine (kep a Kannada word, means deaf). Nearby, there are 49 cupules (Figure 12) most of them being circular. They are replicated as an offering related to a religious vow by individuals, like the “votive tank” of the historic period. In consideration of this current tradition, in the past also, it is quite possible that some of the prehistoric cupules might have been connected with some rituals practiced by them.

In some places even today such cupules are created by local people on rock for some purpose or the other. In Ambigara Kataginahalli (Guleda Gudda taluk, Bagalakote district), about 3 km away, an isolated hill of boulders has a shelter, locally known as

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sāluphaḍi (Kannada words meaning a row of boulders), which is located near a stream about 100m away. If the ceiling rock of the shelter is struck with a hammer stone, it produces sound. Nearby the hill is a small shrine dedicated to a village goddess known as 'Dyāmmavva'. Annual festival is held here. At one point of time people discovered that the ceiling of the nearby shelter produces musical sound at two localities locally known as "DoddaDamali" (Figure 13) and “Chikka Damali” (Figure 14). Dama (ḍamaru) means imitative sound. Very soon it became an enjoyable fun on the part of visitors so much that they started striking the rock. As a result, numerous cupules are created and this activity continues even today. There are two hammer stones kept ready in the shelter for hitting the rock for causing such cupules. It may also be noted that no other boulder of the hill nearby produces such sound. Geologists say the sound known as 'sonaric sound' is an inherent quality of the dolerite dyke. The composition of the ceiling boulder of the hill in Ambhigara Kataginahalli is to be examined by experts. Be that as it may, this activity may be viewed as one of the causes for the creation of cupules. Neolithic, Megalithic Iron Age, Early Historic cultural materials are found in the vicinity of the cupule bearing sites in the region.

Acknowledgements The author extends his deep gratitute to Profs. A. Sundara, Sushama G. Deo, Lakshman Telagavi and Dr. S. Thippeswamy for useful guidance about the area and special thanks to Dr. Neetu Agarwal, Mr. Hemant Dalavi, Mr. B. Chetan Raj, Mr. M. Mahendra and Dr. Ajmal Shah for logistic help and Mr. Naveen Kumar Kalmane, Mr. C. Shivaraj, Ms. Manjusri, Mr. Prasan Kumar, Mr. Bhuthesh, Mr. Shivashakti Prasana Kumar and Mr. Venkatesh for assistance during fieldwork. He also expresses heartfelt thanks to Ms. H. Umadevi and Ananya Olekar, who gave detailed information about boardgame of “channemaņe or aluguḷimane” (Mancala) and allowed to photograph and sincere thanks to Mr. R. G. Bednarik for his valuable suggestions.

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