Study of Cupules: An Ethnographic Analogy of Chitradurga District in Karnataka, Peninsular India Mohana R.1 1. Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune – 411 006, Maharashtra, India (Email: mohangulya@ gmail.com) Received: 17 July 2019; Revised: 13 September 2019; Accepted: 24 October 2019 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019): 849-866 Abstract: Much has been written on the natural and cultural history of Chitradurga. The area constitutes one of the major rock art regions of Karnataka. Geologically, the area is comprised of granite and Meta basalt. The present paper intends to discuss petroglyphs, mainly cupules. It may be noted that no dates can firmly be attributed to any form of rock art of this region. The petroglyphs comprising cupules, animals, footprints, etc. are likely to shed new light on some important aspects of the culture of the contemporary human past. Keywords: Rock Art, Cupules, Votive Cupule, Game Board, Petroglyph, Ethnography, Chitradurga Introduction Rock art sites are discovered in most countries around the world. One of the important components of rock art is the common depiction of animals, humans and geometric designs in different settings: hunting and gathering, pastoral life style, etc. Petroglyphs are divided into three categories such as bruising, engraving and cupules on the basis of application of hammering on the rock surface. Graffiti is very rare. The present paper mainly focuses on cupules. Cupules are human made cup shaped hollows in the rock surface. They can be distinguished from natural formation of hollows or pits. Bednarik (2008) described briefly the phenomenon. But the act of grinding, pounding, or polishing that leaves a reductive mark on the rock surface is precisely the same for creating cupules, sometimes in certain patterns (Robinson et al. 2010). In India, the antiquity of cupules is traced back to the Acheulian culture (Bednarik 1993). Cupules are made not only during the Palaeolithic period onwards but also continue to be made till today (Mohana 2014). In North and Central India, numerous sites with cupules have been discovered and studied especially under the sponsorship of EIP (Early Indian Petroglyphs), a multidisciplinary project. The EIP Commission under the EIP project was a joint ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7: 2019 venture of Rock Art Society of India (RASI) and the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA) sponsored by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), and the Australia-India Council, Canberra under the aegis of the International Federation of Rock Art Organization (IFRAO) and the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in collaboration with scientific organizations and institutions in India and Australia to investigate systematically different problems relating to the early rock art of India by the application of scientific methods such as Carbon Isotope Analysis, Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating (OSL), Micro Erosion Analysis, Uranium-Thorium Analysis and also conducting archaeological exploration and excavation (Bednarik 2000-01; Ganjoo et al. 2002, Bednarik et al. 2005, Kumar et al. 2002). In Southern India cupules are studied (or reported) in the recent past (Paddayya 1976, Telagavi 2006, Robinson et al. 2010, Mohana 2014, 2015, 2015a, 2016, 2019), but on a very small scale. Recent explorations carried out by the author have resulted in the discovery of numerous sites having cupules and other motifs in Chitradurga district which are located at Chitradurga Fort, Ajji Gudda, Buddara Dibba, Chandravalli, Baggalu Rangavanahalli, Belaghatta, Bhinanagundu, Brahmagiri, Dharmapura, Goolihalli, Jatinga Rameshwara, Mallappana Gudda, Ganjikatte, Phandarahalli, Sollapura, Kavadigahatti, Bangaradevarahatti, Neralagunta, Sangenahalli, Salu Gudda, Medehalli, Himavat-Kedara, Davalappana Gudda, Cholagudda, Koonabevu, Chikkajagaluru, Kallenahalli, Hamppayyanamalige, Ajjanakanive, Veeramedikeripura, Goonuru, Ghattahosahalli, Nannihal, Siddeshwara Gudda, Sondekere, Appayyanahalli, Kunchiganahal, Talya and Janakallu. For a scientific interpretation of cupules, they are classified into many groups (Bednarik 2008), based on their purported use such as preparation of paints, unspecified or specified cultic or magical rituals, pounding of medicines (mineral or plant), pigments or spices, the placement of offerings (‘Opferschalen’) including human blood and semen, the depiction of star constellations, the map-like depiction of topographic elements of nearby landscapes, geography (ingestion of mineral dust), board games and symbolism that is no longer recoverable. The emerging discipline of ethnography in archaeological studies is nowadays applied to the study of prehistoric rock art as well. The author uses ethnography to understand the use of cupules in the study area of Chitradurga. His study shows that cupules appear to be of some significance to produce different notes of sound, to be votive, to serve as ground sockets for revolving doors, board game, to use them for the purpose of breaking areca nut or fixing poles for gates of a fort, or simply a hobby to pass time to ward off boredom, etc. Cultural Background Much has been written on the natural and cultural history and archaeology of Chitradurga (Krishna 1931, Wheeler 1948, Lewis 2006). Its cultural history can be 850 Mohana 2019: 849-866 traced back to the beginning of the Neolithic period. Excavations and explorations in the vicinity of the town at Chandravalli by Krishna in 1928, Wheeler in 1947 and Sundara in 1978 (Krishna 1931, Wheeler 1948, Sundara 1978) have consistently revealed a sequence of two cultures: Iron Age Megalithic preceded by the Neolithic culture and succeeded by the Early Historic, especially the Satavahanas. Earlier, quite a few Satavahana coins were discovered around the beginning of the last century (Narasihmachar 1909). The earliest inscription of the Early Kadamba dynasty belonging to the first king, Mayura Varma (Sharma) is found in the locality. Later, it was the capital of the Nayakas during the late and Post Vijayanagara which is well known for its extensive seven concentric forts. Geomorphology The geomorphic setting of the district that has a direct bearing on the utilization of the terrain is dominated by a vast undulating plateau over the gneisses and granitoids. This plateau is ideal for agricultural, industrial and urban settlements. Besides, hills and valleys trending NNW-SSE stand out dominantly in central part of the district and are suitable for locating mineral based industries and afforestation measures (GSI 1999). Figure 1: Chitradurga Fort: cupules scattered on granite boulder The Present Research and Description of Cupules The present paper aims to discuss petroglyphs, especially cupules found in the study area. Previous scholars have reported petroglyphs from few above mentioned selected rock art sites. The cupules found in large numbers are often close to one another even 851 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7: 2019 on the vertical sides of the boulders. They seem to throw some light on the technique and the purpose of their creation. Figure 2: Chitradurga Fort, Cupules on the gate wall Five Chitradurga Zone Budara Dibba is located on the southern side of the fort. Earlier Sundara (1978) reported Neolithic cultural remains including pottery. Cupules and engravings of human and horse footprints are found inside the fort. Interestingly, there are cupules found on the dressed stone blocks of the fortification wall as well. They are both oval and circular in shape. The circular cupules are small in diameter and also in depth. Their locations on the wall do not obviously indicate any purpose. The cupules (Figure 1) located close to the humped bull of the Neolithic period inside the fort are likely to be of the same period. The cupules on the fort wall (Figure 2) are caused during or after the construction of the fort or on the mother rock before they were cut into blocks and dressed. The latter appears to be more probable. There are also cupules of the period of the Nayaks made for the purpose of grinding mortar and setting up poles between the gateways of the fort. The Cupule Sites Outside of Chitradurga Town Bhimanagundu: The site is located 3 km on the western side of Chitradurga town, in the village of Jalikatte (Telagavi 2006). They are on three granite boulders (Figure 3). 852 Mohana 2019: 849-866 The grotesque, huge boulder rests on the two smaller boulders that in turn rest on the undulating bare rock of a small isolated low-lying hillock in the field, dominating the whole open area. They are near the edge of the hillock. The shape of the top boulder is roughly quadrangular. Rubble pieces are inserted beneath the bottom of the small boulders as if to keep them in position. These boulders are perhaps due to exfoliation (granitic torso) in situ. In recent years the hillock has been quarried for slabs up to the boulders whereas the other side is not quarried. Figure 3: Bhimanagundu, General view of the granite boulders Figure 3a: Eastern boulder of west face has a number of cupules 853 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7: 2019 Figure 3b: Eastern boulder with numerous cupules of east face Figure 3c: Western boulder with cupules of east face 854 Mohana