Tourism and Trails ASPECTS OF TOURISM Series Editors: Chris Cooper, Oxford Brookes University, UK, C. Michael Hall, University of Canterbury, New Zealand and Dallen J. Timothy, Arizona State University, USA Aspects of Tourism is an innovative, multifaceted series, which comprises authoritative reference handbooks on global tourism regions, research vol- umes, texts and monographs. It is designed to provide readers with the latest thinking on tourism worldwide and push back the frontiers of tourism knowledge. The volumes are authoritative, readable and user-friendly, provid- ing accessible sources for further research. Books in the series are commis- sioned to probe the relationship between tourism and cognate subject areas such as strategy, development, retailing, sport and environmental studies. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.channelviewpublications.com, or by writing to Channel View Publications, St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. ASPECTS OF TOURISM: 64 Tourism and Trails Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues Dallen J. Timothy and Stephen W. Boyd CHANNEL VIEW PUBLICATIONS Bristol • Buffalo • Toronto Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Timothy, Dallen J. Tourism and Trails: Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues/Dallen J. Timothy and Stephen W. Boyd. Aspects of Tourism: 64 Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Culture and tourism. 2. Tourism–Environmental aspects. 3. Tourism–Management. 4. Trails. I. Boyd, Stephen W. II. Title. G156.5.H47T564 2015 306.4'819068–dc23 2014025105 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-84541-478-8 (hbk) ISBN-13: 978-1-84541-477-1 (pbk) Channel View Publications UK: St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada. Website: www.channelviewpublications.com Twitter: Channel_View Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/channelviewpublications Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com Copyright © 2015 Dallen J. Timothy and Stephen W. Boyd. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable for- ests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, prefer- ence is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Techset Composition India (P) Ltd., Bangalore and Chennai, India. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Short Run Press Ltd. Contents Figures vii Tables xi Acknowledgements xv Preface xvii 1 Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Definitions and Meanings 3 Scope, Scales and Settings of Routes and Trails 8 Conclusion 15 2 Cultural Routes and Heritage Trails 17 Introduction 17 Purposes of Cultural Heritage Trails 18 Cultural Heritage Trails as Tourism Resources 20 Conclusion 57 3 Nature Trails and Mixed Routes 60 Introduction 60 Nature Trails 60 Mixed Routes 77 Conclusion 94 4 Demand for Trails and Routes 96 Introduction 96 General Trends in Demand 97 Characteristics of Trail Users 103 Access and Location 107 Trail Uses 110 Experience, Enjoyment and Satisfaction 112 Barriers to Use 121 Conclusion 124 v vi Tourism and Trails 5 Tourism, Recreation and Trail Impacts 126 Introduction 126 Type of Trail/Route Impacts 127 Conclusion 162 6 Planning and Developing Trails and Routes 164 Introduction 164 Route Designation and Related Policies 165 Planning and Developing Trails and Routes 179 Trail Design 196 Conclusion 212 7 Managing Routes and Trails 214 Introduction 214 Supply Versus Demand Techniques 215 Visitor Management Frameworks and Procedures 235 Conclusion 245 8 Reflections and Futures 247 Reflections 247 Futures 255 References 258 Index 296 Figures Figure 1.1 Conceptual model of trails and routes: A nested hierarchy 15 Figure 2.1 Types of cultural heritage trails 21 Figure 2.2 Evolution of trails from original tracks to developed routes 23 Figure 2.3 Route 66: Illinois to California 30 Figure 2.4 Sign marking the Way of St James in France 34 Figure 2.5 Way of St James and secondary routes 35 Figure 2.6 The historic Grand Canyon Railway 38 Figure 2.7 A small-scale navigable canal in the Netherlands 40 Figure 2.8 Paths at the archaeological site of Tulum, Mexico 44 Figure 2.9 A trail on the ancient city walls of Girona, Spain 45 Figure 2.10 One of Portugal’s wine trails 50 Figure 2.11 St Patrick’s grave in Downpatrick, Northern Ireland 55 Figure 2.12 St Patrick’s Trail/Christian heritage route with recognized attraction clusters 56 Figure 2.13 The head of the Gospel Trail in Israel 57 Figure 2.14 Possible trail/route experience scenarios 59 Figure 3.1 A greenbelt trail in Scottsdale, Arizona, USA 64 vii viii Tourism and Trails Figure 3.2 A wilderness hiking trail in Utah, USA 65 Figure 3.3 A geology trail at Craters of the Moon National Park, USA 70 Figure 3.4 A rainforest canopy trail in Ghana 72 Figure 3.5 The Great Walks of New Zealand 75 Figure 3.6 A visitor center on the Appalachian Trail at Harper’s Ferry 76 Figure 3.7 A bicycle path crosses the Dutch-Belgian border at Baarle Hertog/Baarle Nassau 80 Figure 3.8 A scenic byway marker in the US Southwest 83 Figure 3.9 The Causeway Coastal Route 87 Figure 3.10 The Causeway Coast visitor center 88 Figure 3.11 A popular rail-trail in Illinois, USA 91 Figure 3.12 Types of nature trails and mixed routes 95 Figure 4.1 RVs are popular along scenic routes and byways 104 Figure 4.2 England’s coastal path: Developing a new national trail 108 Figure 4.3 A rural footpath on the Isle of Man 109 Figure 4.4 Applying the realms of experience to trail participation 113 Figure 4.5 Factors shaping demand for trails and routes 124 Figure 5.1 The widening effect of off-trail use in the Himalayas of Bhutan 128 Figure 5.2 Mount Robson Provincial Park as part of the Canadian Rocky Mountains World Heritage Site 130 Figure 5.3 A vandalized agave plant along a heritage trail in Mexico 135 Figure 5.4 A squirrel waiting trailside for tourist handouts by the ‘do not feed the squirrels’ sign at the Grand Canyon 137 Figures ix Figure 5.5 This trail is experiencing significant wear and tear, and its railing is beginning to fail 138 Figure 5.6 The social effects of recreational noise 147 Figure 6.1 The Canadian Heritage Rivers System 168 Figure 6.2 Comprehensive trail development model 180 Figure 6.3 Hiking trail planning framework 182 Figure 6.4 Trail use of utility infrastructure (water works) in Gilbert, Arizona 186 Figure 6.5 Urban heritage trail formalization: Options and development process 193 Figure 6.6 Highway sign designating a long-distance heritage route 203 Figure 6.7 Blazes marking the Pyrenean Way trail along the French-Spanish border 203 Figure 6.8 Boston’s Freedom Trail embedded in the sidewalks to guide tourists along the path 204 Figure 6.9 A warning sign for trail users 205 Figure 6.10 An accessible beach trail in Denmark 209 Figure 7.1 A ‘hardened’ trail creates a more durable and protective trail surface at this Greek archaeological site 220 Figure 7.2 An interpretive panel on Hadrian’s Wall Path, England 225 Figure 7.3 An unstaffed interpretive center on a scenic byway in Australia 226 Figure 7.4 A ‘branded’ National Recreation Trail in Puerto Rico 231 Figure 7.5 The POLAR model 240 Figure 7.6 POLAR stages four, five and six: Units, access and thresholds 241 Figure 7.7 Partnership models for landscapes of different context and scale 245 Tables Table 2.1 Designated National Historic Trails in the US, 2013 26 Table 2.2 Examples of tourism-oriented heritage railways 37 Table 2.3 Top 15 wine producing countries in the world by volume, 2010 48 Table 3.1 National Water Trails in the US, 2013 69 Table 3.2 Characteristics of the Great Walks, New Zealand (short–medium distance trails) 75 Table 3.3 European cycle routes in the EuroVelo program 81 Table 4.1 Five most popular outdoor activities in the USA by participation rate, 2011 98 Table 4.2 Five most popular outdoor activities in the USA by frequency of participation, 2011 98 Table 4.3 Trends in demand for trail-type water activities, 2006–2011 (in thousands) 99 Table 4.4 Selected activities in England performed in free time by age, 2007–2008 99 Table 4.5 Top 10 active sports by gender in England, 2007–2008 100 Table 4.6 Pilgrims’ mode of transportation on the Way of St James to Santiago de Compostela 101 Table 4.7 Top 15 nationalities completing the Camino de Santiago, 2012 102 xi xii Tourism and Trails Table 4.8 Geographic and demographic characteristics of D&L Trail users 105 Table 4.9 Trail use characteristics of D&L Trail users 106 Table 4.10 Economic distinction between goods, services and experiences 112 Table 4.11 Mean importance ratings for factors influencing a route choice 115 Table 4.12 Desirable attributes of a scenic byway 118 Table 4.13 Top 15 reasons people enjoy scenic byways 119 Table 4.14 Motivations and user type of a suburban all-purpose trail 119 Table 4.15 Motives and influential factors for hiking the West Highland Way, Scotland 120 Table 5.1 The amount and severity of types of ecological impact on