DOCSLIB.ORG

The Middle East

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Middle East Walter Feichtinger Special Series on the Strategic Review of Global Hotspots FOKUS | 7/2021 The Middle East This special Fokus series on the Strategic Review The Abraham Accords, signed by Bahrain, Arab countries to be fit for future, they of Global Hotspots consists of seven parts and is Israel, the United Arab Emirates, and the need Israel. Consequently, the Pales tinian based on the AIES online discussion on the same US in summer 2020, launched a new era issue will not be the key point for the topic. The online lectures of the authors are in MENA trade relations. The Abraham Ac- future. available at: aies.at/global-hotspots cords can effectuate fundamental changes in bringing countries in the Middle East Another power struggle is taking place in together and in establishing strong co- the Persian Gulf between the US and Iran, When it comes to the situation in the Middle operation with Israel. For instance, Oman, where Israel, as well as Jordan, Kuwait, East every analyst is facing uncountable Saudi Arabia, and Qatar may be in talks to Saudi Arabia, and the UAE are allied with challenges because of lacking transparency join the Abraham Accords as well, while the US, while Syria, Iraq, and the Lebanese and invisible networks. Therefore, it is neces- Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan already have Hezbollah have strong relations with Iran. sary to define exactly what one is talking or normalised relations with Israel. The Arab writing about. The intention of this article countries that are increasingly engaging Iran’s increasing and stable influence is to identify relevant trends and develop- with Israel follow a simple formula: we ments in that war-torn region in order to cannot win against Israel, but we can win The international community was hopeful gain a strategic overview. In this regard, five with Israel. about stabilising its relations with Iran strategic trends in the Middle East will be in 2015, when the Joint Comprehensive discussed: 1) A new geopolitical orientation Instead of Israel, Iran is now being percei- Plan of Action (JCPOA) was signed in on the Arabian Peninsula; 2) A stronger ved as the largest security threat on the Vienna. The intention was to bring Iran Israel; 3) An anti-Iran coalition; 4) The failing Arabian Peninsula. New arrangements in to the negotiating table in order to find a ‘Arabellion’; and 5) Turkish aspirations in the the region are focused on building up a solution for Iran’s nuclear aspirations and region. strong alliance against Iran. to prevent nuclear armament. Since Israel is widely presumed to possess nuclear A new geopolitical orientation on the Israel is stronger than ever before weapons and has rivalry relations with Arabian Peninsula Teheran, Iran’s nuclear aspirations could Israel generally enjoys strong support from provoke a nuclear arms race and an inflam- Shifting alliances on the Arabian Peninsu- the US, but during the Trump Administra- mable situation in the Middle East. Hence, la are changing the geopolitical orien- tion, it had an even greater support than US President Trump’s decision to with- tations in the region. For instance, Qatar before. The increased political enga- draw from the JCPOA in 2018 once again was in a diplomatic crisis with many other gement with Israel could be noticed in increased the concerns about nuclear Arab countries since June 2017, but at the reality: the US acknowledged Jerusalem escalation in the Middle East. After the US end of 2020, some bans and blockades as capital of Israel in 2017 and ordered its had withdrawn from the JCPOA, it adopted imposed on Qatar were lifted and eased Embassy to move there, the US recognised a strategy of exerting maximum pressure. the crisis, in which the United States were the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019, However, this strategy has not yielded the supportive and inventive as well. What and the US ‘accepted’ Israeli settlements results the US aspired. Firstly, there has we are witnessing now, can be a game- on the West Bank. Hence, some say the been no regime change in Iran. In fact, one changer. two state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian could argue the ‘hardliners’, who oppose conflict is an illusion, as the West Bank is Iran’s engagement with the west, have More importantly, Israel is no longer already in the hands of Israel, to a large only increased their influence over Iran’s enemy number one on the Arabian Penin- extent. Furthermore, Palestine’s leverage politics since. Secondly, Iran has remained sula. Israel is a strong player in the region over US policy in the region has decreased. a strong player and has kept its allies in the as it is a modern state with a highly so- region. The country can still have signi- phisticated industry and economy. On the Moreover, Israel is a modern country that ficant political impact on Iraq, Lebanon, other hand, the economies of several other can enable neighbouring Arab countries Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen. Arab countries rely heavily on oil revenu- to make economic and political transitions. es, causing them to be financially fragile. The economic and security cooperation The isolation of Iran and the US’ maximum As such, Israel is being reconsidered as a with Israel yields new options for the pressure strategy have failed. The US potential ally, in order to overcome eco- whole region. Furthermore, the political assassination of Iranian top general Qasem nomic transitions. Since more cooperation images of some Arab countries, such as Soleimani on 3 January 2020 could be with Israel is likely to continue to unfold, Saudi Arabia, have been worsening. In this understood as a provocation and a test of geopolitical dynamics in the Middle East regard, a better relation with Israel could Iran’s capabilities, but Iran’s reaction to the are evolving as well. be beneficial to them as well. So, for some assassination was largely rhetorical and 1 The Middle East Special Series on the Strategic Review of Global Hotspots FOKUS | 7/2021 did not lead to further escalation. Further- successful – those are the empirical results Today, this has changed significantly: Tur- more, one should not forget that China, from many cases that were studied after key has regional power aspirations. For in- Russia, Turkey, and Qatar maintained their 1945. stance, it is seeking new energy sources in relations with Iran. Iran’s aforementioned the Eastern Mediterranean and its foreign ties with Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon are also Syria is still a hotspot, although it is not policy is militarising. Turkey’s search for still in place. comparable to what we experienced in natural gas in the Eastern Mediterranean 2017 and 2018. There is still a concentrati- is causing problems not only with Cyprus Thus, a reorientation to regard Iran as a on of jihadist fighters in the Idlib region in and Greece, but also within NATO and the strong actor in the region was necessary. northwestern Syria. Along Syria’s northern EU. Meanwhile, Turkey is showing the cold The questions for the future are whether border, Turkey has a strong influence. shoulder to Europe and the West and is Iran can be brought back to the nego- Those issues will be on the table the next providing demonstrative support for the tiating table, whether the JCPOA can be couple of years. Muslim Brotherhood. Besides, it main- reinstated, or whether there will be more tains strong relations with Qatar and it is escalation. Another point that has to be mentioned involved in Libya. President Recep Tayyip in this context is Daesh. Daesh’ strategy Erdoğan recently indicated that Turkey will Ten years of ‘Arabellion’ currently looks like this: continue to stay in Libya, despite calls from the international community to withdraw. We will look at the situation in the MENA Survival: the caliphate was destroyed, Although Turkey should not be underesti- region, ten years after the start of ‘Arabel- but not Daesh as a whole and its mated when looking at the MENA region, lion’ (the term ‘Arab Spring’ is misleading). ideology; its economic situation is fragile, which There are still demonstrations in Tunisia, Expansion: although Daesh lost large could eventually have an impact on its the country of which we had the most parts of its territories in Iraq and Syria, foreign policy. Besides, if there is a strong hope to overcome its issues. Besides, there its remnants are still active in many alliance of Arab states, it can turn on have been regime changes in Libya and countries, providing a source for future Turkey as well. Egypt. Meanwhile, there is a civil war in expansion; Syria and Lebanon is totally shaken up. Demonstration of power: Daesh aims Additionally, the economic, political, and Iraq is on a good track, to a certain extent, to show that it is still alive. A single military relations between Turkey and but whether it can make the transition to attack, like the one in Austria on 2 Russia have huge political implications. a more inclusive government is yet to be November 2020, allows them to show For NATO, this raises the question whether seen and depends on other actors, such that their spirit is alive; it can rely on Turkey at its southern flank, as Iran. Inspiration: meanwhile, Deash will con- when it has such a strong relationship with tinue to aim to inspire others, and the Russia. In this context, a report by the Center for Covid-19 pandemic increases ‘opportu- Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), nities’ for online radicalisation. Outlook assessing the situation in the MENA Patience: Daesh is waiting to see what region, said: “The results are not good.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Middle East Unit: Reading and Questions Part 1:​ Introduction Located at the Junction of Three Continents—​Europe​,​
    Middle East Unit: Reading and Questions Part 1: Introduction ​ Located at the junction of three continents—Europe, Asia, and Africa—the region ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ known as the Middle East has historically been a crossroads for conquerors, peoples, trade, and ideas as well as a transition zone for political and cultural interaction. Today the Middle East’s strategic location as a tricontinental hub, its vast petroleum reserves, its importance to Muslims, Christians, and Jews alike, and its many political disputes give it a global significance out of proportion to its size. The Middle East is a culturally, politically, and economically diverse region that extends for some 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers) from west to east and some 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) from north to south. It is made up of several countries located on or near the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Although definitions vary, it is generally understood to encompass Egypt, Lebanon, ​ ​ ​ ​ Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, Iran, Iraq, and the Arabian ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Peninsula, which comprises Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, the United Arab ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait. The part of the region closest to Europe ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ formerly was known as the Near East, and some agencies still use that term instead of the Middle East to describe the entire region. 1. What are the 3 continents that house the “Middle East”? 2. What are they known for? 3. Label your map with the countries and bodies of waters in this text. Color the waters blue and the countries each a different color.
    [Show full text]
  • Genome-Wide Data Substantiate Holocene Gene Flow from India To
    Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia Irina Pugacha,1, Frederick Delfina,b, Ellen Gunnarsdóttira,c, Manfred Kayserd, and Mark Stonekinga aDepartment of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany; bDNA Analysis Laboratory, Natural Sciences Research Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines; cdeCODE Genetics, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland; and dDepartment of Forensic Molecular Biology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Edited by James O’Connell, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, and approved November 27, 2012 (received for review July 21, 2012) The Australian continent holds some of the earliest archaeological ancestry living in Utah (CEU); Han Chinese individuals from evidence for the expansion of modern humans out of Africa, with Beijing, China (CHB); and Gujarati Indians from Houston, TX initial occupation at least 40,000 y ago. It is commonly assumed (GIH) (19). The final dataset comprised 344 individuals (Table that Australia remained largely isolated following initial coloniza- S1 and Fig. 1); and after data cleaning and integration, we had tion, but the genetic history of Australians has not been explored in 458,308 autosomal SNPs for the analysis. detail to address this issue. Here, we analyze large-scale genotyp- ing data from aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, island South- Results east Asians and Indians. We find an ancient association between Genetic Relationships Between Populations. First, to place aborigi- Australia, New Guinea, and the Mamanwa (a Negrito group from nal Australians into a global context, we carried out principal fi the Philippines), with divergence times for these groups estimated component analysis (PCA) (20).
    [Show full text]
  • The Biden Administration and the Middle East: Policy Recommendations for a Sustainable Way Forward
    THE BIDEN ADMINISTRATION AND THE MIDDLE EAST: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A SUSTAINABLE WAY FORWARD THE MIDDLE EAST INSTITUTE MARCH 2021 WWW.MEI.EDU 2 The Biden Administration and the Middle East: Policy Recommendations for a Sustainable Way Forward The Middle East Institute March 2021 3 CONTENTS FOREWORD Iraq 21 Strategic Considerations for Middle East Policy 6 Randa Slim, Senior Fellow and Director of Conflict Paul Salem, President Resolution and Track II Dialogues Program Gerald Feierstein, Senior Vice President Ross Harrison, Senior Fellow and Director of Research Israel 23 Eran Etzion, Non-Resident Scholar POLICY BRIEFS Jordan 26 Dima Toukan, Non-Resident Scholar Countries/Regions Paul Salem, President US General Middle East Interests & Policy Priorities 12 Paul Salem, President Lebanon 28 Christophe Abi-Nassif, Director of Lebanon Program Afghanistan 14 Marvin G. Weinbaum, Director of Afghanistan and Libya 30 Pakistan Program Jonathan M. Winer, Non-Resident Scholar Algeria 15 Morocco 32 Robert Ford, Senior Fellow William Lawrence, Contributor Egypt 16 Pakistan 34 Mirette F. Mabrouk, Senior Fellow and Director of Marvin G. Weinbaum, Director of Afghanistan and Egypt Program Pakistan Program Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) 18 Palestine & the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process 35 Gerald Feierstein, Senior Vice President Nathan Stock, Non-Resident Scholar Khaled Elgindy, Senior Fellow and Director of Program Horn of Africa & Red Sea Basin 19 on Palestine and Palestinian-Israeli Affairs David Shinn, Non-Resident Scholar Saudi Arabia 37 Iran
    [Show full text]
  • The Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
    Regional strategy for development cooperation with The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) 2006 – 2008 The Swedish Government resolved on 27 April 2006 that Swedish support for regional development cooperation in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA region) during the period 2006-2008 should be conducted in accordance with the enclosed regional strategy. The Government authorized the Swedish International Development Coope- ration Agency (Sida) to implement in accordance with the strategy and decided that the financial framework for the development cooperation programme should be SEK 400–500 million. Regional strategy for development cooperation with the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) 2006 – 2008 Contents 1. Summary ........................................................................................ 2 2. Conclusions of the regional assessment ........................................... 3 3. Assessment of observations: Conclusions ......................................... 6 4. Other policy areas .......................................................................... 8 5. Cooperation with other donors ........................................................ 10 6. The aims and focus of Swedish development cooperation ................ 11 7. Areas of cooperation with the MENA region ..................................... 12 7.1 Strategic considerations ............................................................. 12 7.2 Cooperation with the Swedish Institute in Alexandria and ............... 14 where relevant with the Section for
    [Show full text]
  • US Military Policy in the Middle East an Appraisal US Military Policy in the Middle East: an Appraisal
    Research Paper Micah Zenko US and Americas Programme | October 2018 US Military Policy in the Middle East An Appraisal US Military Policy in the Middle East: An Appraisal Contents Summary 2 1 Introduction 3 2 Domestic Academic and Political Debates 7 3 Enduring and Current Presence 11 4 Security Cooperation: Training, Advice and Weapons Sales 21 5 Military Policy Objectives in the Middle East 27 Conclusion 31 About the Author 33 Acknowledgments 34 1 | Chatham House US Military Policy in the Middle East: An Appraisal Summary • Despite significant financial expenditure and thousands of lives lost, the American military presence in the Middle East retains bipartisan US support and incurs remarkably little oversight or public debate. Key US activities in the region consist of weapons sales to allied governments, military-to-military training programmes, counterterrorism operations and long-term troop deployments. • The US military presence in the Middle East is the culmination of a common bargain with Middle Eastern governments: security cooperation and military assistance in exchange for US access to military bases in the region. As a result, the US has substantial influence in the Middle East and can project military power quickly. However, working with partners whose interests sometimes conflict with one another has occasionally harmed long-term US objectives. • Since 1980, when President Carter remarked that outside intervention in the interests of the US in the Middle East would be ‘repelled by any means necessary’, the US has maintained a permanent and significant military presence in the region. • Two main schools of thought – ‘offshore balancing’ and ‘forward engagement’ – characterize the debate over the US presence in the Middle East.
    [Show full text]
  • Arabian Peninsula from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia Jump to Navigationjump to Search "Arabia" and "Arabian" Redirect Here
    Arabian Peninsula From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search "Arabia" and "Arabian" redirect here. For other uses, see Arabia (disambiguation) and Arabian (disambiguation). Arabian Peninsula Area 3.2 million km2 (1.25 million mi²) Population 77,983,936 Demonym Arabian Countries Saudi Arabia Yemen Oman United Arab Emirates Kuwait Qatar Bahrain -shibhu l-jazīrati l ِش ْبهُ ا ْل َج ِزي َرةِ ا ْلعَ َربِيَّة :The Arabian Peninsula, or simply Arabia[1] (/əˈreɪbiə/; Arabic jazīratu l-ʿarab, 'Island of the Arabs'),[2] is َج ِزي َرةُ ا ْلعَ َرب ʿarabiyyah, 'Arabian peninsula' or a peninsula of Western Asia situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian plate. From a geographical perspective, it is considered a subcontinent of Asia.[3] It is the largest peninsula in the world, at 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 sq mi).[4][5][6][7][8] The peninsula consists of the countries Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[9] The peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and southwest, the Persian Gulf to the northeast, the Levant to the north and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. The peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Arab world due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas. The most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are Riyadh, Dubai, Jeddah, Abu Dhabi, Doha, Kuwait City, Sanaʽa, and Mecca. Before the modern era, it was divided into four distinct regions: Red Sea Coast (Tihamah), Central Plateau (Al-Yamama), Indian Ocean Coast (Hadhramaut) and Persian Gulf Coast (Al-Bahrain).
    [Show full text]
  • History and Social Science
    Nashoba Regional School District HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE Standards and Benchmarks Grade 7 Nashoba Regional School District History and Social Science Standards and Benchmarks, 2007-2008. Work in this document is based upon the standards outlined in the Massachusetts History and Social Science Framework, August 2003. History and Social Studies by Grade Level Grade 7 Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks (August 2003) Overarching Theme The study of world geography includes 5 majors themes: location, place, human interaction with the environment, movement, and regions. Grade Seven Focus: Foundations of Geography Concepts and Skills to be addressed: Students will be able to identify and interpret different kinds of maps, charts, graphs. They will use geographic and demographic terms correctly and use an atlas. They will understand what a nation is and the different international organizations. They will understand basic economic concepts such as supply and demand, economic systems, trade and the effect of these on the standard of living. Big Idea: A nation’s standard of living is impacted by its economic system, its government and geographical characteristics. Essential Questions: In what ways does location affect way of life? What qualities make a nation and how do nations interact? How does the economic system affect standard of living? By the end of SEVENTH Grade, students should be able to answer the Essential Questions above and apply knowledge and concepts attained to be able to: History and Geography • Use map and globe skills learned in pre-kindergarten to grade five to interpret different kinds of projections, as well as topographic, landform, political, population, and climate maps.
    [Show full text]
  • Arab Cultural Awareness: 58 Factsheets
    TRADOC DCSINT HANDBOOK NO. 2 ARAB CULTURAL AWARENESS: 58 FACTSHEETS OFFICE OF THE DEPUTY CHIEF OF STAFF FOR INTELLIGENCE US ARMY TRAINING AND DOCTRINE COMMAND FT. LEAVENWORTH, KANSAS JANUARY 2006 PURPOSE This handbook is designed to specifically provide the trainer a ‘hip pocket training’ resource. It is intended for informal squad or small group instruction. The goal is to provide soldiers with a basic overview of Arab culture. It must be emphasized that there is no “one” Arab culture or society. The Arab world is full of rich and diverse communities, groups and cultures. Differences exist not only among countries, but within countries as well. Caveat: It is impossible to talk about groups of people without generalizing. It then follows that it is hard to talk about the culture of a group without generalizing. This handbook attempts to be as accurate and specific as possible, but inevitably contains such generalizations. Treat these generalizations with caution and wariness. They do provide insight into a culture, but the accuracy and usefulness will depend on the context and specific circumstances. Comments or Suggestions: Please forward all comments, suggestions or questions to: ADCINT-Threats, 700 Scott Ave, Ft. Leavenworth, KS 66027 or email [email protected] or phone 913.684.7920/DSN 552-7920. ii WHERE IS THE ARAB WORLD? • The Arab world stretches from Morocco across Northern Africa to the Persian Gulf. The Arab world is more or less equal to the area known as the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Although this excludes Somalia, Djibouti, and the Comoros Islands which are part of the Arab world.
    [Show full text]
  • The Geography of the Arabian Peninsula
    THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA LESSON PLAN: THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA By Joan Brodsky Schur Introduction This lesson introduces students to the physical geography of the Arabian Peninsula, its position relative to bodies of land and water and therefore its role in connecting continents, its climate, and its resources (in the premodern era). Based on evidence from materials provided in four maps and a background essay, students make hypotheses about how human societies adapted to life in a desert climate. Afterwards, they compare their hypotheses to factual evidence. In one concluding activity students are paired as travelers and travel agents. The travelers have specific scholarly interests in visiting the Arabian Peninsula, while the travel agents must plan trips to the peninsula to meet their client’s purposes. In an alternative concluding activity, students study the Arabian camel and the impact of its domestication on human societies in the region. This lesson provides material relevant to understanding the exhibit The Roads of Arabia as well as a second related lesson plan, The Incense Routes: Frankincense and Myrrh, As Good as Gold. Grade Level 5th through 12th grades Time Required Depending upon the number of activities you plan to implement, this lesson takes from one to five class periods. Materials A variety of maps provided in this lesson and others in print and/or online. The background essay provided in this lesson. Essential Questions • What geographical features create the desert climate of the Arabian Desert? • How do land forms and waterways connect different world regions? • How do plants and animals adapt to a desert climate? • How do human societies adapt to living in desert climates? Skills Taught • Reading a variety of types of maps to ascertain specific information.
    [Show full text]
  • 7.1 Introduction Our Study of Islam Begins with the Arabian Peninsula
    Name and Date: _________________________ Text: HISTORY ALIVE! The Medieval World 7.1 Introduction Our study of Islam begins with the Arabian Peninsula, where Islam was first preached. The founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born on the peninsula in about 570 C.E. In this chapter, you’ll learn about the peninsula’s geography and the ways of life of its people in the sixth century. The Arabian Peninsula is in southwest Asia, between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. It is often called Arabia. Along with North Africa, the eastern Mediterranean shore, and present day Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, it is part of the modern Middle East. Most of the people living in Arabia in the sixth century were Arabs. Some Arabs call their home al-Jazeera, or “the Island.” But it is surrounded by water on only three sides. The Persian Gulf lies to the east, the Red Sea to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. To the north are lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. These lands serve as a land bridge between Africa, Asia, and Europe. Imagine that you are flying over the Arabian Peninsula. As you look down, you see vast deserts dotted by oases. Coastal plains line the southern and western coasts. Mountain ranges divide these coastal plains from the desert. The hot, dry Arabian Peninsula is a challenging place to live. In this chapter, you will study the geography of Arabia and its different environments. You’ll see how people made adaptations in order to thrive there. 7.2 The Importance of the Arabian Peninsula and Surrounding Lands Arabia lies at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • Classification and Description of World Formation Types
    United States Department of Agriculture Classification and Description of World Formation Types Don Faber-Langendoen, Todd Keeler-Wolf, Del Meidinger, Carmen Josse, Alan Weakley, David Tart, Gonzalo Navarro, Bruce Hoagland, Serguei Ponomarenko, Gene Fults, Eileen Helmer Forest Rocky Mountain General Technical Service Research Station Report RMRS-GTR-346 August 2016 Faber-Langendoen, D.; Keeler-Wolf, T.; Meidinger, D.; Josse, C.; Weakley, A.; Tart, D.; Navarro, G.; Hoagland, B.; Ponomarenko, S.; Fults, G.; Helmer, E. 2016. Classification and description of world formation types. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-346. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 222 p. Abstract An ecological vegetation classification approach has been developed in which a combi- nation of vegetation attributes (physiognomy, structure, and floristics) and their response to ecological and biogeographic factors are used as the basis for classifying vegetation types. This approach can help support international, national, and subnational classifica- tion efforts. The classification structure was largely developed by the Hierarchy Revisions Working Group (HRWG), which contained members from across the Americas. The HRWG was authorized by the U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) to devel- op a revised global vegetation classification to replace the earlier versions of the structure that guided the U.S. National Vegetation Classification and International Vegetation Classification, which formerly relied on the UNESCO (1973) global classification (see FGDC 1997; Grossman and others 1998). This document summarizes the develop- ment of the upper formation levels. We first describe the history of the Hierarchy Revisions Working Group and discuss the three main parameters that guide the clas- sification—it focuses on vegetated parts of the globe, on existing vegetation, and includes (but distinguishes) both cultural and natural vegetation for which parallel hierarchies are provided.
    [Show full text]
  • Table 2. Geographic Areas, and Biography
    Table 2. Geographic Areas, and Biography The following numbers are never used alone, but may be used as required (either directly when so noted or through the interposition of notation 09 from Table 1) with any number from the schedules, e.g., public libraries (027.4) in Japan (—52 in this table): 027.452; railroad transportation (385) in Brazil (—81 in this table): 385.0981. They may also be used when so noted with numbers from other tables, e.g., notation 025 from Table 1. When adding to a number from the schedules, always insert a decimal point between the third and fourth digits of the complete number SUMMARY —001–009 Standard subdivisions —1 Areas, regions, places in general; oceans and seas —2 Biography —3 Ancient world —4 Europe —5 Asia —6 Africa —7 North America —8 South America —9 Australasia, Pacific Ocean islands, Atlantic Ocean islands, Arctic islands, Antarctica, extraterrestrial worlds —001–008 Standard subdivisions —009 History If “history” or “historical” appears in the heading for the number to which notation 009 could be added, this notation is redundant and should not be used —[009 01–009 05] Historical periods Do not use; class in base number —[009 1–009 9] Geographic treatment and biography Do not use; class in —1–9 —1 Areas, regions, places in general; oceans and seas Not limited by continent, country, locality Class biography regardless of area, region, place in —2; class specific continents, countries, localities in —3–9 > —11–17 Zonal, physiographic, socioeconomic regions Unless other instructions are given, class
    [Show full text]