“Study on Strategic Management of Mumbai Cricket and Its Impact on Indian Cricket”

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“Study on Strategic Management of Mumbai Cricket and its Impact on Indian Cricket”

Thesis Submitted to the Padmashree Dr. D. Y. Patil University, Department of Business Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Submitted by Mr. Makarand R. Waingankar (Enrollment No. DYP-PhD106100009)

Research Guide Dr. R. GOPAL DIRECTOR, DEAN& HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Padmashree Dr. D.Y. PATIL UNIVERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT, Sector 4, Plot No. 10, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai – 400 614

October 2014

“Study on Strategic Management of Mumbai Cricket and its Impact on Indian Cricket”

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis titled “Study on Strategic Management of Mumbai Cricket and its Impact on Indian Cricket” submitted for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in Business Management at Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University, Department of Business Management is my original work and the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar titles.

The material borrowed from other sources are incorporated in the thesis has been duly acknowledged.

I understand that I myself could be held responsible for plagiarism, if any declared later on.

The research papers published based on the research conducted out of and in the course of study are also based on the study and not borrowed from other sources.

Place: Navi Mumbai. Signature of Mr. Makrand R. Waingankar

Date: Enrollment no: DYP-PHD-106100009

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Study on Strategic Management of Mumbai Cricket and its Impact on Indian Cricket” and submitted by Mr. Makrand Waidhankar is a Bonafide research work for the award of the Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management at the Padmashree Dr. D. Y. Patil University Department of Business Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management and that the thesis has not formed the basis for the award previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar title of any University or Institution.

Also it is certified that the thesis represents an independent work on the part of the candidate.

Place: Navi Mumbai

Date:

Signature of the Guide Signature of Head of the Department Dr. R. Gopal Dr. R. Gopal Director & HOD Director & HOD Dept. of Business Management Dept. of Business Management Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University Navi Mumbai Navi Mumbai

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank those who provided me all through my life, especially during the three years of my association with Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University for my Doctoral studies. I am indebted to Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University and the Department of Business Management for giving me this great opportunity to have my doctoral studies under its protective wings. I thank Dr R. Gopal my Guide & mentor, who inspired and encouraged me to complete my work. My heartfelt gratitude is due for his scholarly guidance, constant availability, his unmatched human concern and wholehearted support. I am highly indebted to him for this work of mine and the personal growth in me. I gratefully acknowledge Dr Vijay D Patil Vice President MCA and President D Y Patil Sports Academy for encouraging me to pursue my doctorate.

I express my thanks to my family members especially my wife Dr Sandhya for source of inspiration and continuous support in my success.

I will be failing in my duty if I don‟t acknowledge the effort of Mr Arunachalam Vivek (Assistant Professor)

Place: Navi Mumbai Signature of Mr. Makrand R. Waingankar

Date:

Dedication

The Thesis is dedicated to former international players

1.Mr Polly Umrigar - INDIA

2.Mr Frank Tyson - ENGLAND

Index

Declaration 3

Certificate 4

Acknowledgement 5

Dedication 6

Executive Summary 8

Chapter 1 Introduction 20

Chapter 2 Literature Review and Gap Analysis 43

Chapter 3 Objective and Research Methodology 110

Chapter 4 History of Mumbai Cricket 116

Chapter 5 Mumbai Cricket Association 141

Chapter 6 History of School Cricket of Mumbai 176

Chapter7 Qualitative Discussions with National and 181 International Cricketers

Chapter 8 Quantitative Data Analysis 322

Chapter 9 Data Conclusion 354

Chapter 10 Recommendations, Suggestion and Scope 365 for further study

Chapter 11 Bibliography 369

Chapter 12 Annexure 382

Exécutive Summary

Cricket has captured greater attention of many stakeholders of society and the researchers also in the present era due to the changing face and advancement in its various operations.

The game is not only limited to the players, organizers club or board but it is influencing the mindset of many stakeholders of society. The previous formats are no longer in game of cricket. Now stakeholders are expecting new formats and its game. The state of cricket in today‟s world is best expressed by noted cricket writer Gideon Haigh who recently remarked: “it is no longer correct to speak of the „Globalization‟ of cricket, we face the

„Idealization‟ of cricket, where nothing India resists will occur, and everything it approves of will prevail.” This represents a remarkable transformation: a game that was hardly

th played by the millions that inhabited the British colonial territories in the mid-19 century, less than a century later turned out to be the most popular sport in these erstwhile-colonies, followed with a passion that is in stark contrast with the popularity of cricket in England, the county where it originated. This development is also in contrast to all other forms of global sports and cultural industries, which are overwhelmingly controlled by western countries. Although, through their sheer numbers the third-world countries have increasing influence in global sports, for example in international sporting organizations like FIFA, power within global sports, i.e. control of the financial and media structures of sport lies primarily with the western countries. In this context, cricket is a unique game whose power center currently lies in India. The cricket environment is very drastically changed due to restructuring of various policies and practices by member countries and respective clubs. The major role played by BCCI and ICC for development of cricket in India and Globally. At same time MCA (Mumbai Cricket Association) is also

responsible for development of Mumbai Cricket and Cricket at large. The emergence of this alternative centre of power in cricket is the result of a variety of factors related directly to the process of „globalization‟ over the last century. In many ways it represents one of the on-going shifts in the centre of the global economy from the developed countries to the emerging nations of the third world. This includes, amongst others, changes in technology, rise of nationalisms, development of a trans-national community that can support its team across borders and the loss of popularity of cricket to other sports such as football and motor-racing in the country of its origin. At present scenario it‟s important to discuss more about role of Strategic Management in Cricket due to increase in expectations of Stakeholders Dynamically and to deal with this many researchers done their research in field of Cricket and Strategic Management. They realized that, cricket as a game drastically developed a lot over a period of century and the participants or stakeholders applied many principles of Strategic Management in to game knowingly or unknowingly.

This research study is divided into 12 chapters

First chapter discussed about Strategic Management and Cricket, where brief idea is given in this chapter. How Strategic Management is important for game like Cricket.

Second chapter discussed about Literature Review and Gap, in this chapter all the literatures are reviewed to understand the research done by researchers in the area of

Strategic Management and Cricket as a Sport activity. Where many literatures talks about

Role of Strategic Management in Business Organizations/profit making entity and Role of Strategic Management in Social Organizations/Non-Profit Organizations.

Third Chapter discussed on Objectives of the Study

Following objectives and hypothesis are discussed in this chapter

 To assimilate the facts about Mumbai cricket

 To analyze historical situations

 To analyze the management aspect of Mumbai cricket

 To study the impact /contribution of Mumbai cricket in Indian cricket

The objectives are to analyze the various factors such as the Bodies in Mumbai Cricket.

The research further emphasizes on the roles played by the bodies in the development of

Indian and Mumbai Cricket. The Management structure of the bodies is analyzed. The research further studies about the budding players, their performances, socio economical status and their entries into playing different Club Crickets. The above mentioned objectives were set to focus research study in one direction and major focus area is on

Role of Strategic Management on Mumbai Cricket and Indian Cricket.

The following is the hypothesis designed for the research.

Hypothesis

 H01 The Club and Corporate Cricket in Mumbai does not help a cricketer

 H11 The Club and Corporate Cricket in Mumbai helps a cricketer

 H02 The number of Corporate Cricket Tournaments should not be increased.

 H12 The number of Corporate Cricket tournaments should be increased

 H03 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by increasing tournaments

 H13 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by not increasing tournaments

 H04 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by revising the tournaments structure.

 H14 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by revising the tournaments structure.

 H05 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by training with qualified coaches.

 H15 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by training with qualified coaches.

 H06 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by improving infrastructure.

 H16 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by improving infrastructure.

 H07 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by increasing the prize money.

 H17 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by increasing the prize money.

 H08 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by increasing the number of qualified umpires.

 H18 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by increasing the number of qualified umpires.

 H09 Mumbai Cricket cannot be nurtured and grown by introduction of Information

Technology.

 H19 Mumbai Cricket can be nurtured and grown by introduction of Information

Technology.

 H010 The number of Mumbai Players in the Indian Team has been consistently decreasing.

 H110 The number of Mumbai Players in the Indian Team has been consistently increasing.

Fourth Chapter discussed on History of Mumbai Cricket

Cricket is a traditional English bat and ball sport which is steeped in history. It is believed by some that the first reference to the game was made as early as the 13th century (Leach,

2007). However, the first evidence of the game being played is dated in the 1550s

(Norridge, 2008). By the 18th century the game of cricket boasted its set of rules (Clarke,

1998). The game of cricket is now played across the globe with the International Cricket

Council (ICC) having around 120 members (Cricket Archive, 2009). The major cricket playing nations (full ICC members) are Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New

Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, West Indies and Zimbabwe (Cricket Archive,

2009). About Mumbai Cricket Presidency: 1892-93 to 1906-07.

The story of Bombay cricket begins with the formation of the Orient Cricket Club by the

Parsees in 1848. In 1866 the Hindus emulated the Parsees by starting a club of their own community and naming it the Union Cricket Club. The Muslims too were attracted to the game and the Mohammedans Cricket Club was inaugurated in 1883 which later became the Islam Gymkhana as we know today. First Presidency match was played in Bombay in

August 1892. Triangular: 1907-08 to 1911-12. In 1907, a new team was introduced to the domestic cricket. It was the Hindus who emerged as team & then converted the tournament format into „Triangular‟. Quadrangular: 1912-13 to 1936-37. Year 1912 marked the beginning of a new chapter in the history of Indian cricket with introduction of Quadrangular Tournament. The Muslims became the fourth team to participate & made an unimpressive start and took 12 years to win their first championship title, in the end they emerged as a force to be reckoned with. Northern India became the nursery of

Muslim cricket and produced some outstanding players. Pentangular: 1937-38 to 1945-

46.The commencement of Pentangular Tournament in year 1937. Lord Harris, who was

Governor of the Bombay Presidency from 1890 to 1895, was to a great extent responsible for the inauguration of these matches, which were played from 1895 to 1906 in Bombay and Poona in alternative years. The Hindus entered the fray in 1907 to make the event

Triangular, and the Muslims joined in 1912 to make it Quadrangular. Cricket in Bombay had already attained such a distinct popularity and status even before the birth of the

Association that Bombay was already being hailed as the Nursery of Indian Cricket. This was the fact and also the control of the game in India which was nebulous in character needed bodies both at the National and Provincial levels in order to give it a safe and smooth flow and conduct. The Board of Control for Cricket in India was born out of this desire, and so was the Mumbai (Bombay) Cricket Association. That Bombay's proposal succeeded is a well-known fact! India visited Australia under the captainship of Lala

Amarnath for the first time in the year 1947-48.

Fifth Chapter discussed on Mumbai Cricket Association

The Association started functioning from 1st October, 1928. The Association continued to function as the Bombay Presidency Cricket Association till the year 1935. The change in the nomenclature was effected thereafter and the first meeting of the committee under the name of the Bombay Cricket Association was held on 15th October, 1935 once again in the Islam Gymkhana pavilion. Which itself is another landmark to remember! Great embarrassment suffered by the Association in the immediate post-natal period came from the claims of the Gujarat Cricket Association and the Maharashtra Cricket Association to obtain independent affiliation to the Board of Control for Cricket in India. After formation of Bombay Cricket Association many players were included in cricket development tour in year 1932, 1934, 1936, 1946 .The Bombay Cricket Association deserves kudos because

it was they who took initiative in breaking this unholy system. At one of the meetings in the Silver Jubilee Year of the Association (1954), the Association's representative to attend the meeting of the Board was given a mandate to oppose the existing system and get the rules so amended that the All Indian Selection Committee would be vested with absolute powers to select the Indian captain.

Sixth Chapter discussed on History of University of Mumbai Cricket. The Harries and

Giles Inter School Tournament. A Pioneer and Missionary Lord Harris will have a special place in the history of Mumbai cricket. He had been a great source of inspiration to Indian

Cricket. At another level, he served with equal distinction as Under-Secretary of State for

India and Under-Secretary of State for War in the Administrations of the Marquee of

Salisbury. The Bombay High Schools Athletic Association was formed in 1893. The

BHSAA came into being in July 1893. The New High School won the tournament for the first four years, 1893-96. Jalbhai Dorabji Bharda, one of the founders, passed away on

12th August, 1921. Thereafter the New High School changed its name to Bharda New

High School. Lord Harris was appointed the Governor of Bombay Presidency in 1890. He was a great influence in the promotion of the game, not only in Bombay but also in India.

Seventh Chapter consists of various qualitative discussions with National and

International Cricketers. Feedback was collected from various National and International

Cricketers by taking their Interviews. Many questions were asked to Interviewee on topics like- Experience about Cricket, Loyalty factor in Cricket, Mumbai Cricket and Indian

Cricket, Contribution of Club Cricket, Reasons for decline in number of Bowlers and

Quality Players from Mumbai Cricket, Employment Opportunities to Players, MCA and

MCA Elections, Opinion on various formats of Cricket, and Many more related topics are explore or interviewed to get the answers.

Eighth Chapter discussed on Quantitative -Data Analysis

For the data analysis the tool which is used is frequency analysis on all the data collected.

Likert Scale is used, it is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research. When responding to a Likert questionnaire item, respondents specify their level of agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agrees to disagree scale for a series of statements. For all the questions the frequency, percent, valid percent and cumulative percent values were obtained to using SPSS software to validate the data. The following questions were asked in questionnaire. Questionnaires were designed for a sample of around 400 Cricketers, cricket lovers, Clubs and Umpires. Based on their views the data sampling has been analysed using the SPSS software.

1. How does Club & Corporate Cricket in Mumbai help a cricketer?

2. Which format of tournament is beneficial from cricket point of view?

3. Do you think that the number of Corporate Cricket Tournaments should be increased?

4. How do you think can Mumbai Cricket be nurtured & grown?

5. Here are listed a few important factors that makes Mumbai Ranji Trophy Team as a formidable force, according to you how important are these factors?

6. The number of Mumbai Players in the Indian Team has been consistently decreasing. Do you agree?

7. Mumbai has failed to produce a top quality batsman since a decade. Do you agree?

8. Mumbai has produced less International Level Bowlers as compared to International Level Batsman. Do you agree?

9. Do you think MCA should have proper coaching curriculum at the academy?

10. Do you think Mumbai Cricket hasn‟t made enough impact on Indian Cricket?

11. Should MCA have 5 former Mumbai first class cricketers in the managing committee and only former Mumbai first class players should vote for those 5 seats?

12. According to you, what can be the best way to curb overage menace in junior cricket?

13. Do you agree that there is lack of promotion of Cricket in Mumbai?

Ninth Chapter discussed on Data Conclusion

The study indicated that the Parsee owes his cricket prosperity as much to the civilizing and inspiring influence of British Rule as to his own innate and vigor and adaptability.

Mr. Bosewell, a school master was first to initiate the Parsee lads into the mysteries of the game at a school kept by him in Fort and that probably laid the foundation among the

Zoroastrians of the great pastime. Even if a certain portion of these poor cricketers are getting ready for this profession, India would be doing some duty to sport in general and cricket in particular. It must be devised by means of regularly encouraging this class of cricketers and in order to do this we must help the would be professionals in such a manner as to change their aspect completely; to effect such a change we must place them into absolutely new surroundings and on a sound footing. Influence on Indian cricket was also discussed it was found that the influence of various forces of commercialisation, bureaucratisation and professionalism, components of a heightened urban consciousness in the Mumbai/Indian society of the early twentieth century, is obscured in any study of

Indian cricket.

Bombay Cricket Association Colours It is often willingly stated that it is easier to earn

India colours than to receive Bombay colours. This might seem fallacious, and yet one

who goes through the records of the Bombay Cricket Association of last 75 years is likely to reach this bewildering conclusion. A number of stalwarts had to wait long enough to earn this rare distinction.

Affiliation Sub-Committee The Association today has on its roll more than 330 club- members? Unlike many other State or Regional bodies affiliated to the Board of Control for Cricket in India, this Association does not enrol individual members.

Coaching Measures to introduce Coaching Schemes for youngsters were introduced by the Association from its very early years; but all those attempts were sporadic and never consistent. The earliest major step was taken in the 50s, when the renowned coach Shri H.

Vazifdar, known for his knowledge of the game, discipline and hard work, was given a special assignment to coach young aspirants. Association has every year regularly conducted nets at various centres from Colaba to Thana and Vasai for boys belonging to the age group of 14 to 17.

Board of Umpires The Bombay Cricket Association has been aware of the important part played by the Umpires in the fair conduct of the game ever since it started functioning as a unit. The appointment of an Umpire's Sub-Committee or the nomination of members to serve on the Board of Umpires, as the Sub-Committee came to be called subsequently, may be of recent origin, but the Managing Committee of the Association got into the system of appointing right type of Umpires along with the nomination of players to represent the side - right from the beginning. The Association has on its list today a number of efficient umpires.

Tenth Chapter discussed on Recommendations, Suggestions and Scope for further study.

Based on the data findings several recommendations could be made so as to improve the performance of Mumbai Cricket Association and its impacts on the Indian Cricket. It is said that in the constitution of the Mumbai Cricket Association needs to be amended mainly because the operation of the game is getting extended to far off suburbs. The 5 seats in the Managing Committee may be allocated to 5 former first class players whose experience can be used in streamlining the cricket operations. School and College cricket has been the talent pipeline for Mumbai cricket. The tournament structure has to undergo change. At one time there were fewer grounds but with over 70 grounds under the control of MCA, all the tournaments can be systematically planned. The coaching structure is unwieldy. The umpiring standard is very low.

Scope for further study- The Scope for further studies indicates that there could be more researches done in the field of cricket with other associated boards such as

Rajasthan Cricket Board (RCB), Tamil Nadu Cricket Association (TNCA) and many more.

Further studies can also be done on international cricket by analyzing the research impact with International Cricket Council. Such studies need not be restricted to cricket and it could be analyzed with other growing and popular sports such as Hockey, Football,

Kabbadi, Tennis and many more. Such studies help in the game by contributing rich talents, commercialization and technology.

Eleventh Chapter comprising of Annexure

And Twelveth Chapter ends with Bibilography

Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction

th th Cricket was played by Southern England in the 16 century, and by the end of the 20 century it was a mass sport with a global following. Cricket traveled with the British

Empire, being played by soldiers and officers in reaches of the empire as far as the

Caribbean and Australia. What followed was a process where an elite English game was appropriated by the colonized „natives‟, and incorporated into their own cultural worlds.

The state of cricket in today‟s world is best expressed by noted cricket writer Gideon

Haigh who recently remarked: “it is no longer correct to speak of the „Globalization‟ of cricket, we face the „Idealization‟ of cricket, where nothing India resists will occur, and everything it approves of will prevail.”11. This represents a remarkable transformation: a game that was hardly played by the millions that inhabited the British colonial territories

th in the mid-19 century, less than a century later turned out to be the most popular sport in these erstwhile-colonies, followed with a passion that is in stark contrast with the popularity of cricket in England, the county where it originated. This development is also in contrast to all other forms of global sports and cultural industries, which are overwhelmingly controlled by western countries. Although, through their sheer numbers the third-world countries have increasing influence in global sports, for example in international sporting organizations like FIFA, power within global sports, i.e. control of the financial and media structures of sport lies primarily with the western countries. In this context, cricket is a unique game whose power center currently lies in India. The emergence of this alternative centre of power in cricket is the result of a variety of factors related directly to the process of „globalization‟ over the last century. In many ways it

represents one of the on-going shift in the centre of the global economy from the developed countries to the emerging nations of the third world. This includes, amongst others, changes in technology, rise of nationalisms, development of a trans-national community that can support its team across borders and the loss of popularity of cricket to other sports such as football and motor-racing in the country of its origin.

Strategic Management and Cricket

Every species in this world deals with strategy in different ways. The basis of strategy for all these species is survival, growth and living the life happily until death. Human civilization is a great example of implementing Strategy and tactics successfully for survival, growth and better living. No one taught them strategic management or they never attended any formal lecture on management or strategic management but they were successful managers of their times. Strategy is a game plan which is designed to achieve a goal by an Individual or a group of persons. We can track down many examples from ancient India. In ancient days strategy is well explained in Mahabharata by Lord Krishna to Arjuna while he was fighting against Kauravas. Generally strategy is planned by top management for long term and implemented at all the levels of management. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by the means (resources). The senior leadership of an organization is generally tasked with determining strategy. Strategy can be intended or can emerge as a pattern of activity as the organization adapts to its environment or competes. Strategic Management is a continuous process for management because of ever changing environment. As in any game two teams plans their strategy to defeat opponent team same companies plan to win the consumers and markets.

Strategy refers to either the plans made, or the actions taken, in an effort to help an organization fulfill its intended purposes. While the strategy is planned with intention to achieve certain goals; the present environment is considered with studying past Strategy for the future is referred to as intended strategy, while strategy towards an action taken is referred to as a realized strategy. There are two types of strategies – Intended strategy and

Realized strategy. There is always a tradeoff for any strategy in which the outcome can be tracked by the management in the long or short run. Generally companies formulate their Intended strategy on the basis of studying current environment and past developments. The Management usually conducts a SWOT Analysis, PESTEL Analysis which finally leads it to draw alternative strategies based on certain assumptions. Yet in short run or in long run, the Management reviews the intended strategies and if required it changes the moves. The strategy which is finally implemented by the company is called as realized or actual strategy. Intended strategy and Actual strategy is nothing but the gap of present status of company and future status of company. To fill this gap, companies need to focus on the following activities:

1. Identifying and understanding gaps between previously established goals and past performances.

2. Identifying resources needed to close the gap between current performance and goals for the future.

3. Distributing resources properly.

4. Monitoring their use in moving the organization closer to reaching its desired goals. Historically, in centralized organization structure formal strategic planning has been the responsibility of top managers and perhaps a small, centralized planning staff.

However, in the last decade there has been a clear trend toward flattening organizations and decentralizing by removing specialized planning functions and other layers of management. Typically, flattened organizations would place more emphasis on decision making lower in organization, a practice known as empowerment. It is ironic, but true, that decentralizing decision making through flattening and empowerment often brings about increased emphasis on formal strategic planning. The formal plans become the communications device whereby all the independent organizational members learn of the

“big picture” and understand how they can best contribute through their individual initiative. Strategic plans serve as communication and integration devices that are critical to all organizations, and can be particularly effective in simpler and more stable businesses. The emphasis must be placed on planned policies and strong strategic management with equal emphasis on the implementation. Implementation is more important than planning because of constant change in environment. Strategic management has some important distinctions that separate it from other types of management. There are several subtle, but important, differences between strategic management and other management functions. Strategic Management integrates various functions. Excellence in a wide range of functional specialties is considered an absolutely essential requirement for success in today‟s highly competitive global market. And these capabilities are also known as functional capabilities or core capabilities of various departments. But while functional excellence is necessary for success, this alone is not sufficient. Strategic management is central to capitalizing on functional expertise, and in order for functional specialists to make the greatest possible contribution, they must understand how their functions it into a broader strategy. Even critical success factor need

to be identified from each of the department to add value to department and its function.

Strategic management is oriented toward achieving organization wide goals. The most effective managers are those who have a clear understanding of their organization‟s aims.

To understand how the needs of the firm differ from the needs of the single functional area, a manager must become involved in the overall organization‟s strategic management process and thereby discover how his or her function can contribute to achieving organization wide goals. If all employees are aware about their role in the organization and well idea about various policies in related departments then it helps in smooth functioning of work. Strategic management considers a broad range of stakeholders.

Organizations must meet the needs of various constituencies such as customers, suppliers, employees, owners and the public at large. For an organization truly to flourish, managers throughout its ranks must understand how their decisions affect the various stakeholders involved. The strategic management perspective entails a simultaneous consideration of all stakeholder groups so that reasoned trade-off is possible. Strategic management entails multiple time horizons. Managers cannot ignore the need to maintain the long term viability of their organization though, pragmatically speaking, they must also be aware of the short-run ramifications of anything they do. Consequently, they must be constantly shifting back and forth between long and short term thinking. Managers of functional areas tend to focus on short term issues alone, but if they can broaden their time-frame perspectives, they will understand how to focus on long term issues also. Sport organizations face escalating performance pressures from various stakeholders, which place increasing demands on the governance structures of such organizations. However, little research has been undertaken to understand sport governance of national sports

organizations within the Indian context. Strategy focuses on the roles and structures of the boards of Indian national cricket organizations to enhance the understanding of board involvement in strategic planning and implementation. The role of MCA and ICC is also crucial and so its affiliated to the International Cricket Council‟s (ICC). The strategic planning process and implementation explores the perceived influence of the ICC on the governance compliance of National Cricket organizations, and lastly indicates the strategic management activities performed by such boards.

The role of a board should be with regard to the strategic management of the organizations.

In recent years, the sports industry has been subjected to increasing commercialization, alterations to geopolitical boundaries, technological advancements and greater competition (Amis, Slack & Hinings 2004: 158). As a result, sport organizations face escalating performance pressures from a variety of sources, including the public, the members of the organization, sponsors, international affiliations and government. These pressures include issues related to increased revenue (e.g. the pressure to increase revenue and the associated pressure of having to deal with increased budgets offered by global sport organizations, such as the ICC, attracting higher membership numbers, and the provision of more member services while at the same time producing world champion athletes or teams (Yeh & Taylor 2008: 33). In addition, changes in sport management

(e.g. the shift from predominantly volunteer committees to modern boards of directors, the introduction of paid executives, player compensation, increases in income and expenditure, media scrutiny and a wider range of stakeholder interest) have presented major strategic issues to those responsible for governing sport organizations (Ferkins,

Shilbury & McDonald 2005: 198). Recent research (Ferkins & Shilbury 2012: 67) goes so far as to suggest that in the sport management domain, governance is also considered to be one of the most influential elements for the success of a non-profit sport organization.

This study focuses on the governance of sport organizations, especially the strategic management function of boards of such organizations. More particularly, the study considers the importance of the governance of sport organizations on the Asian continent.

The involvement of board members of such organizations in strategic planning is a key performance driver. Usually boards of sport organizations have 11 different roles, namely: to (1) develop, formulate and monitor strategies; (2) formulate policies; (3) enhance the public image of sport organizations; (4) review and monitor managerial activities and performance; (5) report to members and stakeholders; (6) employ, evaluate, provide advice and reward executives; (7) ensure organizational compliance with related legislations; (8) manage financial resources; (9) develop a risk management plan; (10) conduct self-assessment; and (11) initiate board development activities. Board‟s strategic function has moved beyond compliance and monitoring, and that boards are now regarded as necessitating “involvement in all phases of the strategic decision-making process”. The

ICC appoints the CEO and paid officials of the country cricket boards. In general, the appointment of a paid CEO is seen as a positive development, although some respondents questioned the relationship between the CEO and the board, as illustrated by the following responses: ... ok, that‟s also part of the development of cricket that we‟ve identified now.

Under the ICC structures, each associate country has to have a full-time office with a

CEO and various other staff members. So that‟s a big development.

... a paid system of CEO was introduced. What a positive thing. The problem that most people will face initially is that the CEO become[s] everything, while in reality it is the board which is answerable and which has the weight of the association in terms of

[which] it‟s an affiliation with an international body, it is the board, which is democratically elected. (Interviewee)

Despite board members‟ agreement that the appointment of a CEO and paid officials benefits the association, it was found that the appointed CEOs expressed concerns about the relationship between them and the board. Statements supporting this notion include:

... as CEO, I set myself timeframes, and I set the board timeframes but one of the things one must also realize is that all those board members are people who have a love for the game, and they get themselves involved, but they also have full-time jobs. So one must understand also those are some of the issues within our organization.

... things like I don‟t have a contract yet, I don‟t have executive powers, I have continual interference and it‟s very frustrating and I‟ve got to such a stage that I‟m withholding information so I can get on with the job. I just do things now, which is not being transparent and not in the interest of cricket in [country].

Strategic roles and responsibilities of boards.

Formulating policies, Managerial performances, Manage finances, Attend meetings,

Satisfy stakeholder needs, File required documents, Board development, Self-assess, Risk management plan, Legal compliance, Reporting, Employ/manage executives, Enhance

CA‟s image, Strategic management. Many researchers noticed that External environmental assessment is arguably one of the weaker areas in the strategic management process of the associations. Annual opportunity and threat assessments are

not ubiquitously conducted, and relatively little exists by way of formal processes to gather and analyze external environmental information. The lack of knowledge, skills and abilities (i.e. competencies) are important concerns. Associations can do more than the minimum on their own. Clearly stated reason for existence, Clear organizational guiding principles, Vision and mission used to develop goals, Environmental information used to develop goals, Annually assess threats facing CA, Annually assess opportunities facing

CA, Assess and analyze external changes, Know potential threats, Know key weaknesses,

Know key strengths, Know critical assets, Have operational frameworks in place,

Technology is used well to execute plans, Quarterly reviews are done, Enough control measures in place, Regular performance reviews are conducted, Know image in the market, Formal processes for gathering information about the environment, Have the right mix of knowledge, skills and abilities, Experience of a planning group utilized to do environmental analysis, Have the right mix of knowledge, skills and abilities. Regarding the process of board involvement, board members tend to operate at the operational level.

While it is acknowledged that there is a general „fuzziness‟ between a board‟s strategic and operational roles (Edwards & Cornforth 2003), it seems to be compounded in the particular case through a lack of professional managers within the organizations, and the limited availability of someone to take care of operational, day-to-day responsibilities and allow boards to fulfill an oversight function. The lack of management skills creates a management vacuum, and boards will then step in of necessity, albeit temporarily.

Furthermore, most board members have not been trained as directors, and are thus not clear with respect to their role and the role of the board (as opposed to the role of executives). There is accordingly considerable room for improvement to ensure sufficient

distance between the board (and their governance role) and operations (and their management role).

The Legacy of the Mumbai Cricket

The British East India Company obtained the exclusive rights to reside and build factories in Surat and other areas. Many Parsis, who until then had been living in farming communities throughout Gujarat, moved to the British-run settlements to take the new jobs offered. In 1668 the British East India Company leased the seven islands of

Bombay from Charles II of England. One of these was an enterprising agent named Rustom Maneck. In 1702 Maneck, who had probably already amassed a fortune under the Dutch and Portuguese, was appointed the first broker to the East India Company

(acquiring the name "Seth" in the process), and in the following years "he and his Parsi associates widened the occupational and financial horizons of the larger Parsi community"

(White 1991, p. 304). Thus, by the mid-18th century, the brokerage houses of the Bombay

Presidency were almost all in Parsi hands. While in 1700 "fewer than a handful of individuals appear as merchants in any records; by mid-century, Parsis engaged in commerce constituted one of important commercial groups in Bombay" The Oriental

Cricket Club was a cricket club established by the Parsee community in Mumbai (formerly Bombay) in 1848. The origins of Indian Cricket, that is, cricket played by Indians are to be found in Bombay and the first Indian community to start playing the game was the small community of Zoroastrians, The Parsee. The Parsee community viewed these clubs as a way of cementing ties with the British colonial powers. They were sponsored by Parsee businessmen like the Tatas and the Wadias.

Though the club was the first to be organised by Indians, it was closed a few years later.

The parsee were the first to start the cricket in India because they were in close contacts with the Imperial British. The history of Parsee Cricket originated by the inauguration of the Parsee-Presidency Matches.It all started in 1886 when Parsees used to have an annual fixture with the Bombay Gymkhana and Poona Gymkhana. With the Parsees victory against G. F. Vernon's team, their stock rose sky high and the two Gymkhana individually felt themselves unequal to the task of combating the Parsees on even terms. In order to make the matches more competitive the Parsees were asked to play a combined team of

Englishmen selected from the Bombay Presidency.

Triangular: 1907-08 to 1911-12

In 1907, a new team was introduced to the domestic cricket. It was the Hindus who emerged as team & then converted the tournament format into „Traingular‟. The Hindus were led by Mr. C.V. Mehta, an industrialist and a textile magnate. During its brief history of five years, matches were played during the monsoon and bowlers dominated the scene. By 1907, the Parsee Team started performing well. The Parsees won the tournament in 1907-08 and 1911-12 and the Europeans in 1908-09 whereas in 1909-10 and 1910-11 tournament ended in a drawn.

Quadrangular: 1912-13 to 1936-37

Year 1912 marked the beginning of a new chapter in the history of Indian cricket with introduction of Quadrangular Tournament. In 1915-16, 1918-19, 1922-23 and 1926-27 the tournament was held in Poona. In all other years, except two matches in 1912-13,

Bombay was the venue of the matches. Up to 1918-19, matches were played during the monsoon. From 1919-20 onwards the timing of the tournament matches in Bombay was changed to November-December when likelihood of interference from rain would be

remote. From 1923-24 onwards, for the first time the duration of the final match was extended to four days. In1924-25, the opening match was played between Europeans and

Hindus. The highlight of the 1928-29 Quadrangular was the participation of Prince K. S.

Duleep singhji, the young nephew of Ranji. The tournament in year 1934-35 and 1935-36 registered a fierce cricket battle by the Hindu which were as strong as the Muslims, but on field the Muslims proved to be superior and won the tournament in both the years. After the 1936-37 Quadrangular Tournament, a new proposal was placed to forma a team consisting of Christians and other communities who were not eligible to play for the existing four teams be labelled as 'The Rest' and be admitted to the tournament. That was the end of the Quadrangular and the beginning of the Pentangular. The venue of the matches was shifted from the Bombay Gymkhana to the newly constructed Brabourne

Stadium. Four times the Hindu total exceeded 400 and with six wins they occupy the top place in the championship table.

Formation of Bombay Cricket Association:

Cricket in Bombay had already attained such a distinct popularity and status even before the birth of the Association that Bombay was already being hailed as the Nursery of

Indian Cricket. The Board was born out of this desire, and so was the Association. The stage was thus set for the arrival of a new body that could centrally control and manage the growing activities. The four Gymkhanas undoubtedly looked after their restricted interests ably and effectively. But that was not enough. Besides, the Board of Control for

Cricket in India, the national federation which was formed in 1928, could not affiliate stray units. What was needed was a State or Provincial body which could cater to larger interests in a wider area. The geographical limits of the then Bombay Presidency extended

from Sind in the north to Karnataka (excluding Mysore State) in the south. Sind, however, had an independent cricket body, which was affiliated to the Board of Control for Cricket in India separately. One unit, therefore, covering the entire jurisdiction, excluding Sind, had to be brought together under the control of one body. The four Gymkhanas in

Bombay, led by the Bombay Gymkhana, earnestly set to that all-important task in the year

1927-28. The Quadrangular Committee, which was formed by the representatives of the four Gymkhanas, met every year to organise the famous annual tournament. This was an excellent forum and a springboard to launch the new Provincial Association. Mumbai

Cricket Association formerly known as Bombay Cricket Association was established in

1930 and is the governing body for cricket in Mumbai, Greater Mumbai and Thane districts. The jurisdiction of MCA includes the area up to Dahanu in the Western Suburbs,

Badlapur in the Central Suburbs, and Navi Mumbai up to Kharghar. MCA is a permanent member of the Board of Control for Cricket in India and houses the Headquarters of the

BCCI in Cricket Centre within the Wankhede Stadium premises. Mumbai Cricket

Association has a democratic set up and the affairs of the Association are run by a

Managing Committee which is duly elected every two years by the General Body consisting of 350 member clubs. There are no individual members in the Association.

Mumbai Cricket Association has a rich cricket heritage thanks to the quadrangular and

Pentangular tournaments played in then Bombay, the matches were extremely popular with all the star cricketers of the country participating in them. Mumbai was considered as the nursery of Indian Cricket and there was a time when the Indian playing eleven consisted of six to seven Mumbai cricketers. Mumbai has given the country 68 Test cricketers. The first Test match on the Indian soil was played at the Bombay Gymkhana

ground in 1932. Thereafter up to 1974 Test matches were played at the Brabourne

Stadium and since January 1975 the international matches are played at the Wankhede

Stadium. When the Wankhede stadium was undergoing redevelopment, a Test match was played at Brabourne Stadium in December,2009 and an ODI was played at the D.Y.Patil sports complex at Nerul in November,2009. Mumbai Cricket Association has dominated the Ranji Trophy Championship, the National Championship conducted by the BCCI since 1934. MCA has won the Ranji Trophy 39 times and was runner-up on four occasions. The Association has taken upon the task of building new infrastructures in the far off suburbs. MCA has developed the MCA Recreation Centre at the Bandra Kurla

Complex which houses one of the best Indoor Cricket School in the world. This complex also includes a full fledged cricket ground where Ranji Trophy matches are played. MCA has also developed Recreation Centre at western suburb of Mumbai, Kandivali. The

Recreation Centre is named as "Sachin Tendulkar Gymkhana".MCA won the Ranji

Trophy 15 years in a row which in itself is a world record. Of late our performances have not been consistent. MCA undertook redevelopment of Wankhede Stadium in preparations for the ICC Cricket World Cup and the stadium was completed in time to stage the world cup matches and the venue entered the world cup history books as this was the first time in 10 world cups that the host country won the championship

Pentangular: 1937-38 to 1945-46 and seat allocation controversy

The commencement of Pentangular Tournament in year 1937 was hampered with series of disputes between the sponsoring gymkhanas. The CCI who owned the Brabourne

Stadium, had allotted equal number of seats to all the communal Gymkhanas (Hindu,

Islam, Parsee, Bombay and Catholic) this policy was not acceptable to the Hindu

Gymkhana. Hindu Gymkhana wanted allocation of seats on the basis of the membership strength of each Gymkhana. The CCI and other Gymkhanas did not agree to this proposal and the outcome of their disagreement was that the President of Hindu Gymkhana, Mr.

L.R. Tairsee on 13th December, 1937, withdrew their team from the tournament. In year

1938 the dispute with the Hindu Gymkhana was amicably settled & they were allotted

500 extra seats. The Year 1939-40 registered consistent performance from Hindus &

Muslims throughout the tournament which again resulted into a final played between

Hindu Gymkhana & Muslim Gymkhana. The 1939-40 Pentangular saw the exit of some of the great players of the past. The Year 1942 brought a huge political unrest with

Mahatma Gandhi‟s „Quit India‟ movement resulting into mass arrest of Indian Leaders.

Thus 1942 proved to be a year which passed without Bombay's annual cricket carnival

„The Pentangular Cricket Tournament‟. However the situation settled & the tournament commenced in November 1943. In the Year 1944-45, the Europeans had mustered a strong team with three outstanding batsmen in Denis Compton, Joe Hardstaff and R. T.

Simpson whereas bowling department included Peter Judge and P. Dobree Carey. But despite a knock of 150 by Hardstaff, the Europeans lost to the Parsees.In same tournament match between Hindu gymkhana and Muslim gymkhana was one of the unforgettable match of history. Never before had the Brabourne Stadium witnessed a match so thrilling and exciting as this. Communalism was nowhere in evidence and everyone, including the

Hindus, cheered the Muslim team at the end of the match. Merchant, the Hindu captain, went to the Muslim dressing room and hugged Mushtaq Ali warmly with the words "Well played Muslims, you deserved to win. That was the way to play the game." Denis

Compton while congratulating Mushtaq on his victory said that he had never witnessed a

more thrilling match. It is reported that this exciting final was watched by two great cricketers, Douglas Jardine and Walter Hammond, who happened to be in Bombay at that time as soldiers. Since 1937-38, the pentangular tournament was being played in

November-December each year. The 1945 Pentangular, which was to be the last of the series, was delayed and was played in January 1946. After two very exciting years (1943-

44 and 1944-45) the tournament ended on rather a tame note. The Hindus won the championship defeating the Parsees in the final by 310 runs.

Indian Cricket

The process of familiarizing the Indian masses to cricket was long and complex, beginning with princely patronage, and ending with government subsidization of cricket on television. Appadurai conceded that this in itself is not enough to answer the more basic question of why the game ever caught the popular imagination who then used it as a platform on which to play out masculine and nationalist fantasies21. The full answer, he says, lies in the intangible benefit that the game provides to various social groups the

„experience of experimenting with what might century. be called the „means to modernity…‟‟. This experimenting has created a global history in which the colonized have appropriated a cultural form of the colonizer, and are now using it to assert superiority over them. This tangible process is the result of the commingling of a lot of

th intangible transformations during the 20 century.

Colonial Promotion

The history of cricket playing followed different dynamics in different colonies, mirroring the strategic and economic importance that these colonies had to the Empire. However, there are two things that are common to the introduction and promotion of cricket

throughout the British Empire- the role of educational establishments, as well as the promotion of cricket amongst the indigenous elite. The disciplinary practices that were part of the British colonial project have been well documented47. In the colonies „the

Victorians were determined to civilize the rest of the world, and an integral feature of that process as they understood it was to dispel the gospel of athleticism (…)‟48. It was supposed to transfer vigor and manliness to the „lazy native‟. As Appadurai notes in the case of India: “Cricket was one of many arenas in which a colonial sociology was constructed and reified. In this sociology, India was seen as a congeries of antagonistic communities, populated by men (and women) with a variety of psychosocial defects.

Cricket was seen as an ideal way to socialize natives into new modes of inter-group conduct and new standards of public behaviour. Ostensibly concerned with recreation and competition, its underlying quasi official charter was moral and political”. The establishment of colleges for the training of the colonial elite was a significant step in the

th diffusion of the Victorian ideal of sportsmanship. From the mid 19 century onwards, the

British started establishing public schools in various parts of the Empire to train local administrators. One of the earliest and most prominent amongst these is the Rajkumar

College in Rajkot and Mayo College in Ajmer in India. This in itself was the result of profound changes in the imperial ideology following the uprising of 185750. The uprising saw various princely rulers in India rise up against the British policies of land annexation.

In the wake of these events, when Indian rulers mobilized their populace against the

British in a popular uprising that almost overthrew British rule in Delhi, it became imperative to foster alliances with the Indian ruling elite. This coupled with the civilizing mission ideology, which stated that it is the duty of the benevolent monarch to bring the

people of India to moral maturity, led to the establishment of public schools for Indian princes. Like other aspects of colonial cultural diffusion, sports too were mediated by mercantile elite. The first people to start playing cricket in India were the „middleman‟

Parsee community. The Parsees were, according to Cashman, „a wealthy entrepreneurial group who acted as cultural brokers between the British and Indian Society‟57. The

Parsees are a community that derived great social and economic benefits by collaborating with the British in trade and services. They occupied the „middleman‟ role in the colonial society, brokering between the British and other communities. Their stature as a brokering community led to the Parsees representing themselves as being British, in order to demonstrate fitness for the role of collaboration. The involvement of Parsees in cricket soon led other communities in the subcontinent to take an active interest in the game.

Other communities in Bombay who had a significant stake in benefits of colonial trade decided to take up the colonizers game as well. Hindus and Muslims soon formed their own clubs, and the Bombay Pentangular tournament was founded with teams from the

Europeans, Hindus, Muslims, Parsees and an Others team representing a team of mixed religions apart from the Hindus and Muslims. Most of the patrons of the sport came, once again, from the wealthy Gujrati merchant-bankers that had gained ascendancy by allying themselves with the colonial state58. Muslim cricket had been pioneered by the Lukmani and Tyabji families, while the Hindu cricket club was set up by contributions from a

Hindu Gujrati merchant, G.P Jivandas59. A large part of the patronage for cricket in India came from small princely states. Cricket provided the princes the opportunity to exercise more clout in the council of princes by ingratiating themselves to the British on the field of sports. The earliest patrons of cricket in India, and those that did the most ultimately to

popularize and democratize the game, were the princes. Small princely states like Baroda,

Nawanagar and Scindia rose in prominence through their involvement in cricket. Indian princes taking up the game also meant opening up of opportunity for lower classes of the indigenous population. The princes, much like the elite „amateurs‟ in England, would rarely bowl or field, and sometimes were carried in palanquins to the pitch. The princes perhaps saw in cricket another extension of their royal spectacles, an important part in the obligations and mystique of Indian royals towards their subjects. The princes provided direct and indirect support to many cricketers from humble families, who would later find their way to bigger cities and more important teams60. They also imported coaches and players, usually „professionals‟ from England and Australia, to train their teams and make them more competitive, increasing the competitiveness of teams composed entirely of

Indians. The rise of lower caste cricketers in India, such as Palwankar Baloo, well documented by Ramachandra Guha, was a result of these processes. Cricket was one of the first public platforms on which lower-castes came onto the national stage in the early

th 20 century, from where they went onto have successful careers in politics 73.

Nevertheless, in those early days, achieving status through sport required one to bend to

th the imperial ideal. The successful entrepreneurs of cricket in the early 20 century, be it elite clubs like Spartan and Empire in the West Indies, or the small-princes in India all were wiling subjects of the colonial regime. Perhaps the best example of this comes from one of the first celebrities in world cricket, K.S Ranjitsinghji, or Ranii as he is popularly known. Ranji was an Indian prince who started playing cricket while at public school in

England, and soon attained fame through his skill and „oriental‟ grace of his style. He was selected to play for England in . In a brilliant biography of Ranji, Satadru Sen writes:

“The first pattern is that, in order to breach the racial codes of cricketand play the game at the highest levels in England, Ranjitsinhji hadto overcome formidable opposition. In the process of this conflict, he had to reinvent his racial, gendered and political identities. The second pattern is that, even as England admitted Ranjitsinhji into its closed inner circle, it insisted on marking him with the signs of the colonized Other”. The anti-colonial response to the came usually came not from the promoters, but from the spectators. In this context, another Indian cricketes, C.K Nayadu is significant. Nayadu started playing for the Hindus in the Bombay Pentangular, which was by now a popular spectacle. His innings, particularly those against European sides, were held up as nationalist response to the colonialists. As one memoir put it: “Every sixer hit by „C.K.‟ against the slow bowlers of the visitors was as good as a nail in the coffin of the British Empire. I remember a shot that he hit against James Langridge which sailed over the pavilion at the Lahore

Gymkhana Ground in what is now called Bagh-i-Jinnah. We madly cheered each shot past the boundary not only as a cricket performance but also as an assertion of our resolve to throw the British out of India”. Postcolonial Cricket

We can broadly place post-colonial society within two distinct categories- the Dominions, including Australia, New Zealand and South Africa; and the Commonwealth, including the South Asian and African states that were part of the British Empire. The responses that each of these societies had towards colonialism impacted directly on the development of cricket in them. Feminist scholarship has demonstrated how, in the absence of other public modes of self-assertion76, the domestic sphere became the arena for parading male

„macho‟ identities. The cricket ground hence became a space where local identities got the opportunity to challenge and defeat the colonial power. However, such a vociferation

came not out of an inbuilt sense of nationalism. Defeating Britain hence came to signify a sort of rite of passage for the ex- colonies. The popular interest in defeating the British at their own game fueled the popularity of cricket in the ex-colonies after the decline of

British power. In India, as we have noted, cricket was already a widely popular game by the end of colonial rule. Different communities had successfully appropriated cricket, and the Bombay Pentangular became and integral part of the cricketing calendar. In addition, the patronage of the princes brought the game within easy reach of each and every Indian.

Cricket in the post-colonial India was dominated by the international form of the game.

With the abolition of the Bombay Pentangular tournament shortly before independence, the domestic game never found as much support. This is somewhat paradoxical given that the patrons of the cricket in India were local royalty and elites who had lost a number of privileges to the Indian state post Independence. Yet, the national form of the game found increasing popularity amongst the masses. The Indian nation state was extremely receptive of cricket. The nationalist movement was led by leaders who had a proclivity towards the game, such as Jawaharlal Nehru, India‟s first prime minister, product of Eton and Harrow and himself an avid cricketer. Nehru instituted an inter-parliamentary cricket match as an annual fixture between the lower and upper houses of the parliament. The support of nationalist, yet Anglicized, elite brought to a game a certain level of glamour in the immediate-post independence era, adding to its mass appeal. The patrons of cricket were now state-owned corporations, such as the State Bank of India, or rich industrialists such as the Tatas90. These firms employed cricketers as a form of social relations exercise, allowing them access to easy marketing and popularity91. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that soon after the British left India, cricket was not the most

popular game. Football and Hockey, in which India had won an Olympic gold in the famous 1936 Berlin Olympics, were just as popular. Cricket‟s strength was in the elite urban centers such as Bombay and Delhi. Cricket gained a lot from the interest of the wealthy Bombay industrialists, making it the center of Indian cricket. Other places such as

Calcutta, where cricket playing started earlier than Bombay lagged behind for the lack of significant investment into cricket. The wealth and glamour associated with the Indian elite also made it possible for cricket to gain massive media coverage in relation to other sports. After a slump in the 50s and 60s, the Indian team defeated the dominant West

Indies side in 1971, and went onto win the newly instituted World Cup in 1983. These victories marked the beginning of a new boldness in Indian cricket. By winning the world cup, the cricket team had proved, in the words of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, that „India can do it.

Literature Review

Chapter 2

Literature Review

1.1 Mumbai Cricket

Cricket is a traditional English bat and ball sport which is steeped in history. It is believed by some that the first reference to the game was made as early as the 13th century (Leach,

2007). However, the first evidence of the game being played is dated in the 1550s

(Norridge, 2008). By the 18th century the game of cricket boasted its set of rules (Clarke,

1998). The game of cricket is now played across the globe with the International Cricket

Council (ICC) having around 120 members (Cricket Archive, 2009). The major cricket playing nations (full ICC members) are Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New

Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, West Indies and Zimbabwe (Cricket Archive,

2009). The general overview of a limited overs match is discussed with reference to

Preston and Thomas (2002). The game is played between two teams, each consisting of eleven players. During the course of a match each team has the chance to bat and to bowl.

When the one team bats, the other team will bowl (and vice versa), this is known as an innings. The objective of the team batting first is to score as many runs as possible. In so doing the batsmen are exposed to the risk of losing their wicket, also termed being dismissed or out (Preston and Thomas, 2002).The bowling team aims to dismiss the batting team whilst restricting the number of runs scored. Once this innings is completed, the team who batted initially will bowl and vice versa. The total number of runs scored by the team who batted first is the target for the team batting second (Preston and Thomas,

2002). Typically, the team that has scored the most runs after the game has concluded is

deemed the winner (Preston and Thomas, 2002). Exceptions to this include games which have been influenced by rain, where a mathematical procedure can be used to determine the winner. Each innings is divided into intervals of at least six balls or deliveries, these intervals are called overs (Preston and Thomas, 2002). A ball (delivery) is completed when a bowler runs towards the pitch and delivers the ball to the batsman, who has taken guard at the opposite end of the pitch. The bowler will complete the over that was started, and no bowler can bowl two consecutive overs. Once an over is completed the bowling team swaps sides, and the next bowler's over will be bowled from the opposite end of the pitch. All the members of the bowling team who are not bowling are strategically positioned around the field in order to assist the bowler (known as fielders). Batsmen bat in pairs, each positioned on opposite ends of the pitch during any given delivery. The batsman to which the bowler is delivering the ball (i.e. facing the bowler) is said to be on strike, while the other batsman is positioned on the non-strikers (bowlers) end (Clarke and

Norman, 1999). The batsman who is on strike takes guard in front of three wooden stumps on top of which are two bails, this is known as the wicket. Only the batsman who is on strike when a ball is delivered can score runs. Runs are scored when the batsman strikes the ball using their bat. It must be noted however that a batsman need not run when the ball is struck, and any run taken when the ball has not struck the bat will be credited to the team's total, but not the batsman's. Runs are scored after a delivery when both batsmen run the length of the pitch (i.e. change ends). The decision to complete a run is made by the batsmen depending on the position of the ball after being struck. Should the ball be hit to the boundary (known as hitting a boundary) while having touched the ground, the

batsman is credited with four runs; if the ball is struck over the boundary (not touching the ground) the batsman is credited with six runs (Clarke, 1998). Provided a boundary is not hit, the batsmen can complete as many runs as they choose in the time it takes for the ball to be returned to either of the wickets (on each end of the pitch). Should the batsmen not complete an intended run by the time the ball returns to the wicket and the wickets are broken (bails dislodged), the batsman who is running toward the end with the broken wicket is dismissed (known as a run out). The other common methods of dismissal are

(Britannica Online Encyclopedia: Cricket - Methods of Dismissal, 2009): bowled - this occurs when the wickets are broken by the ball during the course of a delivery; LBW (leg before wicket) - which occurs if a delivery (ball) which is on its way to break the wicket is intercepted by the batsmen using their body (i.e. not their bat); and caught - which occurs when the ball is struck by the batsman and caught by a _elder without touching the ground. Other less common methods of dismissal have been omitted, the interested reader is referred to Britannica Online Encyclopedia1 for a complete list of dismissal methods.

The game of cricket is played in two basic formats namely double innings matches and single innings (limited overs) matches. The double innings match is the oldest, and arguably the purest, form of the game. These matches consist of four innings, played over four days for South African domestic competitions and _ve days for international competitions (known as Test matches). Each team gets to bat (and bowl) twice, and a winning result is only achieved by a team if they score more runs than their opposition

(combined over both innings) and dismiss all the opposition batsmen within the time allocated to the match. Should the latter condition not be met, then the match results in a

draw. Limited overs cricket began domestically in England in 1963, and in 1971 the first international game was played (Cricket info: A Brief History of Cricket, 2009). The main difference between test cricket and limited overs cricket is that the number of overs each team gets to bowl is predetermined. The most familiar form of the limited overs game is the One Day International (ODI) which is named as such since the game is scheduled to be completed in a single day. This form of the game allows each team to bowl 50 overs

(with each bowler bowling a maximum of 10 overs), and the objective is to score more runs than the opposition in the allotted overs. The bowling team need not dismiss the entire batting team as a result will be obtained once both teams have completed the overs allocated to them. Initially spectator interest was high, however over time crowd attendances began to decrease and in 2003 the cricket authorities in England proposed a new format to combat this (Weaver, 2008). This adaptation, commonly known as

Twenty20 cricket, is the format that this study investigates. Cricket is a sport with an overwhelming amount of literature dedicated to it. Since it rose to popularity during the

Victoria era, there is a plethora of books romanticizing the game. These works of literature are both well-written and serve to locate the game within the consciousness of late 19th century England. Most significant amongst these are the works of legendary cricket writer Neville Cardus, as well as popular public figures like historian Cecil

Headlam12. However, aside from literary works and statistical data on matches, there was a profound lack of works dealing with sport as a subject of scientific or social analysis up until the last quarter of the 20th century. This is directly related to changes in academia with the influence of French philosophers such as Michael Foucault. Foucault pointed out

the relationship between knowledge and power and made clear the importance of discourse in the process13. Edward Said adapted Foucault‟s idea in his seminal

Orientalism in which he pointed out the how the East or the Orient was created by western discourse, and that the colonized people had no hand in creating knowledge about themselves. Said argues that the creation of knowledge of the west about the east played an important role in the colonial administration and helped the west create a cultural hegemony over the east. Said‟s work has been criticized from a variety of perspectives, but its influence on academia was great. It launched a thousand works that aimed to create knowledge about themselves, rejecting the ideas of „modernity‟ and the Enlightenment.

This field of research was called „post-colonial‟ studies. This group of scholars focused on the strategies of control and resistance that accompanied colonialism.

Strategic Management in Cricket

STRATEGIC PLANNING

Dooris, Kelley, and Trainer (2002) acknowledge that strategic planning is still relatively new as a management practice. The authors identify the period of time between 1950 and

1970 as the time when strategic planning emerged and note that “the last several decades have been a boom period for strategic planning” (p. 6). As strategic planning has grown in popularity, researchers have devoted more time and attention to defining strategic planning. Bryson (2004) defines strategic planning as “a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organization is, what it does, and why it does it” (p. 6). Mintzberg (1994) says the key to understanding planning is the concept of formalization. He defines strategic planning as “a formalized procedure to produce an articulated result, in the form of an integrated system of decisions” (p. 12).

Wilkinson and Monkhouse (1994) define strategic planning as “a method used to position an organization, through prioritizing its use of resources according to identified goals, in an effort to guide its direction and development over a period of time” (p. 16).

Talk of a “disciplined effort,” a “formalized procedure,” and “a method,” points toward the idea of a process and, as such, the discussion begins with a review of the strategic planning process.

The Strategic Planning Process

Much of the literature on strategic planning focuses on the idea of a system or a process for planning. Authors commonly identify the steps involved in the planning process and treat planning as a very deliberate process that culminates in an explicit plan. Bryson

(2004) provides a simple structure for the strategic planning process by defining the

ABC‟s of strategic planning. According to Bryson, A is where you are, B is where you want to be and C is how you get there. The vision, mission, and goals of the organization help it move from A to B. Strategy formulation connects A to C and strategy implementation connects B to C. Bryson‟s more complex planning process is a 10 step

“strategy change cycle.” These 10 steps include:

1. Initiate and agree on a strategic planning process.

2. Identify organizational mandates.

3. Clarify organizational mission and values.

4. Assess the external and internal environments to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.

5. Identify the strategic issues facing the organization.

6. Formulate strategies to manage issues.

7. Review and adopt the strategies or strategic plan.

8. Establish an effective organizational vision.

9. Develop an effective implementation process.

10. Reassess the strategies and the strategic planning process.

Bryson (2004) cautions against the temptation organizations face to adopt planning processes precisely as they are written and he reminds readers that the strategy change cycle, like all planning processes, is a general approach and it should be tailored to fit the specific situation of the organization in order to be most effective. Vancil (2000) support this notion that there is no single best system for planning and suggest that the planning process must be developed specific to the organization to take into account the particular situation and unique characteristics of each organization.Bryson and Roering (1988) use an eight step process as a framework for their analysis of strategic planning by governments – “an initial agreement or „plan for planning‟; identification and clarification of mandates; mission formulation; external environmental assessment; internal environmental assessment; strategic issue identification; strategy development; and development of a description of the organization of the future” (p. 995). Hosmer (1982) identifies a simple outline for the strategy formulation process. According to this outline, the process begins with evaluating a range of strategic alternatives, then compares these alternatives against opportunities and threats of the environment and internal strengths and weaknesses of the organization, and culminates with the selection of a single strategy.

Eadie (1983) identifies a strategic planning process that also consists of five basic activities: environmental scanning; resource audit to assess strengths and weaknesses; setting strategic objectives; strategy formulation; allocation of resources and

implementation. Streib (1992) discusses strategic planning in terms of its impact on strategic decision making. He details five steps in the strategic planning process:

1. A mission statement that establishes goals and objectives

2. An environmental scan

3. An organizational scan to determine strengths and weaknesses

4. Strategic objectives and implementation

5. Implementation and monitoring.

The literature seems to agree that effective strategic planning involves a process and that the process is important for successful implementation of the plan. Paris (2004) writes,

“the process by which the campus strategic plan is developed strongly influences how fully it is implemented”. This study, understanding the importance of the strategic planning process, will attempt to identify processes used in strategic planning by intercollegiate athletic departments. In addition to overall process, another common element in the strategic planning literature is the idea of environmental or external scanning. Most authors include the idea of environmental scanning or an environmental assessment as part of the planning process. This environmental scanning component is an important part of strategic planning and helps to distinguish strategic planning from other types of planning.

Environmental Scanning

While there is not complete agreement from researchers on the specific steps in the planning process, much of the literature acknowledges that planning must include a scan of the environment and an assessment of the impact of environmental changes on the organization. Trainer (2004) writes, “Environmental scanning is crucial at the beginning

of any planning process….” Sevier (2003) states, “At its most basic, strategic planning is all about creating an alignment between an organization‟s day-to-day activities and its environment”. Lorange and Vancil (2000) identify the two major functions of a planning system as developing an integrated, coordinated, and consistent long-term plan of action, and facilitating adaptation of the corporation to environmental change. Bloom (1986) states that strategic planning “involves an assessment of an organization‟s position and condition with respect to its environment”. Mintzberg (1978) identifies three basic forces that interact to form the basis for strategy formation in organizations. One force is the environment which presents continuous and irregular change. The second is the

“organizational operating system,” or bureaucracy, that attempts to act as a stabilizing force to adapt to the changing environment. The final force is leadership, which attempts to balance the two other forces by maintaining “the stability of the organization‟s operating system while at the same time insuring its adaptation to environmental change”.

Vinzant and Vinzant (1996) support this relationship between internal and external forces by indicating that successful implementation of strategic management is not possible without addressing the complex mix of internal and external factors.

Additionally, the authors identify that external factors are critical because they present problems that are difficult to overcome. Whereas internal challenges may often be resolved through a commitment or reallocation of time and resources, external problems are not so easily resolved. Ruocco and Proctor (1994) suggest that an environmental analysis is a critical step in the planning process that must be performed to gather all the information necessary to develop appropriate strategies. The authors support the use of

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis as an effective and

systematic way of matching the organization‟s strengths and weaknesses with the opportunities and threats that exist in the environment. Trainer (2004) also endorses

SWOT analysis and suggests it “lies at the heart of strategic planning”. Vinzant and

Vinzant (1996) also discuss opportunities and threats and present the notion that the analysis of opportunities and threats is not only an important part of the planning process but the existence of these external forces is a catalyst for planning. Organizations are more likely to initiate and maintain strategic management systems because of the motivating factor presented by the existence of these opportunities and threats in the environment. The authors suggest that threats are in fact “often the only motivator powerful enough to generate sustained change on a large scale in complex organizations”

(Vinzant & Vinzant, 1996, p. 144). Environmental scanning is an important part of the strategic planning process because it allows organizations to anticipate what opportunities and threats may exist in the future. Organizations that plan effectively are then able to match these opportunities and threats with their own strengths and weaknesses. This

“matching,” and the ability with which organizations can adapt to maximize their strengths and improve their weaknesses, given very specific opportunities and threats, is an important determinant of the long-term, sustainable success of an organization.

Interestingly, while most researchers agree that environmental scanning is an important part of the strategic planning process, some have gone even further to suggest that environmental (or external) change is the catalyst that motivates organizations to engage in strategic planning. Environmental scanning, therefore, is not simply part of the process, but perhaps even the reason the process exists. Evidence of environmental scanning can be considered a key indicator for determining whether strategic planning exists in an

organization. If environmental scanning does not occur, it is likely that the organization does not engage in strategic planning. As such, as this study attempts to identify the extent of strategic planning by intercollegiate athletic departments, it will search for evidence of environmental scanning by these departments.

Strategic vs. Long-range Planning

It is important to note that the environmental component of the strategic plan is one way that researchers distinguish strategic planning from long-range planning. Poister and

Streib (1999) characterize long-range planning as a “closed-system” orientation and contrast this with the “big picture” approach of strategic planning that “emphasizes the importance of external trends and forces as they are likely to affect the agency and its mission” (p. 309). Bloom (1986) indicates that long-range planning systems analyze past activity to predict change, while strategic planning processes capitalize on new opportunities that are presented by a changing environment. Eadie (1983) writes, “The focus on understanding and interpreting an organization‟s environment is a basic characteristic of strategic planning” (p. 448). He goes on to state that long-range planning and strategic planning actually have little in common. Eadie identifies that the focus of long-range planning is on the projection of current activities into the future which results in an extension of existing operational plans. Strategic planning, on the other hand, looks outward and focuses on organizational change. Eadie‟s conclusions serve to expand even further the importance of environmental scanning to the strategic planning process. As discussed previously, environmental scanning is a component of the process, a catalyst of the whole process, and now it is identified as the component that distinguishes strategic planning from long-range planning. This distinction is an important one in a study of

strategic planning. In both the private sector and in higher education (including intercollegiate athletics) it can be argued that, for many years, long-range planning was considered to be sufficient. Organizations could look at their current operations and their own strengths and weaknesses and move forward with a neglect for the world outside their own walls. These organizations would simply extend their operational plans by projecting them into the future and moderately tweaking them based on the identified strengths and weaknesses. Eventually, the private sector was faced with a changing environment – increased competition (both foreign and domestic), economic pressures, changing political regimes, and others – which caused these organizations to look outside at external forces when planning for the future. Suddenly, it was important to view these external forces in terms of opportunities and threats and to determine how these fit with the organization‟s strengths and weaknesses. With this view to the outside, these organizations were able to develop strategic plans that caused them to make real, substantive changes in their strategies for capitalizing on the opportunities they identified during the planning process. It was no longer enough to simply expand on the existing operations; survival in the new environment would not allow such a simplistic approach.

Higher education institutions, and the intercollegiate athletic departments operating within these organizations, face many of the same pressures that caused the private sector to adopt a more strategic approach to planning. Certainly, economic pressures are a reality due to rising costs and limitations on revenue growth. Social and political pressures exist from the many, and often time competing, stakeholders in higher education. Competition in intercollegiate athletics has increased with regards to facilities development, recruiting, fundraising, and marketing. These environmental changes are a catalyst for intercollegiate

athletic departments, much as they were for private sector organizations, to adopt new planning processes and to add strategic planning, with its environmental scanning component, to their repertoire of management tools.

People and the Planning Process

Another common theme in strategic planning literature deals with the role of people in the planning process. Generally, the literature acknowledges that people are an important part of the process and critical to successfully implementing strategic management (Vinzant &

Vinzant, 1996; Bloom, 1986; Eadie, 1983; Streib 1992). Streib (1992) acknowledges that it is difficult to define the components of a successful strategic effort, but he identifies four management functions that he deems critical to the success of any strategic planning effort: leadership, human resources, managerial skills, and external support. The importance of people in the strategic planning process is evident in the fact that three of the four critical functions specifically address people and their role in planning. Eadie

(1983) states the importance of people to the planning process by writing, “And the human factor looms large in strategy implementation, as well as in formulation and selection of strategies” (p. 448). Hosmer (1982) describes strategic management as an organizational task. She writes, “Strategic management is an organizational task and requires an integrated effort by all members of the organization for successful completion” (p. 55). Bloom (1986) states that the “failure to involve interested parties in the planning process can reduce the chances for implementation” (p. 254). He goes on to acknowledge the relationship between ownership of the plan and accountability and suggests that involvement in the planning process leads to greater accountability for results of decisions. Lorange and Vancil (2000) look at the specific role of the corporate

planner and suggest that planning must be done by line managers because it is likely to fail if it is not a people-interactive process. The authors acknowledge the existence of and need for corporate planners but view the corporate planner as an organizer who facilitates the process of planning. Bryson and Roering (1988) acknowledge a similar role that they refer to as a process champion. In their study of strategic planning in government, they identify that a strong process champion was present everywhere that strategic planning was implemented. In her study of planning by the University of Wisconsin-Madison,

Paris (2004) notes the use of “point people” that are assigned to specific priorities identified in the plan. These point people can communicate across the university and break down the silos to get people focused on the institution‟s common goal. Paris identifies a point person‟s responsibilities as “developing the overall strategy, coordinating the whole, clarifying the roles and responsibilities, creating linkages, and monitoring and reporting on progress”.

Specifically, leadership has been identified as critical to the planning process because knowledgeable and committed leadership is important for balancing the internal and external forces that affect the organization (Mintzberg, 1978; Vinzant & Vinzant, 1996).

Additionally, an active and supportive leader builds managerial support for the planning process which results in greater support for implementation of the plan (Bloom, 1986).

Hosmer (1982) clearly identifies the critical importance of leadership to the planning process by writing: Leadership is important; it is not an outmoded concept from a less scientific and more romantic age, and there is a need for leaders, properly defined, within an organization to make strategic planning something more than „muddling through‟ or an

„incremental process.‟ It seems conclusive then, that people play an important part in the

planning process – both as leaders (or champions) and as participants. Much of the literature agrees that strong leadership that is committed to strategic planning is important for successful implementation of the plan. If the leader makes strategic planning a priority, it follows then that the organization is more likely to make strategic planning a priority. The challenge, however, comes from the idea that the people in the organization are more likely to be accountable for the plan if they are involved in the development of the plan. This, intuitively, is very easy to comprehend. In practice, however, it is more difficult because the strong leader, the one necessary to champion the planning process, may also be the leader who does not like to relinquish control of the process. With participation and involvement comes, necessarily, some loss of control. As a result, the strong leadership that the literature calls for and the participatory process that the literature encourages may be competing interests that can make implementing the strategic plan a difficult challenge. Despite this challenge, the literature acknowledges that people play an important role in the planning process and for strategic planning to be effective, organizations must have the participation and support of leaders, process champions, and employees who will implement the plan.

Opposing Views

As strategic planning gained in popularity, critical analysis of planning as a management tool increased. Much of the criticism has focused on the very process that proponents of strategic planning deem so important. Dooris (2002) specifically notes that, “Strategic planning initiatives were disparaged for being too linear, for relying too heavily on available hard information, for creating elaborate paperwork mills, for being too formalized and structured, for ignoring organizational context and culture, and for

discouraging creative, positive change”. Other criticism stems from organizations placing too much emphasis on developing the plan and not enough on implementation of the plan.

Trainer (2004) indicates that much of the criticism of strategic planning is that “planning has focused too heavily on the process of developing a plan rather than on implementation or outcome of the plan”. Sevier (2003) supports the use of a process but notes that what you do with the plan is more important than the plan itself. He cautions against focusing so much on the process and the development of the plan that actions are forgotten. Sevier writes, “The goal is not the creation of a strategic plan. Rather, the goal is a sense of direction and institutional coordination created by an effective strategic planning process.

In other words, the plan is a guide to action”. Furthermore, not all of the literature on strategic planning supports the idea that strategic planning is a nice, neat process that results in clear and identifiable strategies for the organization to follow. Bryson (2004) reminds readers that strategic planning is “simply a set of concepts, procedures, and tools.

Leaders, managers, and planners need to engage in strategic planning carefully because their success will depend at least in part on how they tailor the process to their situations”.

Strategic planning is not a simple cookie-cutter that guarantees success. Mintzberg

(1978) argues that planning processes are overly general and that telling management to state goals, assess strengths and weaknesses, identify explicit strategies, and stick to the planning schedule is an oversimplification of how organizations must deal with the changing environments they face. In his study, Mintzberg looks at how strategies are formed in organizations. He identifies a flaw in definitions of strategy in that they normally carry a common theme that strategy is deliberate and intended. Mintzberg writes, “All these definitions treat strategy as (a) explicit, (b) developed consciously and

purposefully, and (c) made in advance of the specific decisions to which it applies. In common terminology, a strategy is a plan”. Mintzberg introduces the idea that strategies may also evolve and that not all are intended, deliberate, and developed in advance. These unintentional or emergent strategies, forms gradually as decisions are made one by one.

This is an important distinction because much of the literature treats strategic planning as a deliberate and explicit process and fails to acknowledge the notion that some strategies evolve through daily decision making. Bryson (2004) echoes this sentiment as he supports the use of strategic planning to help organizations develop and implement effective strategies but also encourages them to remain open to unexpected or unanticipated opportunities. Bryson writes, “Too much attention to strategic planning and reverence for strategic plans can blind organizations to unplanned and unexpected – yet incredibly useful – sources of information, insight, and action”. It is somewhat ironic, that strategic planning has become so process oriented that organizations run the risk of missing the same opportunities and threats that strategic planning was created to identify.

Strategic planning was developed, at least partially, because of the need to look outside the organization to the external environment so organizations could adapt to changing opportunities and threats. As a result of researchers‟ seemingly insatiable desire to model, to process, and to structure, and planners‟ adherence to these specific processes, strategic planning may suffer from the same myopic limitations that were a catalyst for its development in the first place.

Goal Setting and Strategic Planning

At a broad level, the mission statement serves to define the direction of the institution and the strategic plan helps the institution to move in that direction. In her study of best

practices in strategic planning, Aloi (2005) discovers the importance of maintaining a

“mission focus” during the strategic planning process. In the study involving three distinct institutions, Aloi identifies one institution where faculty, staff, and administrators are

“highly aware and supportive of the three elements of their mission statement and believe that using the university‟s mission as a guideline enables the institution to allocate its limited resources to accomplish annual and long-term goals” (p.4). At a more specific level, goals are the tools that help to bind the institution‟s mission and the strategic plan together. Sevier (2003) stresses that goals are the foundation for an effective plan that moves beyond paper to action, “A successful strategic plan – a plan that guides action – is built on clear goals that are themselves built on solid data” (p. 19). This move to action, to work, is important or the plan will not be effective. Drucker (1974) captures the essence of this idea as he states, “The best plan is only a plan, that is, good intentions, unless it degenerates into work”. Goals are the catalyst for this degeneration. McKelvie (1986) discusses strategic planning in terms of goal setting and the need for institutions to set clear goals in the face of economic and financial constraints. McKelvie states that

“Strategy involves outlining the institution‟s goals, their plans for achieving these goals, and the deployment of resources to attain these goals”. She identifies that strategic planning must have, as a foundation, a sound knowledge of the institution‟s mission.

McKelvie identifies the results of strategic planning grounded in the institution‟s mission as: clarification and determination of the institution‟s long-range goals, selection of effective courses of action, and deployment of the appropriate allocation of resources necessary for the achievement of these goals. Like McKelvie, Fincher (1972) also emphasizes the importance of goals to an institution‟s strategic planning efforts. Fincher

identifies that planning in higher education began as simple projections of past trends.

Fincher suggests a shift from this planning based on past trends to planning by objectives.

Planning with a focus on goals and objectives moves the institution toward deliberate goals as opposed to the simple expansion of existing programs that results from planning based on past trends. Fincher outlines the important role of goals in the planning process by writing: There is the further implication that unless planning is conducted in terms of objectives that have been systematically formulated, the planning process will necessarily fall back on projected trends that cannot easily continue. It would seem, therefore, that the sophistication of planning is limited by the adequacy of planning goals. It is not enough to know how we plan; it is necessary to know what we are planning for.

The concept of strategic management.

According to Dess, Lumpkin and Taylor (2005) Strategic management consists of analysis decisions and actions an organisation undertakes in order to create and sustain competitive advantages. Cole (1997) on the other hand defines strategic management as a process directed by top management, which is used to determine the fundamental aims or goals of the organisation and ensure a range of decisions which allow for the achievement of those aims or goals in the long term, whilst providing for adaptive responses in the shorter term. A review of the various definitions on strategic management leads to the understanding that the essence of strategic management includes a strategy formulation stage, the realization of the strategy as dictated by implementation of recommendations and the management of the changes required to make the processes actually work. This implies philosophies of management, theoretical concepts, associated techniques, competitive analysis, planning processes and the management of change.

The strategic management process

According to Dess et al (2005) the strategic management process consists of three major ongoing processes which are: strategy analysis, strategy formulation and strategy implementation. This means that strategic management is concerned with the analysis of strategic goals (vision, mission and strategic objectives) along with the analysis of the internal and external environment of the organisation. Next, leaders must make strategic decisions. Smith (2001) lists the following tasks of strategic management: developing the strategic vision, translating the vision and mission statement into measurable objectives and performance targets, crafting a strategy to achieve the desired results, effective and efficient implementation of the chosen strategy and evaluating performance, reviewing new developments and initiating adjustments. All these tasks imply strategic decision making. Kuveya (2002) opines that Strategic Management is considered a cycle of decisions where each set of decisions has an effect on subsequent decisions as well as having consequences for all those affected by them.

The importance of strategic management

According to Nonprofit (2002) strategic management is a tool used to help an organization do a better job, to focus its energy so as to ensure that all members of the organization are working towards the same goals and to assess and adjust the organization‟s direction in response to its changing environment. Nedela (2009) explains that the advantages of first-rate strategic thinking and a deep commitment to the strategic management process include the guidance it provides to the entire management hierarchy in making clear just what it is the company is trying to do and to achieve. He goes on to emphasize that the advantages also include the contribution it makes to recognizing and

responding to market changes, new opportunities, and threatening developments, the rationale it provides for management in evaluating competing requests for investment capital and new staff. The advantages also include the coordination which it adds to the entire strategy-related decision making done by managers across the organization and the proactive instead of reactive posture that it gives to the organization. In addition Nedela

(2009) argues that high-performing companies use their knowledge and global expertise to deliberately try to impact their target markets with a powerful strategy; they try to initiate and lead, not just react and defend.

The strategic planning process

Strategic planning can be defined as the establishment of objectives and the formulation, evaluation and selection of polices, strategies, tactics and action required to achieve these objectives (Kuveya 2002). Johnson and Scholes (1997) as cited by Kuveya (2002, P: 13) summarize the characteristics of strategic planning and decisions for an organisation as follows: Strategic planning must be concerned with the scope of the organisation’s activities, strategic planning involves the matching of an organisation’s activities to the environment in which it operates. Of interest is their identification of a number of steps that can be taken in order to successfully carry out strategic planning which include: setting corporate strategies/objectives, establishing targets, internal appraisal, external appraisal, forecasting future performance, analyzing the gap between targets internal resources and performance, identifying and evaluating the various strategies, choosing between alternative strategies, preparing the final corporate plan, implementing the chosen strategies and finally evaluating actual performance against the corporate plan.

Farrah, Greenstein, Hirsche dettaan, Levi, Matsumoto, Rosen, Sppington, Schwarting and

Warren (2011) state that strategic planning is more than ensuring your association will remain financially sound and be able to maintain its reserves. They further state that it is a process of projecting where your association expects to be in five, ten, or fifteen years, and how your association will get there. They also emphasize that strategic planning is a systematic planning process involving a number of steps that identify the current status of the association. The other steps include identification of mission, vision for the future, operating values, needs (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats), goals, prioritized actions and strategies, action plans, and monitoring plans. Farrah et al argues that strategic planning is the cornerstone of every common interest community such as a

National Sports Association. He argues that without strategic planning, the community will never know where it is going; much less know if it ever got there. In addition Farrah et al opine that an important concept of strategic planning is an understanding that in order for the community to flourish, everyone needs to work to ensure the team‟s goals are met.

Benefits of the long-range plans

Farrah et al (2011) highlights the following benefits of strategic plans as indicated by

Bernard and Steiner, (1986). Farrah highlights that long range planning is important because it stimulates thinking to make better use of the association‟s resources, assigns responsibility and schedules work, coordinates and unifies efforts. In addition he also highlights important factors such as the facilitation of control and evaluation of the association‟s activities (accountability), the creation of awareness of obstacles to overcome, the identification of opportunities, the avoidance of the trap of linear thinking and the facilitation of progressive advancement of the association‟s goals.

Strategic vision Kotelnikov (2001) defines a corporate vision as a short succinct and inspiring statement of what the organisation intends to become and to achieve at some point in the future. He states that a vision is often stated in competitive terms and refers to the category of intentions that are broad, all inclusive, and forward thinking. He also explains strategic vision as the image that a business must have of its goals before it sets out to reach them. According to Kotelnikov (2001) a vision describes aspirations for the future, without specifying the means to be used to achieve those desired ends. Ray (2000) gives a more detailed description of a vision as a concise statement that describes the ideal state which an organisation aspires to. It describes the preferred future of an organisation, one which is better than its current existence. Ray argues that by establishing a vision to aim for, the organisation is showing full commitment and shaping the roadmap for a successful future. He goes further to give the following characteristics of a vision: Clear specific and realistic statement of accomplishment and outcomes, not strategies or activities, written in the present tense of how the organisation looks upon reaching the vision, a challenging level of achievement but not over challenging with a reasonable time frame.

Business mission Ray (2000) defines a mission statement as a written expression of an organisation‟s philosophy, purpose and characteristics. He explains that a mission is a brief clear statement of the purpose of the organisation or the function of the organisation.

Ray states that this statement of purpose describes the primary business or thrust of the organisation and its reasons for being. According to Ray (2000) the mission statement should answer the following three questions which are: what is the business of the organisation? For whom is the organisation in business? And how does the organisation

fulfills its function? According to strategic.gc.ca (2004) a mission statements outlines what the company is now. They argue that a mission statement focuses on today. In addition they also explain that a mission statement identifies the customer, identifies the critical processes and it states the level of performance. Kotelnikov (2000) on the other hand avers that a mission statement is an organization‟s vision translated into written form. He goes further to argue that a vision makes concrete the leader‟s view of the direction and purpose of the organisation. This statement shows clearly the inseparable relationship between a vision and a mission statement.

Core values/guiding principles According to Strategic Alignment Inc (2002) values are part of culture and are stated preferences and the actual behaviour of people and how people act and how things are done. Orans (1996) describes values as those things that really matter to each of us, the ideas and beliefs we hold as special, such a caring for others and freedom to express our opinion. Kanhukamwe and Zvomuya (2006) give a more comprehensive description of values by saying that values represent a statement of care, beliefs and convictions. The above definitions seem to lead to several conclusions including the following. The descriptions suggest that values establish moral and ethical principles that serve to guide activities. In addition it can also be concluded that values describe what is right and wrong, important and unimportant. Values are concerned not only with self regulation but also with interpersonal conduct. Lastly the literature reveals that values are universal and impartial, and examples include sportsmanship, justice, freedom, equality, fairness, fair play and others. According to Farrah et al (2011) values are also called guiding principles. These values state the association‟s intentions and expectations. They are used to judge the association‟s policies and actions, as well as

individual conduct. Farrah argues that associations should include values such as: the importance of customers and customer service; commitment to quality and innovation; importance of honesty; integrity and ethical behavior; corporate citizenship; respect for the employee and the duty the association has to its employees; and importance of safety and protecting the environment.

Strategic aims and goals Thetimes100 (1995) defines a business aim as the goal a business wants to achieve. The Strategy Unit (2004) states that “as the desired state of the future are described in the vision, strategic aims and objectives are therefore needed to define those things that need to be achieved in order to bring it about”. The strategic Unit emphasizes that a small number of broad aims need to be supported by a range of more specific objectives defined over the short, medium and long term. They argue that at this stage the primary concern is 'what' needs to be achieved rather than „how‟, which will be more fully addressed through policy design. However, they note that some broad appreciation of the policy packages that might deliver each objective will help to ensure that realistic objectives are set. In addition, some sense of the likely level of support for each idea will provide an indication of its chances of success. Ray, (2000) is of the opinion that goals are derived from the mission statement; they are general statements of intent. McNamara (n.d) on the other hand expresses that goals are general statements about what an organisation needs to accomplish to meet its purpose or mission and address major issues facing the organisation. McNamara goes further to argue that goals need to be both long-term and short-term. Six months, one-year, three years, and ten-year goals need to be set so that the strategy for reaching these goals can be outlined in the plan. It can be noted from the literature reviewed that most authorities recommend setting

the long-term goals first and then setting short-term goals i.e. those goals which can be reached as steps to attaining the long-term goal. However Kelly (2008) thinks that objectives and goals are interchangeable. He describes goals as the ends toward which effort and action are directed or coordinated.

Strategic objectives According to thetimes100, (1995) a business objective is a detailed picture of a step you plan to take in order to achieve a stated aim. The Business

Directory.com (2011, p: 1) cite Drucker (2004) as saying: strategic objectives are, in general, externally focused fall into eight major classifications: (1) Market standing: desired share of the present and new markets; (2) Innovation: development of new goods and services, and of skills and methods required to supply them; (3) Human resources: selection and development of employees; (4) Financial resources: identification of the sources of capital and their use; (5) Physical resources: equipment and facilities and their use; (6) Productivity: efficient use of the resources relative to the output; (7) Social responsibility: awareness and responsiveness to the effects on the wider community of the stakeholders; (8) Profit requirements: achievement of measurable financial well being and growth. Smith and Malaba (2001) express that once the organisation has set its vision and mission, the next stage in the process is to set strategic objectives, which represent management‟s commitment to achieving specific outcomes and results. These two authors go further to say that it is important to note that objectives that an organisation sets for itself should be related to the mission statement of the organisation. Objectives can be set for all key areas that an organisation is involved in. Smith and Malaba (2001) cite

Thomson and Strickland (1999) as pointing out that for objectives to function as yard sticks of organizational performance, they must be stated in quantifiable terms and must

contain a deadline for achievement. Thetimes100 (1995) also emphasize that objectives need to be SMART in order for the business to know what progress it has made towards achieving the objective. Thetimes100 (1995, p: 1) defines the acronym SMART as follows: Specific which refers to clear and easy to understand, measurable which means able to be quantified, achievable which imply possible to be attained, realistic which means the objective must not be a pie in the sky and time bound which is associated with a specific time period. While other authors talk about setting SMART objective The

Strategic Unit (2004) emphasize that it is important to set objectives that are: suitable, feasible and acceptable and they define these terms as follows: Suitable - addressing key issues and able to deliver desired outcomes, Feasible - achievable with potential organizational and system resources, Acceptable - with the support of those with the authority and influence to legitimize. It is apparent that both authors are in some form of agreement as the strategic Unit describes a SMART objective in similar but alternative sort of way.

Corporate strategy Strategic Alignment Inc (2002) defines strategy as “the direction and scope of an organisation over the long term, which achieves advantages for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a changing environment to meet the needs of markets and fulfil stakeholder expectations.” Nickols (2003) presents and highlights Minzberg‟s five dimensions of strategy commonly referred to as the five Ps of strategy. The first “P” refers to strategy as a plan. According to Nickols when strategy is referred to as a plan it is a unified, comprehensive and an integrated plan designed to ensure that the basic objectives of the enterprise are achieved. The second “P” refers to strategy as a ploy. Nickols explains that as a ploy, strategy takes us into the realm of

direct competition where threats, feints and various maneuvers are employed to gain advantage. The third “P” as Nickols avers, refers to strategy as a pattern which is specifically a stream of actions. The fourth “P” refers to strategy as a position which is a means of locating the organisation in what organizational theorists call the environment.

The fifth “P” refers to strategy as perspective where it‟s content consists of not just a chosen position but an ingrained way of perceiving the world particularly in as much as perception shape and guide decisions and actions. According Smith and Malaba (2001), crafting a strategy is the how of achieving the proposed plan. They explain that objectives are the ends and the strategy is the means. They further argue that when an evaluation of a company‟s strategy is done, one has to start with a solid analysis of the internal and external situation of the organisation. Strategy has to be both proactive (intended) and reactive (adaptive) because reality rarely turns out as planned. Crafting a strategy is a deliberate process.Pettigrew, Schendel, Van de Ven, Chakravarty and Doz, (1992) are cited by Gibsbert (2002) as arguing that the three generic steps in the strategy making process (envisaging, conceiving, and realizing) were derived from a review of existing work in the strategy process realm. They state that process research in strategic management is concerned with how effective strategies are shaped within the firm and how they are then efficiently implemented. The Small business-marketing-plans.com

(2007) also recognize the existence of offensive and defensive strategies .They cite Kotler and Singh (1999) as having identified five offensive and six defensive strategies which are named after military strategies such as offensive warfare and defensive warfare.

Strategy implementation and execution Hanver is cited by 1000ventures.com as asserting that “The vision must be followed by the venture. They emphasize that “it is not

enough to stare up the steps, we must step up the stairs.” mystrategicplan.com avers that implementation is the process that turns strategies and plans into actions in order to accomplish strategic objectives and goals. They argue that implementing a strategic plan is as important, or even more important, than the strategy. The critical actions move a strategic plan from a document that sits on the shelf to actions that drive business growth.

Sadly they observe that the majority of companies who have strategic plans fail to implement them. Mystrategicplan.com concurs with the above authors and goes on to identify five key components necessary for effective strategic implementation but which are often overlooked. The five key components are, people, resources, structure, systems, and culture”. The above writers stress that all components must be in place in order to move from creating the plan to activating the plan. According to Glatstein (2006) it is only half of the success to develop a good strategy. Execution is equally important, since it can make or break the best strategy. Glatstein (2006) goes on to cite Hrebiniak (2001) as saying that many of today's top executives are far better at developing strategy than executing it and overcoming the political and organizational obstacles that stand in their way.

Strategic control Gregory et al (2005) explain that the strategic control step involves evaluating performance, reviewing new developments and initiating corrective adjustments of the strategic plan. They go further to suggest that organizations must have effective strategic controls if they are to successfully implement their strategies. They also further emphasize that strategic control includes systems that exercise both informational control and behavioral control. They identify two approaches of informational control, namely the traditional approach and the contemporary approach. The first approach which

they term traditional is highly sequential. In this approach goals and objectives are set then implemented and after each set period of time performance is compared to the desired standards. In contrast the contemporary approach is much more interactive. It involves continuous monitoring of the internal and external environment while managers determine whether the strategy itself needs to be modified. The day to day contemporary approach is required given the rapidly changing conditions in virtually all industries.

Behavioral control on the other hand is described by Gregory et al (2005) as a process where a firm strives to maintain a proper balance between culture, rewards and boundaries

Gregory et al also argue that organizations that have strong positive cultures and reward systems can rely less on boundaries such as rules, regulations and procedures. When individuals in the firm internalize goals and strategies, there is less need for monitoring behavior as efforts are focused more on important organizational goals and objectives.

Behavior control attempts to ask if the organisation is doing things right in the implementation of its strategy.

Strategic Planning Summary

Most of the literature agrees that a formal strategic planning process is important for successful development and implementation of a strategic plan. While the processes outlined by various authors may differ, the conclusion is that the use of a process aids in the development of a strategic plan. Additionally, many researchers (Bloom, 1986;

Lorange & Vancil, 2000; Mintzberg, 1978; Ruocco & Proctor, 1994; Sevier, 2003) suggest that effective strategic planning processes include an environmental scanning component. It is generally agreed that strategic planning attempts to match an organization‟s strengths with the opportunities that exist in the changing environment.

Similarly, matching of the organization‟s weaknesses with external threats can help organizations to anticipate future challenges and to develop strategies to protect against these challenges. In fact, this environmental component that requires departments to anticipate changes in order to capitalize on opportunities is what differentiates strategic planning from more traditional long-range planning. Long-range planning, once considered a sufficient planning tool, involved simply extending current operations into the future and adjusting them moderately based on an internal assessment of the organization‟s strengths and weaknesses. Significant changes to the environment, however, motivated organizations to add an environmental scan to the planning process which led to the adoption of strategic planning. The role of individuals in the planning process was also discussed in the literature review. Much of the literature agrees that leadership is an important part of a successful planning initiative. If a leader is committed to strategic planning then the organization is likely to be committed as well. It was also identified that leadership in the planning process is not simply delegation of the planning function to the organization‟s planning unit. Many researchers suggest that planning is more effective when employees, or those who will be asked to implement the strategies, are involved in the development of the plan. Leaders are encouraged to involve members at all levels of the organization in the planning process. Research suggests that these employees are then more motivated to make the implementation of the plan effective and successful. This section ended with a cautionary note about the heavy reliance on a defined process for planning. Reliance on a specific planning process can mean that organizations miss opportunities and threats that exist outside of that process. Contrary to much of the literature, Mintzberg (1978) identifies that some strategies are not clearly

defined; they emerge, rather, as decisions are made and organizations change. These emergent strategies may not be defined in the planning process, because they are unknown at the time, but still may have an important effect on the success of the organization. The challenge for planners is to remain open to strategies that may emerge, and opportunities and threats that may exist, even though they were not identified through the planning process.

TRANSITION FROM THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Many researchers identify the early 1980‟s as the period of time when strategic planning was adopted by the public sector (Berry, 1994; Bryson, 2004; Eadie, 1983; Eadie &

Steinbacher, 1985; Poister & Streib, 1999). There is debate, however, about the reasons that caused public organizations to adopt private sector strategic planning. Bryson (2004) credits the numerous and difficult economic and social challenges faced by public organizations as the reason for their reliance on strategic planning. Bryson writes, “Not surprisingly, we have seen sustained attention to governmental and nonprofit organizational design, management, performance, and accountability as part of the process of addressing these and other concerns” (p. 3). Berry (1994) identifies the economic recessions of 1981-83 and 1991-92 as the catalyst behind the adoption of strategic planning in the public sector. As the recession sent state budgets into the red, government leaders looked to the private sector for answers and found ideas such as contracting out services, private-public partnerships, and management tools such as Total

Quality Management and strategic planning. Berry provides evidence of the prominent adoption of strategic planning by noting that at least 264 state agencies initiated strategic planning between 1980 and 1991. Eadie and Steinbacher (1985) attribute the growing

popularity of strategic planning and management in public organizations in the 1980‟s to a “planning vacuum” that existed. The authors note that long-range planning in the public sector was traditionally internally focused and the resultant plans were merely extensions of operational, unit level plans.These plans did not address the significant environmental changes that impact strategic decisions. By recognizing this flaw in the planning process, public organizations were motivated to evaluate the planning processes used in the private sector. Eadie (1983) attributes the growth of strategic planning in the public sector to pressures that result from “resource scarcity and service demands”. Birnbaum (2000) also identifies pressure as a catalyst for higher education to adopt strategic planning. He notes the pressure that higher education institutions face to become more efficient and more productive and writes, “In response, many have attempted (either voluntarily or under mandate) to adopt new management systems and processes that were originally designed to meet the needs of (presumably) more efficient business and governmental organizations”.Wilkinson and Monkhouse (1994) recognize public sector organizations‟ efforts to improve their outputs and provide increased value for money as their reason for turning to strategic planning. These themes, in particular, sound familiar to members of the higher education community and intercollegiate athletics. Athletic departments also are dealing with efforts to improve outputs and the quality of the products they produce

(graduating student-athletes, competing for championships, etc.) and at the same time contain costs to increase the value of the athletic department to the higher education institution. Much as traditional public organizations, governmental and non-profits, turned to strategic planning, higher education institutions and their athletic departments also adopted strategic planning, at least partially, to address these similar pressures. Birnbaum

(2000) moves beyond the reasons for adopting strategic planning as he attempts to document the path, or “life cycle,” of strategic planning (and other management fads). He notes that as the news of the “successful implementation of a management innovation” begins to spread beyond the original sector, organizations in different sectors adopt the innovation with hopes of achieving the same success that was realized in the original sector. Birnbaum stresses that individuals play a significant role in the adoption process because they are important for spreading the news of the successful implementation in the original sector and linking new sectors to the management innovation. Birnbaum describes this by writing: This suggests that a major vector of management innovation in higher education may be boundary spanning individuals with homophilous identities in both the nonacademic and academic sectors. These might include business leaders or legislators serving on higher education boards of trustees, college presidents and other academics appointed to business boards of directors, members of professional associations formed at least in part to maintain linkages between higher education and external groups, academics who read journals in multidisciplinary areas, such as business or human resource management, and consultants who solicit clients in both the education and non education sectors.

Applying Strategic Planning to Public Organizations

While strategic planning has become popular in the public sector, there is debate on whether strategic planning in its private sector form can be applied to public organizations. Bloom (1986) depicts this divide as he writes, “Although no one appears to rule out the applicability of strategic planning, some suggest that the differences between the public and private sectors are significant enough that any strategic approach to public

sector planning requires extensive adaptation” (p. 256). Some of these differences include: the political environment of the public sector, the involvement of external constituents, the difficulty of implementing plans, and the lack of organizational autonomy (Bloom, 1986). Bryson and Roering (1988) identify that “the more numerous stakeholders, the conflicting criteria they often use to judge governmental performance, the pressures for public accountability, and the idea that the public sector is meant to do what the private sector cannot or will not do, all militate against holding government strategic planning practice to private-sector standards” (p. 1002). Eadie (1983) echoes this question of applicability by identifying that “successful application is a matter of careful tailoring to the unique circumstances of a particular public organization” (p. 447).

He goes on to write, “A boilerplate approach, in short, is likely to prove inadequate, if not fatal, and the organization that knows itself well and adapts its planning approaches accordingly is far more likely to experience success in planning”. Vinzant and Vinzant

(1996) address the issue of organizational autonomy and its effects on the planning process of private and public organizations. Organizational autonomy is generally considered an important condition in strategic management implementation because organizations having significant autonomy are able to implement successful change when necessary. Private and public organizations typically differ in their level of organizational autonomy which affects the planning process. Since public organizations tend to be restricted in their autonomy by statutory and fiscal constraints, these organizations face unique challenges when engaging in strategic planning. Wilkinson and Monkhouse

(1994) support this position as they acknowledge that it is not uncommon for executives in public sector organizations to have their powers constrained by statute and regulation.

Intercollegiate athletic departments, which operate within higher education institutions, face additional constraints particular to higher education. Higher education institutions typically incorporate a principle of shared governance which limits organizational autonomy of colleges and universities even more significantly than governmental and other public organizations. The restricted autonomy and the involvement of more individuals in processes and decisions, makes strategic planning challenging in the higher education setting. Streib (1992), after identifying the importance of leadership to the strategic planning process, questions whether the public sector possesses the level of leadership necessary to succeed. Streib attributes this, at least partially, to the difficulty in maintaining a shared vision among elected and appointed officials who change frequently due to elections and staff changes. Streib and Poister (1990) discuss public sector limitation in terms of strategic capacity and question whether public organizations are able to compile the information necessary for the completion of a strategic plan. While continuity of leadership certainly can help an organization maintain a consistent vision which would, in turn, help the strategic planning process, one could argue that the authors‟ questioning of leadership and strategic capacity within public organizations is too general and fails to acknowledge individual levels of leadership and strategic capacity. It is safe to assume that just as there are strong and weak leaders in the private sector, there are also strong and weak leaders of public organizations.

STRATEGIC PLANNING IN INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

The literature supports the use of strategic planning as a management tool in the dynamic environment of intercollegiate athletics. Sutton and Migliore (1988) convey this concept well by writing, “Intercollegiate athletic programs present a logical application target for

strategic long range planning because of the necessity of the athletic administrator to be future focused in terms of acquiring, managing, and allocating resources in a changing environment” (p. 233). It is quite puzzling then that while the field of sport management has produced a broad array of literature since the early 1980‟s, this area of study has been especially void of studies concerning strategy and strategic planning (Thibault, Slack, &

Hinings, 1994). In fact, this research found only four studies that analyzed strategic planning by athletic departments belonging to the NCAA. The first was a study by

Wright et al. (1995) that examined strategy from the perspective of a single program – intercollegiate basketball. This study is limited in its applicability to an entire athletic department since the strategies of a single program are much more simplistic than the complexities required of planning for a multiple sport athletic department. The second, a study by Kriemadis (1997), examined the extent to which strategic planning was being used by Division 1 athletic departments and identified barriers that discouraged athletic departments from engaging in strategic planning. The third study, conducted by Yow et al. (2000), was a comprehensive study of strategic planning by intercollegiate athletic departments and resulted in the seminal work on this topic. The final study, by

Cunningham (2002), compared the strategic type of the athletic department with the organizational effectiveness of that department. The Yow et al. (2000) study offers the most comprehensive literature on strategic planning in intercollegiate athletics. Yow et al. found that strategic planning by intercollegiate athletic departments has many of the same virtues as planning in the private and public sectors and in higher education. The authors outline the value of planning in college athletics: Planning has many advantages. For example, it helps athletics department administrators to adapt to changing environments,

take advantage of opportunities created by change, reach agreements on major issues, and place responsibility more precisely. It also gives a sense of direction to staff members as well as providing a basis for gaining their commitment. The sense of vision that can be provided in a well-written plan also instills a sense of loyalty in those associated with the athletics department.Ferkins and Shilbury (2012: 68–69) provide a comprehensive review of the research periods reflecting interest in board strategic function. They identify initial interest questioning the desirability of a board‟s involvement in the strategic function; a subsequent period influenced by agency theory and focusing on “matters of conformance” and structure; and finally a third period with a move towards pluralism in the debate and an emphasis on context and process. In an earlier study, the researchers found “general consensus” that boards have a “performance” role (i.e. a forward-looking role) as well as a “conformance” role (i.e. the monitoring and accountability role) (Ferkins

& Shilbury 2009: 272–273). It is the former that is addressed in the current study, as it highlights the role boards have to play in the strategic management of their organisations.

Ferkins et al. (2010: 606) found that board members perceive their contribution to the strategic development of the organisation as central to their role. In fact, according to

Ferkins et al. (2009: 245), greater board involvement in strategy can advance the board‟s ability to perform its strategic functions. These authors also propose that further investigation into the ongoing contribution by board members to strategy development would becritical to the understanding of governance. This is echoed by Winand, Rihoux,

Robinson and Zintz (2012: 5), who indicate that the involvement of board members of such organisations in strategic planning is a key performance driver. Edwards and

Cornforth (2003: 187–201) provide three categories to map a board‟s strategic

contribution, namely inputs (i.e. compositional features), processes (i.e. organizing and running the board) and context (i.e. institutional influences). An overview of research in this field reveals limited attention to these categories broadly, and in particular in the

African environment. It seems that the structure and composition of such boards has not received much research attention (Ferkins et al. 2005: 212), and secondly that empirical investigations of the roles that board members actually fulfill in their sport organizations are equally sparse (Yeh & Taylor 2008: 40; Hoye &Doherty 2011: 273). No research was found on the role of African sport boards (and in particular in relation to global sport organizations), which reveals limited attention to the third category of „context‟ as well.

Thus, the input, process and context of the boards of African sport organizations will be placed within the larger body of work according to each of this categories.Ferkins ET al.

(2005: 212) suggest that sport researchers have not specifically dealt with the structure and composition of sport boards. However, recently this is changing with demographic characteristics such as board composition being linked with outcomes associated with good corporate governance (Rutherford & Buchholtz 2007: 580). Size also attracted attention in studies regarding board size; Taylor and O’Sullivan (2009: 688) report the optimum size to be between five and 12 members. Given the use of board demographic characteristics as proxy measures for board vigilance (Rutherford & Buchholtz 2007:

576), the composition of the boards of sport organisations should be considered to gain further insight into governance. Finally, governance practices and board composition may also be influenced by requirements set by global sport organizations (GSOs) that control sporting codes globally. Understanding the board composition of ACA affiliates could enhance the knowledge of this characteristic of an NSO‟s board operation. Regarding

board roles, a comprehensive literature review by Yeh and Taylor (2008: 37–38), based on previous empirical studies, found that boards of sport organizations have 11 different roles, namely: to (1) develop, formulate and monitor strategies; (2) formulate policies; (3) enhance the public image of sport organizations; (4) review and monitor managerial activities and performance; (5) report to members and stakeholders; (6) employ, evaluate, provide advice and reward executives; (7) ensure organizational compliance with related legislations; (8) manage financial resources; (9) develop a risk management plan; (10) conduct self-assessment; and (11) initiate board development activities. Firkins and

Shilbury (2012: 69) concur and indicate that recent understanding of a board‟s strategic function has moved beyond compliance and monitoring, and that boards are now regarded as necessitating “involvement in all phases of the strategic decision-making process”.

However, no research on the roles of African sport organizations or the involvement of boards in the strategic management process could be found. An understanding of the current conceptualization of the role of boards of African sport organizations and their alignment to developments in other contexts would be beneficial in advancing the field of sport governance in loco. Global sport organizations (GSOs) are supreme organs of governance in sport, with global authority. Pre-eminent among the GSOs are organizations such as the International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), the

International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Rugby Board (IRB) and the

International Cricket Council (ICC). These bodies are respectively the supreme governing bodies for football, the Olympic Games, rugby and cricket (Forster 2006: 72). GSOs can impose a variety of governance and administration practices on affiliated national members. Adherence often allows access to resources, funding and commercial

opportunities (Hoye & Doherty 2011: 274). Exploring the relations between ACA affiliates and the ICC as a global sport organisation could help in understanding the challenges faced by stakeholders of such organisations. The practice of good governance is thus multidimensional and the outcome of a complex set of activities, processes and relationships.

Indian Cricket

Throughout history, sport has aroused the interest of the scholarly and artistic alike. The significance of games is embedded in the ancient Greek philosophies of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle (Skillen, 1993), while William Shakespeare and Theophile du Viau, among others, used sport as a metaphor for warfare, politics and sexual conquest in their plays and poems of the fifteenth century (Segrave, 2000). Sport, most notably cricket, continued to feature in prose throughout the Victorian era in the work of distinguished writers such as William Blake, William Wordsworth, Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope,

George Meredith and James Joyce (Bateman, 2009). The nineteenth century saw sport emerge as an overt and legitimate subject in the field of anthropology, beginning with the publication of Sir Edward Burnett Tylor‟s „The History of Games‟ in 1879, and followed up by articles written by James Mooney and Stewart Culin (Blanchard, 2000). Since then, sport has infiltrated a plethora of academic disciplines. For example, “sociology, philosophy, psychology and history, each have their sport-related sub-discipline” (Bale,

2000: 171), while sport is also researched within faculties of medicine, nutrition, law and statistics. Geography has not been immune to this proliferation of sport within academe, although Bale (1989) argues that the relative paucity of published work in the area pre-

1970 shows that geographers took longer than practitioners of other disciplines to

embrace sport as a valid subject of academic pursuit. In the ensuing years, however, a considerable amount of writing has emerged which examines sport from a geographical perspective (Bale, 2003). This burgeoning literature on „sports geography‟ becomes the initial focus of this review, as it seeks to define and legitimize the broad theoretical framework underpinning this research. Having established a framework of „sports geography‟, this review will then attempt to situate cricket in India therein, arguing that the processes of colonialism, post-colonialism and globalization that have shaped the present landscape of cricket in India are inextricably linked to the fundamental principles of the „sports geography‟ framework. The other body of literature which informs this research is „development‟, and more specifically the inter-sub disciplinary concept of

„development through sport‟. While this concept has been gaining prominence over the past two decades (Kidd, 2008), efforts remained largely disparate until the Secretary-

General convened a United Nations (UN) Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for

Development and Peace in July 2002 (Beutler, 2008). The subsequent publication of

„Sport for Development and Peace: Towards Achieving Millennium Development Goals‟

(UN, 2003) provided the catalyst for a more coalescing approach to „development through sport‟, and much has been written since. This review charts the progress of this literature, exploring the merit of the „development through sport‟ concept as it is implemented in developing countries worldwide. While the volume of literature on the concept has expanded in recent years, its application in India is largely ignored. As such, this review will conclude by discussing the concept of „development through sport‟ in the context of

India, arguing that the wealth and identity currently attached to cricket in India presents it as a potentially powerful tool for development in the country‟s disadvantaged

communities. It is this argument, coupled with the dearth of current literature, which ultimately provides the motivation for this research. Sports geography

Peter Haggett (2001: xxiii) described geography as “the Los Angeles among academic cities” in that it spreads over a very large area, merges with its neighbors, and has a central area that is difficult to find. His description is in clear reference to the number of sub-disciplines attached to geography, which in turn has led some geographers to argue that it is becoming overly fragmented (see for example: Dear, 1988; and Johnston, 1996).

Dear’s (1988) argument that some sub-disciplines are less central than others is particularly pertinent to this review. He states that economic, social and political geography have priority in the search for geographical knowledge, adding that the geography of sport is not central to the structure and explanation of such knowledge.

However, Bale (2000) argues that sport is political, social and economic and is therefore a part of each of the three geographies prioritized by Dear. Indeed, Philo (1994: 2) states that sport could be: exceedingly helpful as we try to unravel the mysteries bound up in how geographical knowledge is constructed outside of the academy, and in how the everyday senses that people possess of themselves, their societies and their worlds have rolled into them sensations of bodies in movement through immediate surroundings as well as feelings of commonality sedimented in collective events, games, rituals and spectacles which so often embrace a sports component. While Rooney (1975: 51) states that “geographic analysis can help to create a better understanding of sport‟s significance to society”. Further, in an attempt to provide clarity to his aforementioned analogy,

Haggett (2001) suggests that geography is basically concerned with the broad concepts of space and place; concepts which Bale (2003) argues are similarly central to sport. He

states that both geography and sport are: concerned with space and the way that it is occupied; they both focus on the way people move and interact in geographic space; regions form a central feature in the organisation of sports; places are the means of identifying most sports teams; sport is affected by, and increasingly affects, the physical environment and landscape; sport is a world of territoriality and hierarchies. In short, sport – like geography – is a spatial science (Bale, 2003: 2). It is apparent in the sentiments of both Philo and Bale that a geographical exploration of sport holds some legitimacy, the direction such exploration has taken is examined further in the following paragraphs. While „sports geography‟ is generally considered a recent addition to geography‟s stable of sub-disciplines, antecedents to the current interest in sport, space and place do exist (Bale, 2003; see for example: Reclus, 1876; Huntington, 1915;

Hildebrand, 1919; and Lehman, 1940). Indeed, the concept of a „sporting geography‟ was first alluded to in 1911 when Baron Pierre de Coubertin noted that „there is an athletic geography that may differ at times from a political geography‟ in arguing that nations, not countries, should compete in the Olympics (Muller, 2000). However, John Rooney’s

(1975) Sport from a Geographic Perspective was the first real attempt to provide a theoretical framework for the geographical exploration of sport. He suggested three approaches: first, a topical approach which starts with a sport and classifies the location of its prototypes and points of origin, its spatial diffusion, spatial organisation and regionalization; secondly, a regional approach which analyses the spatial variation and regionalization of involvement and interest, the internal and external spatial interaction associated with sport, an assessment of sports‟ impacts on the landscape, and directions for spatial reorganization; and thirdly, an approach which focuses explicitly on the

shifting landscape of sport through time and the impact of changes in sport technology.

Bale (2000) argues that Rooney‟s framework, while useful in supporting the geographical analysis of sport, could be used for the analysis of virtually any terrestrial phenomena as it largely ignores the geographical concepts of space and place which are intrinsic to modern sport (Bale, 2000: 173). As such, Bale (2003) proposed his own framework, stating that „sports geography‟ is principally concerned with the exploration of: first, sports activity on the earth‟s surface and how the spatial distribution of sport has changed over time; second, the changing character of the sports landscape and the symbiosis between the sports environment and those who participate in it; and third, the making of prescriptions for spatial and environmental change in the sports environment (Bale, 2003:

5). Despite Bale‟s earlier critique, the similarities between his framework and that of

Rooney are marked. Both include topical, regional and environmental elements, with

Bale‟s nuanced integration of space and place being the main point of difference. Thus the framework proposed by Bale can be viewed as a refinement of, rather than an alternative to, Rooney‟s earlier attempt. Many other geographers have used sport to illustrate geographical ideas (see for example: Gattrell and Gould, 1979; Pred, 1981, 1995; and

Harvey, 2000), while others have used geographical ideas in their research of sport (see for example: Giamatti, 1989; Springwood, 1996; and Eichberg, 1998), yet Rooney (1975) and Bale (2003) remain alone in their attempt to present a theoretical framework for the geographical exploration of sport. In many respects this highlights their pre-eminence in the field, indeed no-one has contributed to the sub-discipline of „sports geography‟ to the same extent. Bale (2003) describes Rooney as the „father‟ of modern „sports geography‟, and his 1975 publication of Sport from a Geographic Perspective as „seminal‟ to the

discipline, while Bale‟s Sports Geography has been labeled discipline-defining (Higham and Hinch, 2006). Given the influential nature of their work, and the absence of other attempts to conceptualise „sports geography‟, Bale‟s refined version of Rooney‟s framework provides the theoretical structure for the geographical exploration of cricket in

India that follows.

A geographical exploration of cricket in India

The English invented and honed many of the world‟s most popular sports including football, rugby and hockey (Wood, 2005), as Charles Tennyson (1959) noted „they taught the world to play‟. But “of all the sports they gave birth to, cricket is the one which the English themselves recognize and uphold as their national game…The rules of cricket, and still more its ethos, most fully embodied the self-image of the Victorian elite” (Guha,

2002: xi). How then, did this most English of sports become entrenched in Indian culture

“to the extent that it has been playfully asserted that cricket is an Indian game invented in

England” (Mangan, 2004: 335). This section seeks to provide an answer, drawing on

Bale’s (2003) framework for the geographical exploration of sport to explain firstly, how the spatial distribution of cricket worldwide has changed through processes of colonialism and post-colonialism, and more specifically how these processes have shaped cricket in

India; and secondly, the changing character of the cricket landscape through the process of globalization, or in the words of Haigh (2008: 13) “the Indianisation of cricket”.

Inherent within this discussion is the argument that the geographic principles implied in

Bale‟s framework are inextricably linked to the present landscape of cricket in India. The spatial distribution of cricket throughout the world is intrinsically linked to British colonization. This point is illustrated by British historian James Pycroft, who in 1851

noted that: Our soldiers, by order of the Horse Guards, are provided with cricket grounds adjourning their barracks; and Her Majesty‟s ships have bats and balls to astonish the cockroaches at sea, the crabs and turtles ashore. Hence it has come to pass that, wherever

Her Majesty‟s servants have „carried their victorious arms‟ and legs – cricket has been played (cited in Arlott, 1948: 63). The fact that participation in cricket at the elite level is still confined to former British colonies in the twenty-first century is further testament to the influence of colonialism (Kaufman and Patterson, 2005). In the context of India, the introduction of cricket through colonialism is clearly evident in that its first mention dates to 1721, when British sailors played a match among themselves in the port of Cambay (de

Mello, 1959). Further, Headlam (1903) contextualized the prominence of cricket within

British colonialism, and in doing so, conveyed its unifying merits. He stated: first the hunter, the missionary, and the merchant, next the soldier and the politician, and then the cricketer – that is the history of British colonization. And of these civilizing influences the last may, perhaps, be said to do the least harm. The hunter may exterminate deserving species, the missionary may cause quarrels, the soldier may hector, the politician blunder

– but the cricketer unites, as in India, the rulers and the ruled (Headlam 1903: 168). In more recent years, cricket in colonial India has been discussed by many, of whom

Ramachandra Guha and Boria Majumdar have emerged most prominent. Their work in no way denies colonialism as the source of cricket‟s existence in India, indeed they reiterate this point, but their views on its ability to unite are far more critical. Guha (1997) argues that cricket served as much to divide as to unite ruler and ruled in colonial India.

Indeed, Guha‟s (2002) book A Corner of a Foreign Field, which remains the most complete social history of cricket in India, is principally concerned with exclusion from

cricket by race, caste and religion throughout British rule. Majumdar (2004), in contrast, is more subtle in his critique. He argues that cricket crossed class barriers leading to the democratization of cricket, which ultimately pre-empted the democratization of polity.

However, he too conceded that strict socio-economic stratification existed throughout the colonial period. The citation of Guha (1997, 2002) and Majumdar (2004) above is by no means an exhaustive account of the influence of colonialism on cricket in India. Their work does, however, reflect the dominant themes within the literature (see for further examples: Bose, 2002; Kaufmann and Patterson, 2005; and Majumdar, 2007, 2008), and therefore serves to highlight how the advent of colonialism not only introduced cricket in

India, but altered its distribution in space and place once there. When India was partitioned in 1947: Anglophobe nationalists called for the game to disappear along with its promoters, the British. In this they were spectacularly unsuccessful. What was previously an urban sport had penetrated deep into the countryside (Guha, 2002: xii). If anything, the end of colonialism strengthened the hold that cricket had over India. Cricket became more representative of Indian society as opportunities opened up amongst its middle classes and underprivileged sections, which in turn strengthened cricket‟s appeal to the masses (Docker, 1976; Cashman, 1979). Indeed, since partition, cricket has become one of the most coalescing features of Indian identity (Nalapat and Parker,

2005). This point is highlighted by Guha (2002: xiii), who states: The doings of the national cricket team are followed all over the country. The best players enjoy the iconic status otherwise reserved for Hindu gods and film stars. Their faces peep out of highway billboards; on television they commend all kinds of consumer products. The Bombay batsman Sachin Tendulkar is perhaps the best-known Indian, as well as one of the

richest…When Tendulkar is batting against the Pakistani swing-bowler Wasim Akram, the television audience exceeds the entire population of Europe. This emergence of cricket as India‟s dominant national symbol has led Nandy (2000) to assert that cricket is truly an Indian sport discovered in England, a contention that Stern (2003) argues becomes more prescient year by year. Having become entrenched in India through processes of colonialism and post-colonialism, cricket has been further shaped in recent decades by globalization, which Schech and Haggis (2000) define as the intensification of global interconnectedness in which one of the key features has been the flow of ideas, technology and wealth from core to peripheral countries. Such globalization has been evident in cricket with the game‟s peripheral participants given increased representation, in terms of both playing and administration, from the 1980s. It has reached the stage now, however, where cricket in India has accrued such wealth and power through processes of globalization that it is no longer pertinent to speak of the globalization of cricket but, in the words of renowned Australian cricket writer Gideon Haigh (2008: 13), “the

„Indianisation‟ of cricket, where nothing India resists will occur, and everything it approves of will prevail”. This so-called „Indianisation‟ of cricket has been facilitated by two inter-related and concurrent factors which, while clearly having an impact on cricket, exist on a much higher level than the sport itself. First, since the mid-1980s, successive economic reforms progressively moved India‟s economy toward a market-based system.

This led to a dramatic reduction in state intervention and control over economic activity and increased the role of private sector entrepreneurship which, in turn, attracted Multi-

National Corporations (MNCs) to enter the Indian market in droves (OECD, 2007).

Second, the birth of the satellite television industry in the late 1980s allowed a true global

sporting audience to emerge beyond newspaper articles and occasional radio broadcasts

(Oliver and Gillies, 2007). As the number of dedicated sport networks grew, so too did the demand for programming. Consequently, international satellite networks latched onto cricket because there was a global interest and, with each over lasting only 3-4 minutes, it was particularly well suited to advertising (Gupta, 2009a). With the aforementioned economic liberalization increasing the presence of MNCs in India dramatically, and thus introducing a plethora of new products and services into India; and the recognition of

India as the largest cricket market in the world, cricket in India became an extremely lucrative proposition for satellite television. A point highlighted by Marqusee (1996: 20) who stated: Because of its vast popular base, cricket in the subcontinent is an ideal vehicle for multinational corporations seeking to penetrate „emerging markets‟. And, thanks to satellite television, sub continental cricket can be used to sell goods in Europe, North

America, the Middle East, and South-East Asia. As a result, international satellite channels went directly to the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) to devise a broadcasting agreement, placing a great deal of wealth and decision-making power in the hands of the BCCI and, in doing so, changing the shape of international cricket (Ninan,

1995; Metha, 2009; Gupta, 2009a). While cricket‟s new world order has manifested in numerous ways in the ensuing years, the most overt expression of India‟s new found wealth and power occurred in 2007 when, somewhat surprisingly, its national team won the inaugural World Twenty20 Championship in South Africa. Whereas India had previously considered Twenty20 trivial compared with cricket‟s more traditional formats

(five-day test matches and limited over one-day matches), highlighted by its decision to leave a number of high-profile players out of its squad for the global tournament, its

victory created a surge of interest in the abbreviated three hour version of the game.

India‟s Zee Television, which had earlier been denied the rights to broadcast an official

Indian cricket series, created the Indian Cricket League (ICL) to enhance its programming

(Gupta, 2010). The ICL, a Twenty20 league made up of young Indian prospects and international „has-beens‟, threatened the hegemony of the BCCI, so they responded by creating the Indian Premier League (IPL). With sanction from the International Cricket

Council (ICC), the IPL was able to offer unprecedented salaries, US$1.5million in the case of Indian captain MS Dhoni, for what amounted to a six week tournament

(Viswanath, 2008). The ability of the BCCI to provide the capital to quell the threat of the ICL, almost overnight, is ample evidence of its financial clout. But perhaps more indicative of the „Indianisation‟ of cricket is the influence that the BCCI was able to wield in the fallout of what Rob Steen (2010) labeled the „acronym war‟. Within weeks, the

BCCI had sacked Kapil Dev, India‟s World Cup winning captain in 1983 and champion of the ICL, as chairman of the National Cricket Academy (Steen, 2010). It also put pressure on national cricket boards, as well as the ICC, to punish players who played in the ICL, a directive with which most boards were only too willing to comply (Gupta,

2009b). Indeed in September 2008, the Bangladesh Cricket Board announced ten year bans for eleven of its national team who opted to compete in the unauthorized ICL (Steen,

2010). Besides being an example of the wealth and power accrued by the BCCI through the „Indianisation‟ of global cricket, the advent of the IPL has also strengthened this position with the tournament projected to “bring the BCCI income of US$1 billion, over a period of five to ten years, reinforcing its status as the richest board in world cricket”

(Pandya and Jayswal, 2010: 128). This is further highlighted by the fact that the IPL,

while drawing from a global talent pool, does not require a global television market to turn a profit. Such is the wealth involved in Indian cricket that domestic level advertising revenues, ticket sales and merchandising are more than adequate to make the IPL financially sustainable (Gupta, 2010). Indeed, Kelso (2008: 6) highlights the financial impact of the IPL in his comment that: Theatrical, wildly hyped, and hugely lucrative, the auction was a watershed moment for the IPL and the international game. In the last month, before a ball has been bowled, the League has raised $1.8 billion, more than the

ICC will receive for the next two world cups. Despite the financial successes of the IPL, many have argued that the so-called „Indianisation‟ of cricket will have dire ramifications for the game at the international level. Such critiques include, but are not limited to, strained relations between member states and between national team mates as they compete for bids in the IPL (Kelso, 2008); players opting out of international cricket to become free agents on the Twenty20 circuit (Gupta, 2010); and a higher incidence of the insidious match-fixing (Pandaram, 2010) and corruption (Bajaj, 2010). Such arguments, however, are beyond the scope of this research. Instead, this chapter will now switch focus to development, and ultimately to how the „Indianisation‟ of cricket, for better or worse has created conditions conducive to the implementation and analysis of

„development through sport‟ initiatives in India.

„Development through sport‟: an emerging literature

The „sports geography‟ framework provides the theoretical justification for a geographic exploration of cricket in India, but it is its merging with the relatively entrenched academic sub-discipline of „Development Geography‟ which provides the scope. The concept of „development through sport‟ has existed for a number of years, but its

implementation remained relatively ad hoc until the publication of the UN‟s Sport for

Development and Peace: Towards Achieving the Millennium Development Goals in 2003

(Beutler, 2008). Since then, initiatives that seek to advance social and economic development through sport have increased in the theory and practice of international development (Black, 2010). As such, the UN‟s (2003) publication provides a platform from which the embryonic literature on „development through sport‟ is discussed. The

UN‟s (2003: v) Sport for Development and Peace: Towards Achieving the Millennium

Development Goals states that: The fundamental elements of sport make it a viable and practical tool to support the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. Sport has an impact on health…and serves as an effective tool for social mobilization, supporting health activities such as HIV/AIDS education and immunization campaigns.

Sport can be a significant economic force, providing employment and contributing economic development… Sport also provides healthy alternatives to harmful actions, such as drug abuse and involvement in crime. Within schools physical education is an essential part of a quality education…sport can cut across barriers that divide societies, making it a powerful tool to support conflict prevention and peace- building efforts, both symbolically on a global level and very practically within communities. When applied effectively, sports programmes promote social integration and foster tolerance, helping to reduce tension and generate dialogue. The convening power of sport makes it additionally compelling as a tool for advocacy and communications. In sum, this publication outlines the positive impacts that sport can have in the key development areas of health, education and the economy, as well as the influence it can have in achieving social integration and resolving conflict. In doing so, it advocates the incorporation of sport into the

development policies of national governments, as well as the development agenda‟s of national and international development agencies. While the report published by the UN

(2003) extols the virtue of incorporating sport within development policy, it offers little supportive evidence in terms of results from past initiatives. This is due, in part to the embryonic nature of the „development through sport‟ concept at the time of publication, but also the absence of „development through sport‟ from development theory literature

(Levermore, 2008). Since the publication of the UN report, however, a „development through sport‟ literature has begun to emerge, within which some studies have explored the implementation of specific „development through sport‟ initiatives, and have discussed their merit. The most comprehensive of these studies is that of Levermore

(2008), who discusses numerous „development through sport‟ projects ranging from

„Sports Coaches Outreach‟, which trains volunteers to use sport to facilitate capacity building in rural communities across Southern Africa, to the „Sport Health Programme‟ in

Sierra Leone, which employs local labor forces to make durable leather footballs with

HIV/AIDS and malaria messages on them, before distributing them to the country‟s disadvantaged communities. He found that sports are linked to a diverse range of development initiatives ranging: From generalized [sic] strategies (for instance imprecise notions on empowering economic development or unifying countries) – to specific programs (such as alleviating the socio-economic impacts of cross-community conflicts, as well as promoting education and health and, in particular, heightening awareness of

HIV/AIDS (Levermore, 2008: 188). Similarly, Kidd (2008) discusses the growing number of national and international agencies involved in „development through sport‟ projects, arguing that they have brought significant benefit to countries where it is

implemented; while Willis (2000) and Wamucii (2007) specifically focused on the

Mathare Youth Sports Association in Kenya, arguing that its development initiatives have resulted in diverse outcomes ranging from the removal of rubbish from slums in Nairobi to the improvement of youth leadership skills. Thus, evidence in support of the UN‟s

(2003) assertions as to the potential of sport in development is slowly beginning to emerge. Within the „development through sport‟ literature, however, very little has been written regarding the implementation, or even potential, of „development through sport‟ projects in India, and even less about the use of cricket. It is argued here that the present level of wealth, power, and global television exposure currently attached to cricket in

India, coupled with its status as one of the most coalescing features of Indian culture, presents it as a potentially powerful tool for development in India. The relative dearth in the literature, therefore, provides the scope for this research which, as such, broadly aims to explore „development through sport‟ in the context of cricket in India. While the lack of discussion regarding India or cricket within the „development through sport‟ literature provides the scope for this research, critical engagement with what has been written on

„development through sport‟ in a broader context provides the three specific research questions that. As previously mentioned, studies have shown that sport has had some success in African communities, by utilizing local resources in the identification, formulation, and implementation of small, community-level projects (Willis, 2000;

Wamuccii, 2007; Levermore, 2008). Given that the „development through sport‟ literature is, thus far, devoid of information regarding the use of cricket in development in India, In addition to the implementation of „development through sport‟ at a community level,

Levermore (2008) suggests that major sports clubs and organizations also have a role to

play. To highlight this point, he alludes to the involvement of English football club

Manchester United in a scheme designed to highlight problems affecting children throughout the world, and the involvement of FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football

Association) in building sporting Infrastructure in lower income countries. Further, Smith and Westerbeek (2007) discuss the idea of sport being used as a vehicle for deploying

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), arguing that: sport offers a bridge across social and economic gaps, an opportunity to improve the quality of life, and a stimulus to encourage large and profitable businesses to share a little of their prosperity (Smith and

Westerbeek, 2007: 1). Similarly, Levermore (2010) argues that sport is a useful tool in the employment of CSR in some situations, proffering the CSR strategies of large companies such as BHP Billiton, BP, Nike and Vodaphone, and sporting organizations such as Major League Soccer, as examples of its success. Thus, this thesis‟ second research question seeks to understand the role that cricket authorities and their commercial partners have in the formulation and implementation of development projects in India and, again, why they have intervened in this way. While the first two research questions are based on positive appraisal within the „development through sport‟ literature, the third is based on a constant critique. As previously mentioned, the UN‟s

(2003) assertion regarding the power of sport in development is slowly beginning to gain evidential support, but Kruse (2006) argues that positive links between sport and development remain largely intuitive. He argues that this is due to insufficient monitoring and evaluation of programs that use sport for development purposes, an assertion supported by Beutler (2008), Kidd (2008), Levermore (2008, 2011) and Coalter (2009,

2010a). This is further compounded by what Coalter (2010b) describes as a widespread

failure to specify the precise nature of the desired outcomes, while Hartmann and

Kwauk (2011) suggest that any evaluations undertaken thus far have aimed to legitimize international organizations and lobbies, rather than proving the actual value of sport in development. As such, Beutler (2008), Kidd (2008), Levermore (2008, 2011), Coalter

(2009, 2010a, 2010b), and Hartmann and Kwauk (2011), among others, have all discussed the need for further evaluation of the impacts of „development through sport‟, both positive and negative, to determine the extent and nature of its potential, and bridge the considerable gaps in current knowledge. As such, discussion around the efficacy of

„development through cricket‟ in India will include a comparison of the actual development outcomes accrued in cricket-related projects with the potential developmental benefits of sport previously outlined; the engagement of CSR within cricket-related development projects in India; and the level of evaluation. Another key element from the literature regarding the efficacy of „development through sport‟ is the potential of mega sporting events to generate development in their host regions. Critique of event-driven boosterism is well established in academic literature, with history suggesting that mega sporting events have done little to generate economic growth and infrastructural or social development when hosted in developing countries, despite promises to the contrary (Hall, 1992; Kidd, 1992; Essex and Chalkley, 1998; Eisinger,

2000; Page and Hall, 2003; Hiller, 2004; Matheson and Baade, 2004; Whitson and Horne,

2006; and Black, 2007, 2010). The most recent attestation to this is provided by Black

(2010: 126) who stated: There is already evidence, for example, that community-level sport and social development are being compromised by South Africa‟s pursuit of the trapping externally defined and validated modernity through its hosting of the 2010 FIFA

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World Cup. And thus Black raised the question: “what would a truly developmental

World Cup or Olympics, privileging the needs and interests of marginalized communities, look like?” (Black, 2010: 126). India‟s co-hosted the 2011 Cricket World Cup impacted through a major cricket tournament on the development initiatives. The UN (2003) argues that the popularity of sports stars allows them to effectively reach diverse audiences as well as attract media attention, while Beutler (2008) suggests that elite sports people have the ability to mobilize civil society and communicate essential messages. Black (2010), however, is more measured in his assessment of sporting celebrity in development, highlighting the need to engage athletes with a genuine belief in the cause they are promoting. Further, Darnell (2007) suggests that star power is often not particularly useful because of western hegemony in elite sport, arguing that western athletes are of little personal or cultural significance in developing countries, and thus people find them difficult to relate to. He goes on to suggest, however, that cricket is unique because many of its superstars come from developing countries, particularly India. As such, the impact of elite cricket players on development in India can also be explored.

IPL and Strategic Management

Literature linking premier league matches and general sports growth in developing nations such as India is scant. This case study will attempt to fill this vital gap. Borooah and Mangan [13] have written about IPL franchising, investment and other commercial terms. Sufficient literature exists to link sports, premier leagues and social development in developed nations.Sports development and involvement of youth is a vehicle for social development and helps to improve socially deprived youth, to reduce juvenile crime and promote health and well-being. The United Nations has recognized the impact of sports as

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a means for people to reach their true potential and to reach personal and community objectives [14]. Professional league sports such as football help to develop the overall sports involvement of children and school students in nations such as UK, Germany,

France and Japan. In these nations, professional league clubs often take up social development as a part of the corporate social responsibility [15]. In the developing world, women look at sports as a method to converge their interest for growth, in creating safe places and building social assets for young women. Sports are a tool in community regeneration, social inclusion and reconstruction efforts in conflict situations. Poor regions of Kenya, Egypt and Nairobi have shown this progress. The involvement of international agencies and NGO activities tend to help girls from conservative backgrounds to take up sports since sports now acquire a legitimacy and social acceptance that was not present before [16]. Ratten and Ratten [17] have discussed how international marketing principles can be used to market sports events. Sports at the local levels are linked to CSR, tourism, entrepreneurship and this is an optimum area that needs to be further examined when the success of IPL has to be replicated in other sports.

McDonald [18] presents details of a research in Australia on a study of 3700 season ticket holders of football games. The research shows that interest in overseas football league games had an important role in the successful development of local Australian soccer league. Madichie [19] has researched the manner in which Premier English Soccer sees globalization with a number of foreign players and even foreign owners of clubs accepted by English fans. Obviously, good and skilled football players and huge investments, made fans ignore the foreign origins of the players. Even IPL games of India show this pattern where foreign players of a franchise are cheered when they score against star Indian

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players of another franchise. Obviously, club allegiance for the fans becomes more important than national patriotism [20]. Coates and Humphreys [21] however do not agree that professional league games help a community or a city to increase revenue.

Their argument is that the huge expenditure incurred in construction of stadiums and other infrastructure offset any gains made by the community in renting out the stadium and other facilities to other event managers.

Team Dynamics and Importance of Strategic Management

In defining a team, much of the literature offers the view that a team is characterized by being a collection of two or more individuals. It is, however, important to go deeper in order to differentiate a team from, say, a group. In making this distinction, Cohen and

Bailey (1997) and Guzzo and Dickson (1996) suggest that it rests on the identification and recognition of the team as being a social entity not only by members of that team but also by outsiders. Cohen and Bailey go further and suggest that identification may be developed through a team having a clear purpose that is shared and accepted by all members and understood by outsiders. Again, what may differentiate a team from other collections of individuals is the issue of interdependency. Mattieu et al (2000) suggest that central to any team are “people who interact dynamically, interdependently and adaptively” where both the actions of individuals and the behavior and outcomes of the collective, are determined by the relationships within, and constituents of, the team. This view of teams as “complex, adaptive and dynamic systems” (McGrath et al, 2000, p. 95) means that the study of team composition is a necessarily complex one. Le Pine et al

(1997) suggest that this complexity is the product of the vertical and horizontal characteristics of the team where vertical characteristics refer to issues of power

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distribution within the team and horizontal characteristics refers to the distribution of expertise. This suggestion that a team will be a hierarchy with different elements of knowledge, skills and abilities distributed across it is reasonably common across much of the literature and, for example, gives rise to Salas et al’s (2000) different dimensions across which the nature and working of a team can be analyzed. These different dimensions include the capacity of the team to adapt to both internal and external changes, the monitoring of team and individual performance, how teams are led and managed and the roles of communication and decision making in team processes. One of the most popular analytical models used in the investigation of team dynamics is the input-process-output (IPO) model (see, for example, Barrick et al, 1998) which suggests that what is achieved by any team is the result of the relationship between the elements which go into creating that team and what happens inside the team. The key issues for the inputs of the team include the attributes of its members, the number of members and how they are structured and organized along with the goals of the team and rewards that may accrue from meeting those goals. Like Salas et al, Barrick et al suggest that some of the key process issues are communication, leadership and conflict management. McGrath et al develop this point further and suggest that the results obtained by any team are the results of a number of dynamics. For example, at the broadest possible level, the contextual dynamics of a team determines the size and depth of the talent pool on which the team can draw their member which, in turn, shapes the global dynamics of the team and how variables such as status, leadership and performance influence outcomes. Finally, the local dynamics of the team considers the activities carried out by different elements within it. In analyzing half a decade of team research, Bettenhausen (1991) suggested

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that there will always be more questions than answers about what makes for an effective team and that any judgments will always be influenced by the type, location and purpose of the team under examination. This uncertainty is reflected by Barrick et al who argue that whilst “the composition of the team has long been hypothesized to influence team processes and outputs” it is still the case that “little is known about the relationship between team composition variables and team effectiveness”. This theoretical and empirical deficiency is, however, not universally accepted. Guzzo and Dickson, for example, argue that the effectiveness of any team is determined by a combination of design, process and operating conditions and conclude that “team effectiveness is well served by diverse members”. This view is shared by Katzenbach (1997) who also identifies key issues in team effectiveness such as purpose, the skills mix, commitment and accountability. In discussing effectiveness, Cohen and Bailey argue that team composition is one of the most important factors. Internally, composition matters because it plays a fundamental role in a series of design activities which may determine the overall role that the team is to play: The interactions between members, what Cohen and Bailey call “process factors”, and the shared understandings of members, “psychosocial factors” are crucial in the ability of the team to meet any challenges from external turbulence.

Stevens and Campion (1994) suggested that a useful way of thinking about this composition dimension is in terms of knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs). Diversity is an important issue and the recognition that each individual member of the team will have a different blend of KSAs, some of which can be characterized as “interpersonal” such as collaboration and communication and some as “self-management” such as goal setting and task co-ordination. Woodman et al (1993) examine these composition issues in the

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specific context of creativity and note that, as an outcome, team creativity “is not the simple aggregate” of its members but it is “clearly a function of the creativity of individuals”. In examining how teams are created, Barry and Stewart (1997) offer a perspective based around how individuals make contributions to teams in which they are members. Elaborating on the IPO model, they suggest that the inputs required by any team will fall into two categories: First, task inputs which involve the productive needs of the team such as ensuring that individuals fulfill their own roles and responsibilities and, second, socio-emotional inputs which focus more on the people aspect of the team and involve the facilitation of interactions. Jackson (1992) goes further and identifies three broad areas where how a team is assembled will have a significant effect; the ability of the team to be creative, the ability of the team to solve problems and the ability of the team to execute the task for which it was formed. Reagans et al (2004) develop this issue of blend further and draw attention to two significant barriers to getting the right blend of people. First are political barriers whereby circumstances may dictate the inclusion or exclusion of certain individuals and, second, there are resource barriers whereby the pool of KSAs available to any organisation will always be limited. Team composition is a central feature of much of the literature on team processes especially in the areas of team diversity and its impact on what teams achieve and how they achieve it. For example,

Wiersema and Banter (1992) discussed the issue of diversity in relation to how it may affect teams in four areas: The receptivity of the team to change, the willingness of the team to take risks, the openness of the team to different perspectives and the ability of the team to act in an innovative or creative manner. Wiersama and Banter’s conclusions were that each of these were affected by the diversity of the team without there being any

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hard and fast rules about what those effects would be. This lack of clear conclusions is echoed by Harrison et al (2002) who suggest that “paths linking work team diversity to team functioning and performance outcomes are complex”. The main cause of this complex relationship is the evidence that diversity has both positive and negative effects on team processes and outcomes. On the one hand, evidence suggests that low levels of diversity can have a positive effect on team cohesion (see, for example, Perretti and

Negro, 2007) but can have a negative effect on creativity, innovation and excitement (see, for example, Stahl et al, 2007). Harrison et al identified two main types of diversity which have been the focus for much research in this area. Diversity has been examined in demographic terms through, for example, the age, gender or race of team members. It has also been examined from the perspective of psychological diversity and issues such as the personality, values, attitudes and beliefs of team members. In examining demographic diversity, Hambrick et al (1996) suggest that young and highly educated teams may be more innovative whereas psychologically diverse teams tended to have a higher propensity for action. Hambrick et al concluded that, across these two types, “diversity enhances the breadth of perspective, cognitive resources and overall problem solving capacity”. The third type of diversity, which has appeared more prominently in the literature in recent years, is that of temporal diversity which focuses on the dual issues of how long a team has been together and how frequently new members are introduced into established teams (see, for example, Katzenbach). In both cases, low levels of diversity in stable teams has the benefit of improving team processes but the drawbacks of reducing creativity and the skill pool on which the team draws. In cutting across these types of diversity, we now turn to discuss the performance and competitive orientations of team

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members. Adcroft and Teckman (2008) define performance orientation in terms of the internal characteristics of any sporting team; “its collection of activities and systems and the way in which they are managed”. Thus a team with a high performance orientation will have a strong internal focus (Simons et al, 2000) which will tend to concentrate on the contributions of each team member. For example, Huddleston and Garvin (1995) argue that what matters is the effectiveness of individual contributions and processes much more than any collective or shared team outcome. Thus for both the managers and members of such teams, Stiles et al (1997) identify the importance of rehearsal and practice of set routines and patterns of behavior and the need for those teams to operate in relatively stable environments if they are to succeed. By way of contrast, Adcroft and

Teckman suggest that a competitive orientation is much more externally driven and focuses on the relationships between competitors in any given contest. This competitive orientation, rather than being concerned with team processes, is concerned with outcomes and what Ryckman et al (1997) describe as a need to “compete and win (and avoid losing) at any cost”.A competitive orientation is summed up by Gatignon and Xuereb

(1997) through the development of a competitive advantage by innovating and taking risks. In discussing performance and competitive orientations, three points are crucial.

First, teams will exhibit a blend of performance and competitive behaviors. Adcroft and

Teckman discuss this issue in terms of positions that any given team may occupy ranging from the ideal position where there are high performance and competitive behaviors to a worst position where low levels of each orientation are exhibited. Second, a team‟s blend of performance and competitiveness is determined by its membership which follows on from Woodman et al‟s conclusion about team characteristics being a function, rather than

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an aggregate, of its individual members‟ characteristics. Finally, the diversity of performance and competitiveness in a team cuts across the traditional lines of enquiry into diversity; it is a function of demographic, psychological and temporal diversity.

Literature Review and Gap

The Study of the Literature indicates that there is no study available in this subject especially- Strategic Management and Mumbai Cricket.

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Objective and Research Methodology

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Chapter 3

Objective and Research Methodology

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to understand the impact of Strategic Management of Mumbai

Cricket on Indian Cricket.

Importance of the Study

The study would help in identifying areas where Mumbai Cricket needs improvement to reach the exalted position in Indian Cricket. It would also help in identifying the role and the leverages that Mumbai Cricket could use to develop itself into a global brand.

Objectives of the Study

 To assimilate the facts about Mumbai cricket

 To analyze historical situations

 To analyze the management aspect of Mumbai cricket

 To study the impact /contribution of Mumbai cricket in Indian cricket

Limitation of the Study

One of the bigger challenges in this study was getting data with respect to Mumbai

Cricket and also talking to knowledgeable people who have an idea of working with the

MCA. Many published Data have been found to be unreliable and inaccurate. However this published information in spite of their unreliability has been used so that the direction and trend of the cricketing bodies could be easily understood. Recourse has been undertaken with respect to cross checking these published information through personal discussions with extremely senior leaders in cricket.

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The study is restricted to Mumbai and Navi Mumbai since Mumbai is considered to be the

Mecca of Indian Cricket. Mumbai is also the head offices of MCA and BCCI and hence

the father of Indian Cricket is located in Mumbai

Hypothesis

To pursue the proposed study, the following hypotheses are framed and their validity

tested through research techniques: