Identity, Discourse, and the Media: The Case of the Kurds by Jaffer Sheyholislami B.A. Honours, M.A., Carleton University A thesis submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Journalism and Communication Faculty of Public Affairs Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada August 10, 2008 ©2008, Jaffer Sheyholislami Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43911-1 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43911-1 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. 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Abstract This dissertation focuses on the interrelationships between national identities, discourses, and communication technologies in the context of Kurdish people. Informed by the interdisciplinary approach of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), the study investigates the ways Kurds use satellite television and the Internet to reproduce, construct, disseminate and articulate discursive and semiotic constructions of their identities. The television data consists of approximately 168 hours of Kurdistan Television (KTV) broadcasting, from August 6 to 12, 2005. The Internet data was accumulated over a decade of observation of Kurdish online activities and sources such as web directories, websites, chat-rooms, weblogs, forums and social networking tools (e.g. YouTube). The data are enriched by email interviews and personal communication with television viewers and Internet users and also by drawing on various media outlets reporting on the discourse practices and socio-cultural aspects of the media under investigation. The data are analyzed, interpreted and explained at three levels. At the discourse practice level, the types of television programs and internet constituents used for the practices of identity construction are mapped. At the textual analysis level, multimodal and micro analyses of verbal language, images and music are carried out. At the socio-cultural level, findings from the other levels of analysis are explained in light of the historical and political contexts that bear upon the discursive formation of Kurdish identities. The findings reveal that KTV's discourse practices are carried out within the ideological framework and political interests of its owner, Kurdistan Democratic Party, an organization that aspires to regional autonomy for Iraqi Kurdistan as opposed to establishment of Greater Kurdistan. Representations of pan-Kurdism are often subtle on KTV. The Internet, on the other hand, provides alternative communicative spaces for explicit and overt construction and reproduction of a cross-border and pan-Kurdish identity. Although there is not one single Kurdish identity, it can be said that within the last decade or so, Kurds from many places have started to learn more about themselves and their "Others" than they had ever known. In recent years, various socio-political developments, from the US led war in Iraq and Turkey's bid for membership in the European Union to the expansion of Kurdish diasporas, have transformed Kurdish communities. In addition, new communication technologies have enabled Kurds to begin overcoming the geographical and political barriers that have kept them apart and fragmented. As a result, since the mid- 1990s, alongside several regional Kurdish identities, a pan or cross-border Kurdish identity has been strengthening. It is suggested that the implications of this development can be significant for Kurds and the entire region. The findings also lend themselves to making more general observations. Far from being agents of only homogenizing the world, satellite television and the Internet have enabled non-state actors and marginalized minorities to reify both their regional and cross- border identities in multimodal discourses. The research has also suggested that the nation- state ideology which primarily conceives of a national identity as culturally and linguistically homogenous may no longer be tenable. Finally, the study calls for further investigation into the practices of identity formation as mediated by the discourses of new communication technologies in more local contexts. in To my wife Narmin, my daughters Hauna and Sarah, and my parents Khidir and Zeneb. And, to the memory of Hemin. IV Acknowledgments It is difficult to acknowledge everyone who has helped me in ways both small and large in completing this project. First and foremost, I offer my sincere thanks to the members of my thesis committee and the examination board: to my thesis supervisor and the Director of the School of Journalism and Communication, Dr. Karim H. Karim, for his invaluable counsel and guidance, his constant encouragement to perform to the best of my ability, and his critical and insightful feedback which demonstrated his keen interest in the significance of my research. My sincere thanks also to Dr. Ross Eaman for co-supervising my research so effectively at the earlier stages, for his ongoing support throughout the research process, and for encouraging my determination to achieve my academic goals; to Dr. Ellen Cray, who supported and encouraged me to continue my research over the years and provided generous critical input and meticulous editorial efforts at various stages of the writing of this dissertation; to Dr. Elliot Tepper for his insightful comments and suggestions as the internal examiner; and finally to Dr. Amir Hassanpour, the external examiner, whose pioneering research on Kurdish identity, language and media not only inspired my research but informed it in significant ways. His thoughtful, thorough and critical examination of this work proved an enormous contribution to the final product. I owe as well a debt of gratitude to the many others who helped me in crucial ways to complete this dissertation. Sincere thanks to my mentor, colleague and friend, Dr. Lynne Young, who was always generous with her time and provided vital advice on major aspects of this work, from initial methodological considerations through to the analysis stage. Thanks also to my friend and colleague, Jennifer Gilbert, who was exceedingly helpful and supportive throughout my research; each chapter of this dissertation has benefited from Jennifer's brilliant editorial and writing skills. In addition to Dr. Cray, Dr. Young, and Jennifer Gilbert, I owe thanks to many other colleagues and friends from the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies here at Carleton, who provided ongoing emotional and academic support over the years: Catherine MacNeil, Professor Ian Pringle, Tracey Poirier, Roxanne Ross, Julia Carey, Dr. Devon Woods, Dr. Randall Gess, Dr. Natasha Artemeva, and Dr. Graham Smart. I wish also to thank all those in the Kurdish communities who helped me with data collection, answered my many questions and provided important insights into my research on Kurdish identity and media. Some members of this group include Hassan Ghazi, Leyla (Tewar), Golper (Gulagenim), Beroj Akreyi, Nasser Sina, Behzad Naghib, Behroz Hasan, Berdeqani, A. Sohrabi, and Aram Ahmed. I acknowledge and thank also those whose names I cannot mention here. It is impossible for me to think of this journey without recalling the invaluable emotional and motivational support I received from so many friends. I sincerely thank Catherine MacNeil, Gafer Hossainpour, Hassan Ghazi, Ali Nanvazadeh, Marcy Balouch, Saladdin Ahmed, the Babaei family (Mohsen, Farideh, Asad, and Jalila), Kemal Musulchi, Hashem Ahmadzadeh, Taha Khaleyi, Mo Hadisi, Taha Hassaniani, Shirley Cameron, Dragana Polovina-Vukovic, Carrie Buchanan, Claire Harrison, and Rhonda Walker. Finally, I offer heartfelt thanks to my wife Narmin, who released me from many