Evolutionary Anthropology 17:245À249 (2008)

Crotchets & Quiddities

Joseph Adams in the Judgment of

Evolution’s remarkable little book 45 years before Darwin

KENNETH M. WEISS

In , the Trojan shep- herd-prince Paris was asked to decide who was the fairest of three competing goddesses, , , and (Fig. 1). Pandering to vested interests to win his vote, Hera offered Paris political power, while Athena offered him wisdom. But Aphrodite offered the love of , the face of beauty among mortals. As we all learned as high school stu- dents, at an age when we could eas- ily understand, he opted for sex, and abducted Helen back home to . The rest is history. The history of science also has multiple-choice stories to tell, but they’re real, not mythological. The idea that life was molded through historical processes involving natural selection is rightly credited to Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace, but historians have found others who anticipated the idea in various ways. There are many places, includ- ing Wikipedia, to find discussions of these people,1–4 and some of them, including Erasmus Darwin, Charles’ grandfather, are often briefly men- tioned in textbooks of evolution. The Figure 1. The Judgment of Paris: Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite? By Lucas Cranach the Elder, idea that the traits of organisms 1528. Public domain, from Wikimedia. could be changed by artificial breed- ing was widely accepted at the time Historians debate the contribu- His theory addressed the origin and and was highly influential to Darwin. tions of these progenitors. The main modification of species, but was vili- problem is that before Darwin most fied as mystical because his sug- natural philosophers, as biologists gested mechanism was the inheri- were then called, had a static view tance of characteristics that organ- Kenneth M. Weiss is Evan Pugh Professor of species in which their traits isms acquired as a result of what of Anthropology and Genetics at Penn could change but they could not they strove to do in their daily lives. State University. E-mail: kenweiss@psu. ‘‘transmute’’ into other species. Lamarck was, in fact, a materialist, edu Most prominent in the Darwinian not a mystic, but in any case his pre-Pantheon was Jean-Baptiste mechanism did not survive the Lamarck (1744–1829). He coined judgment of closer scrutiny.6 VC 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. the term ‘‘biology’’ for this branch Among other notable precursors DOI 10.1002/evan.20186 of knowledge and, in 1809, wrote was William C. Wells (1757–1817) Published online in Wiley InterScience 5 (www.interscience.wiley.com). his famous volume on evolution. who, in 1813, described the origin of 246 Weiss Crotchets & Quiddities

the best ones reproduce. Matthew context and antecedents. Historians took his ideas to the next level, sug- have unearthed relevant contribu- gesting that descendants of favor- tionsbymanyotherwriterswhose able individuals might ‘‘in several degree of anticipation (or not) of generations, even become distinct modern evolutionary biology have species, incapable of co-reproduc- been debated at length.1,3,4,9 There tion.’’ This work was obscure and are understandable reasons for the unknown to Darwin, but when Mat- endless debate. It is impossible to thew wrote to complain and claim get completely into the minds of credit, he was given grudging ac- people who wrote before Darwin’s knowledgment in later editions of and Wallace’s ideas became com- Origin of Species. monplace. Antecedents cannot be Edward Blyth was a physician expected to have had exactly the who argued some of these same same thoughts, although they did points quite explicitly. In 1959, our come very close. Equally important, prominent anthropological forebear, if we have declared Darwin and Loren Eiseley, wrote a long article Wallace to be our heroes, then there suggesting that Darwin, who knew are reasons, intentional or other- Blyth and had read his work, had wise, to lessen the insight attributed Figure 2. Joseph Adams. Reproduced with cribbed key ideas from him without to predecessors who, necessarily, the kind permission of the President and credit.8 However, subsequent study had to express ideas in terms of Council of the Royal College of Surgeons their own times. The main point, of England. of Darwin’s notebooks has made this allegation untenable,4,9 at least in which isn’t disputed, is that evolu- the eyes of Darwin hagiographers.10 tionary ideas were in the air. But human racial variation in terms of They say this for two reasons. One now I want to add another name to natural selection for disease resist- is that Darwin’s ideas developed the list, a man who seems to have ance. He, like Darwin decades later, gradually, rather than coming in a been wholly unknown to historians proposed a blending theory of inheri- flash as they might have if reading of evolutionary biology. tance that led him to suggest that Blyth’s papers had turned on the racial variation had to adapt as a light. The other is that Blyth, like MONSIEUR PORTAL’S BAD form of group selection because most others, saw selection as a ADVICE intermarriage between groups was means of removing the unfit to keep observed to blend away their distinc- the species static in its highly In the early 1800s, educated people tive traits.4 He recognized that selec- adapted form—what we would call were quite concerned about the he- tion would favor ‘‘accidental varie- purifying selection today. He did not reditary nature of disease, especially ties...which would occur among the proffer selection as a positive adapt- ‘‘madness.’’ In 1808, a French physi- ... inhabitants of the middle regions ing force that screened randomly cian, Antoine Portal, published a 12 of Africa’’ that conveyed disease arising variation to produce new treatise on hereditary diseases. resistance.20:435 In that sense, he, species. This reflected a heightened interest unlike Lamarck, saw selection as Darwin acknowledged these and in heredity in France at that time, an choosing opportunistically among other authors, though of Blythe only interest that later spread influentially 13 randomly arising variations. Wells for other contributions to biology. to other parts of Europe. Portal’s extended his idea to other species, He even credited his American corre- popularly accessible work fed fears but not to the origin of new species. spondent, C. L. Brace, great-grandfa- among people who had diseases like In 1831, a British forestry agrono- ther of our own C. Loring Brace (the madness in their families and, given mist, Patrick Matthew (1790–1874), IVth), with bringing Wells’ work to the typically large families of the wrote appendix material for a work his attention. In Darwinism, a paean time, many did. They feared that if on means of growing the best tim- to his friend,11 Wallace gave scant they had children they would pass ber for the Royal Navy’s ships, the credit to any predecessors, whose on the curse to their descendants masts that launched the ships that views were, in his judgment, ‘‘either and hence to posterity. maintained the British Empire.7 He altogether obsolete or positively This attracted the attention of a referred explicitly to many of the absurd’’ (p. 5) because they did not British apothecary-turned-physician core ideas of evolution. A ‘‘law - adequately address the transmuta- named Joseph Adams (1756–1818); versal in nature,’’ he wrote, adapted tion of one species into another. Of (Fig. 2). As a physician, Adams was the physical and mental powers of the authors discussed earlier, he well-regarded by his British contem- organisms to their conditions. The mentioned only Lamarck, whom he poraries, though he seems to have way to mimic nature to advance the immediately dismissed because his been an irritable fellow who liked Navy was not by immediately har- ideas did not ‘‘satisfy naturalists.’’ recognition but not criticism and vesting the best timber, but by sys- It does not demean Darwin in any wished he were in the Royal Soci- tematically culling lesser trees to let way to dig hard to understand his ety.14,15 However, he was not in the Crotchets & Quiddities Joseph Adams in the Judgement of Paris 247

Adams recognized that the prob- external event, what today we call lem of these somber beliefs in Paris environmental or life-style factors. was a confusion of traits that family He pointed out that if the exposure members might share by reason of factor were known and avoided, the contagion with traits that are truly trait would not arise and the person hereditary. In 1814, responding to need not worry about transmitting it this misleading popular science, to his or her children. He even Adams wrote a short book of his noticed that some traits, like gout, own (Fig. 3).16 He tried to clarify were consequences of sedentary or the nature, meaning, and origins of wealthy life styles; these are known hereditary traits. In a prescient way, today as the diseases of ‘‘western’’ 45 years before Darwin’s Origin of modernization.17 Madness could be Species,hedid. a disposition or a predisposition, Adams argued that just because but since no one could detect its several family members have a dis- preclinical manifestations one could ease does not mean that it is herit- not determine whether environmen- able or that everyone in the family tal factors were necessary in every has the bad seed and will transmit it. case or not. Far from being a clear- Because of the mass confusion in cut risk that people should be so concept, he made major distinctions fearful of that they refrained from that in their main points are per- reproducing, Adams said that mad- fectly modern today. He distin- ness is never hereditary except as a guished between congenital disease susceptibility and that predisposing Figure 3. Adams’ book.16 present at birth and disease that is environments can, in principle, be likely to have later onset. He recog- altered to prevent the disease. After nized the skipping of generations of all, babies are not born insane and what we now know as recessive dis- even insane people have moments of social inner circle and his scholar- ease relative to the more predictably sanity. ship had little influence in his time inherited pattern of dominant Whilewenowknowthatthereare or since. Perhaps in a cranky mood, disease. exceptions, his is precisely the kind Adams read but did not like what he Diseases that occurred in families, of distinction we make in modern saw in Portal, which he felt was con- but only in one generation, Adams disease genetics except that modern fused, nonspecific, and hence mis- called ‘familial’, arguing that they technology is making it possible to leading to the public and science were unlikely to be inherited. He then detect carriers of predisposing geno- alike: ‘‘A caution ill-directed is a said that truly hereditary diseases fall types. This, we hope, will help iden- greater evil than no caution at all, into two categories that reflect notions tify predisease states or triggering inasmuch as it supersedes inquiry, of we would call ‘penetrance’ today, exposures. It is clear today that by interrupting the common order of that is, the probability that a person many genetic disease susceptibilities facts, and lulls us into an ideal secu- has a disease given that he or she has are far less dangerous than their rity, when we have not advanced a inherited a particular genotype. triggering life styles are on their step towards so desirable an One category of hereditary disease own. Think of obesity and adult- 16:45 end.’’ After all, the ‘‘dread of involves ‘‘disposition’’ to the disease, onset diabetes, which were far less being the cause of misery to poster- meaning the inheriting person will common last a few decades ago. ity, has prevailed over the most laud- manifest the trait at some age even in Those forms of ‘‘McDonalditis’’ able attachment to a beloved object; the absence of other external causes. appear to have a genetic component, and a sense of duty has imposed celi- Think of Huntington’s disease. The but one that generally confers far bacy on those who seemed by nature earlier or more severe a case, the less risk on its own than do these the best constituted for the duties of more likely it is to have a truly hered- exposures, regardless of genotype: a parent!’’ (p. v). Such people were itary component. Adams correctly Eat light, exercise right, have sex if not mad, but were smart enough to noted that some life-history events, you want to, and skip the gene test. worry about their genes. Thus, peo- like puberty, are triggering stages for Adams noted that the same disease ple who were the best of the gene disease. Indeed, as they grow older, could have different causes in differ- pool might refrain from sex! members of affected families who ent families, another cornerstone of But what is genetic? Keep in mind remain unaffected can confidently be modern genetics. That is one reason that this was well before our modern judged to be ‘‘as safe as the descend- that we maintain disease registries age, in which we can send a cheek ants from other families’’ (p. 39). as an important epidemiological tool swab to a host of ‘‘DNA-me!’’ compa- Adams called the other category a today. Adams suggested that they be nies who promise to inform us of our hereditary predisposition. These kept so that physicians could be future or even that of our unborn inherited traits become manifest af- more properly informed about these children. ter exposure to some triggering various kinds of risk. 248 Weiss Crotchets & Quiddities

HOW THE TOUGH RAM these means a race is gradually society, or rather in its earliest for- GETS EWES’D reared with constitutions best calcu- mation, something of the same kind lated for the climate: a law which, I may prevail’’ (p. 32). Sociobiology is Adams justified his arguments by suspect, has been too much over- born! Indeed, Adams added a mod- evolutionary concepts. He wanted to looked, in our inquiries after the ern nuance by saying that in our ‘‘ascertain what provisions are made causes of the more marked varieties more ‘‘advanced stage’’ of human cul- by Nature to correct any apparent in the human species’’ (p. 33). People ture women, too, are favored if they deviations in the human race’’ (p. from one ‘‘race’’ do not always do are healthy and intelligent. Selection 11). He said that his ideas on the well when they move to a different is not all about men. evolution of differentiated varieties area. Adams noted that adaptation to Adams distinguished between applied to other species as well as to a new area builds gradually over the unimportant hereditary traits and human racial variation. generations. Indeed, he broached a those that selection would purge, One of Adams’ major insights was subject widely discussed today: Per- which we would respectively call that truly damaging hereditary dis- haps the ‘‘endemic peculiarities’’ we selectively neutral traits and traits eases like madness should be rare find in some ‘‘races’’ or geographic that affect Darwinian fitness. Even because their bearers do not repro- areas are due to a history of local Darwin was reluctant on this point, duce successfully. In this context, he adaptive selection rather than purely which is why neutral evolution is of- noted the harmful effects of close environmental causation. ten called non-Darwinian. Adams inbreeding. He also recognized the Adams perceptively related skin noted something well-known to related core issues of eugenics as color to sunlight exposure. He also breeders, which was even included in they arose a century later. The best noted that there are racial differen- the title of Wallace’s initial paper on people might be scared away from ces in cold tolerance. One of life’s evolution (his stunning letter to Dar- reproducing out of social conscience ironies is that if he had his wish and win). That is, without the pruning because there was madness in their had been a member of the Royal So- and management of artificial selec- families, and for many famous fami- ciety, he might have been present in tion, domestic species would revert lies of leaders and geniuses there 1813, the year before his book was to their ancestral type.19 was. But their restraint would cause published, to hear Wells read his pa- the loss of their good genes (as we per on the origin of human racial THE FORCE THAT LAUNCHED A would say today), which would be a variation. In that paper he suggested, devastating blow to posterity. But in the passage I quoted from earlier, THOUSAND SHAPES fortunately, purely genetic behavioral that dark skin color had evolved in Joseph Adams did not address the diseases are either inimical to repro- the ‘‘middle regions of Africa’’ as a Darwinian question of species ori- duction or are quickly fatal. Relatives byproduct of adaptation to some gins, but his analysis was explicit who are still healthy by a certain age tropical disease. Adams might have about long-term adaptation within can be reassured that they don’t have stood up at Question Time and our species. His ideas about the na- and won’t transmit madness to their expressed his more focused (and cor- ture of contemporary variation were children. They should carry on: Por- rect) explanation. Instead, history modern. His argument that serious tal’s fears were groundless. remembers Wells. traits that are present at birth are Adams was not unique among Dar- Adams extensively discussed the not likely to be purely hereditary was win’s precursors in understanding the inheritance and evolution of suscep- right on the money. Some are, of impact of this kind of purifying selec- tibility to diseases like scrofula and course, but they are usually rare. By tion against truly hereditary dysfunc- elephantiasis. He wrote before the the same token, most genetic suscep- tion, as we have seen. Indeed, if selec- theory of contagion was well estab- tibility confers far less than 100% tion were not operating, Adam’s said lished, but his ideas mixed contagion risk and usually requires environ- the accumulation of deleterious states and susceptibility. We know today mental exposures as well, rather than would eventually become universal. that not everyone is equally suscepti- dooming one, as Portal thought. But he also recognized that hereditary ble to infection, presumably in part Most genetic effects on normal varia- instances could arise de novo by what for genetic reasons. In fact, more tion are small, too. we call mutation. This occurs when a chronic diseases may have an infec- Darwin and Wallace were, to the case appears spontaneously in some- tious component than is suggested best of my knowledge, wholly one whose family has a negative his- by our current determination to unaware of Adams, though in many tory of disease, after which the dis- show that they are genetic.18 ways he was ahead of them in time. ease is seen in his or her descendants Adams said that his ideas applied He had a clearer understanding of over several generations. to behavioral traits in all gregarious the nature of the hereditary mecha- Adams went much further than animals. As any shepherd knows, nisms underpinning evolution, even the idea of purifying selection, stress- Adams said, ‘‘The strongest male if, as a physician, he did not discuss ing the importance of what we would becomes the vir gregis [loosely, the the transmutation of species. Still, call positive or adaptive selection. He toughest ram of the herd] and conse- history is a cruel mistress. said that environments such as cli- quently, the father of most of the off- I first learned of Adams in a con- mate put constraints on people: ‘‘By spring. In the ruder state of human versation with Arno Motulsky, a Crotchets & Quiddities Joseph Adams in the Judgement of Paris 249 leading medical geneticist of the last what’s in the air, but also the acquis- 5 Lamarck JBP. 1809. Philosophie zoologique, ou, Exposition des conside´rations relative a` 50 years who, himself, discovered itive and synthesizing ability to l’histoire naturelle des animaux. Paris: Chez Adams only by accident. While on amass large amounts of data to sup- Dentu et L’Auteur. sabbatical leave in London, he was port the case clearly and systemati- 6 Weiss KM. 2006. The clergyman’s wife and browsing the University College cally, as something we can test, the parrot. Evol Anthropol 15:3–7. 7 Matthew P. 1831. On naval timber and arbor- library and spotted an old book that argue over, modify, and apply. iculture. Edinburgh: A. Black. had never been checked out of the Nonetheless, it is interesting to see 8 Eiseley LC. 1959. Charles Darwin, Edward library.15 He realized the prescience how the other contestants, largely un- Blyth, and the theory of natural selection. Proc of Adams’ insights concerning medi- aware of each other’s work, but sniff- Am Philos Soc 103:94–158. 9 cal genetics. As a clinician, however, ing the same air, were also passing Mayr E. 1982. The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution, and inheritance. Motulsky did not give much recogni- judgments on the force that is re- Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. tion to Adams’ anticipation of evolu- sponsible for launching the beautiful 10 Gould SJ. 1987. An urchin in the storm. tionary theory.14,15 As far I have been shapes of nature. New York: W.W. Norton. able to tell, no one else has discov- 11 Wallace AR. 1912. Darwinism. London: Mac- ered this evolutionary thinking ei- millan. NOTES 12 Portal A. 1808. Considerations sur la nature ther. Historians of biology seem to I welcome comments on this col- et le traitement de quelques maladies he´redi- have missed him entirely. So I hope taires ou de famille. Memoires Institute Natio- that this column will install Adams, umn: [email protected]. I have a nale de France 8(Semestre 2):156–180. if not posthumously into the Royal feedback and supplemental material 13 Lo` pez-Beltra` n C. 2004. In the cradle of he- page at http://www.anthro.psu.edu/ redity: French physicians and L’He´redite´ Nature- Society, at least into the pre-Pan- lle in the early 19th century. J Hist Biol 37:39– theon of perceptive anticipators of weiss_lab/index.shtml. I thank Anne 72. evolution. Buchanan, Nina Jablonski, Jeffrey 14 Motulsky A. 1959. Joseph Adams (1756– 1818): a forgotten founder of medical genetics. The Judgment of Paris was about Kurland, Kat Willmore, Brenda Fraser, and John Fleagle for critically AMA Arch Int Med 104:490–496. beauty and possession. Paris’ choice 15 Motulsky A. 2002. The work of Joseph of the beautiful Helen as his mistress reading this manuscript. This col- Adams and Archibald Garrod: possible exam- launched the thousand Greek ships, umn is written with financial assis- ples of prematurity in human genetics. In: tance from funds provided to Penn Hook E, editor. Prematurity and scientific dis- leading to the cataclysm of Troy, covery. Berkeley, CA: University of California after which first abandoned State Evan Pugh professors. Press. p 200–212. the burning city, then abandoned the 16 Adams J. 1814. A treatise on the hereditary properties of disease. London: J. Callow. flaming love of Dido, his mistress. 17 Pollard TM. 2008. Western diseases: an evo- Aeneas went on to found and REFERENCES lutionary perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge thus transform Western history. We University Press. 1 Eiseley LC. 1958. Darwin’s century: evolution 18 Ewald P. 2000. Plague time: how stealth make our judgments in science, too. and the men who discovered it. Garden City, infections cause cancers, heart disease, and But it is far from clear that we would NY: Doubleday. other deadly ailments. New York: Free Press. choose a beautiful face over power 2 Mayr E. 1954. Change of genetic environment 19 Wallace AR. 1858. On the tendency of vari- and evolution. In: Huxley J, Hardy AC, Ford eties to depart indefinitely from the original or wisdom. We value priority (for EB, editors. Evolution as a process. London: type. Proc Linn Soc 3:53–62. which, to my knowledge, there is no Alleen and Unwin. p 157–180. 20 Well WC. 1818. An account of a female of the goddess). Darwin and Wallace win 3 Green JC. 1959. The death of Adam: evolution white race of mankind, part of whose skin resem- the Evolution prize because it was and its impact on Western thought. Ames, IA: bles that of a negro. In: Wells WC. Two essays, Iowa State University Press. London: Archibald Constable. p. 425–439. their ideas that transformed science 4 Gould SJ. 2002. The structure of evolutionary history. They had antennae for theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. VC 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Books Received

 Stark, M.T., Bowser, B.J., and  Cartwright, J. (2008). Evolution Human Molecular Evolution. Horne, L., Eds. (2008). Cultural and Human Behavior: Darwinian 1717 pp. Chichester: John Transmission and Material Cul- Perspectives on Human Nature Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0- ture: Breaking Down Bounda- (Second Edition). 448 pp. Cam- 470-51746-8. $590.00 (cloth). ries. 320 pp. Tucson: The Univer- bridge: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-  Falk, D. (2009). Finding Our sity of Arizona Press. ISBN 978- 262-53304-1. $36.00 (paper). Tongues: Mothers, Infants, and 0-8165-2675-8. $49.95 (cloth).  Arnold, M.L. (2009). Reticulate the Origins of Language. 219  Campbell, C.J., Ed. (2008). Spider Evolution and Humans. 233 pp. New York: Basic Books. Monkeys: Behavior, Ecology and pp. Oxford: Oxford University ISBN 978-0-465-00219-1. $26.95 Evolution of the Genus Ateles. Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953958-1. (paper). 410 pp. Cambridge: Cambridge $120.00 (cloth). University Press. ISBN 978-0-  Cooper, D.N., Kehrer-Sawatzki, 521-86750-4. $140.00 (cloth). H. (2008). Handbook of