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Spring 1990 Volume 23 Number6 GROWING CONCERN Published by The Australian Museum Trust BY FIONA DOIG 6-8 College Street, EDITOR Sydney, NSW 2000 Phone: (02) 339 8111 Trust President: Robyn Williams NEVER REALISED HOW MUCH RUBBISH sound rubbish when these are full? And Museum Director: Desmond Griffin Australians accumulate until I visited existing sites in Sydney have an esti­ EDITOR East Africa. Things like takeaway food mated life expectancy until only 1997. I Fiona Doig packagingI and plastic bags are rare luxu­ can imagine the outcries from residents SCIENTlFIC EDITOR ries. Old tyres are custom-made into that don't want the new garbage sites in Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. thongs; children produce imaginative toys their suburb. But it is still our rubbish and CIRCULATION MANAGER from coathangers, bits of string and cans. we are responsible for it! Cathy McGahey These people have so much less than We aren't given incentives to minimise ART DIRECTION us-yet are so much more resourceful. waste. There is little information and few Run Run Run Design Pty Ltd All bottles in East and Central Africa facilities. A very successful composting EDITORIAL ASSISTANT are reused. I was chased down a street in collection was set up in Holland that re­ Jennifer Saunders Tanzania. by an irate shop owner in­ duced the total garbage content of house­ TYPESETTING censed at my gall in removing a soft-Orink hold waste to such an extent that Excel Imaging PtyLtd bottle from the premises. Three burly individual households involved- received a PRINTING men came flying at me making sure I large cut in their garbage rates. A re­ Dai Nippon Printing Co., Tokyo, Japan never forgot the error of my ways. markably simple and worthwhile scheme. ADVERTISING This episode made me realise just how So why aren't we doing it? Such a scheme Wendy Symonds dependent we have become on garbage. could reduce up to a half of our total Lisa Rawlinson Imagine going back to deposit bottles. We domestic waste sent for landfill. (02) 339 8234 think we are being 'environmentally We don't always have to see garbage SUBSCRIPTIONS sound' by recycling glass. It strikes me as as waste. Often it can be a useful by­ Annual subscription (4 issues) silly to return one glass container only to product, an untapped resource. What Within Australia SA30 have it made into another. It might be a about all the methane generated by gar­ Other CountriesSA42 step up from throwing it away, but surely bage dumps (a good energy source that is Two-yearsubscription (8 issues) Within Australia SASS it is cheaper and more efficient to wash a used successfully overseas, and here pre­ Other countriesSA 78 bottle than to melt and remould it! viously)? As methane is a greenhouse gas, New subscriptions can bemade We still have deposit bottles, but only we should use it: the carbon dioxide its by credit card on the ANH toll-free in South Australia. The return rate there combustion generates is less environmen­ hotline 008-028558 or use the fonn in the is 85 per cent, compared with only 25 tally detrimental. The New South Wales back of the magazine. lf it has been per cent in other States. But they are not Waste Management Authority is seeking removed, send cheque or money order to the reused, just recycled. Imagine what a dif­ customers to establish facilities near land­ address above,made payable to the ference a large company like Coca Cola fills to utilise this cheap energy source. 'Australian Museum'. could make if it brought in a worldwide The amount of garbage is not our only Subscribersfrom other countries please policy that all its bottles are reusable. concern. The damage it does to the en­ note that money must bepaid in That's the kind of green image companies vironment is critical. Not just directly. It Australian currency. should be seeking-a genuine commit­ is the energy and resources used to pro­ All material appearing in Australian ment to reducing waste, not just unre- duce material that goes straight in the bin Natural History is copyright. j Reproductionin whole or in part is not 1 ated token sponsorships . La rge that is the issue. A ma or concern is plas­ permittedwithout written authorisation companies have the power to lead the tics, well known to be harmful to sea from the Editor. way with such trends and earn them­ life-they can entangle and kill dolphins, Opinions expressed by the authors are selves genuine green reputations. Image seals, fish, birds, and even coral. Plastics their own and do not necessarily is vital and, as it becomes apparent that accumulate and float, and take .:enturies represent the policiesor views of the environmental boom is not just a to break down. Ocean waste is a serious the Australian Museum. phase, more and more businesses will be problem: about six billion kilograms of Australian Natural History is printed on struggling to improve their-or sink. It is waste are discarded annually by ocean­ archival quality paper suitable for inevitable that political pressure will force going vessels and plastic refuse is the library collections. much stricter environmental laws. A com­ most commonly sighted man-made ma­ Published 1990 pany that starts now will be better off terial in the oceans. What is surprising is ISSN-0004-9840 financially in the long term. So why aren't our attitude to plastic-we have one of they doing it? the most durable materials known and we 111111111 Australian Natural History is We may carefully recycle much of our make it into disposable goods! � audited by the Audit Bureau of garbage. But are we generating any less Our society lives and dies by the mass­ _i:AA.i__ Circulations. or simply switching from one kind of dis­ ive accumulation of waste it produces. We Front Cover posable resource to another less detri­ throw away something rather than reuse The Cane Toad is often incorrectly mental one? I wonder if it is any more or return it because to do so is easier. To associated with the method of biological environmentally friendly to keep recyc­ change, we need the kind of incentives pest control. Stringent tests for suitable ling at the same rate of usage to which that encourage shop owners to chase control agents now ensure that the 'Cane we have been accustomed-particulary people down the street to get their bot­ Toad Syndrome' is a thing of the past. Leo when much of it ends up in landfill. What tles back. Incentives in the waste Photo: Meier, Weldon Trannies. do we do with all the environmentally minimisation campaign are vital.•

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 425 C O N T E N T S Articles IN THIS ISSUE BY GEORGINA HICKEY SCIENTIFIC EDITOR

NALYSIS OF PLANT AND ANIMAL RESIDUES on stone tools will permit the resol­ ution of longstanding problems in the Acurrent debate about the origins of the Aus­ tralian Aborigines. ANU's Tom Loy is one of the pioneers in the new and exciting methods CONSERVATION AND of residue analysis (see page 4 70). Residue ABORIGINAL LAND analysis has also been used to study the ob­ RIGHTS: WHEN GREEN IS NOT BLACK sidian tools manufactured in West New Most conservationists are also Britain (PNG) before and after the eruption of Mt Witori 3,500 supportive of Aboriginal land rights. But where do years ago. Robin Torrence, Jim Specht (pictured sitting down) conservationists stand, for example, if Aborigines want to and Richard Fullagar from the Australian Museum's Division of mine uranium on their land Anthropology are currently studying the layers of sediment or shoot traditional food in national parks? resulting from a series of volcanic eruptions over the last BY LESLEY HEAD 10,000 years, to find out just how the people's lives there were 448 affected. See their story on page 456. Lesley Head, from Wollongong University, takes a look at the issue of conservation versus Aboriginal land rights. Although conservationists are usually supportive of Aboriginal land rights, their interests are not always the same. This is because conservationists are locked into a romanticised view of Aborigi­ nes and the way they live in their environment. Perhaps it is time we reassess our expectations of our 'natural' environment. Other articles in this issue deal with Charles Darwin' s per­ sonal life (can his constant 'ill health' be explained by a fear of public places?) and the method of biological pest control-it's POMPEIIS IN THE PACIFIC time people stopped connecting this control method with the Sudden falls of volcanic ash disastrous introduction of the Cane Toad. can freeze a moment in time and, like the famous site in Our archival section lifts the dust off an extraordinary 120- Pompeii, volcanic eruptions year-old deformed human skull; Rare & Endangered focuses on over the last 10,000 years in West New Britain, PNC, have a cold-hearted yet most venerable vertebrate; the rabbit-ohs of frozen segments of time and by-gone days score the Last Word; and our regular writers created archaeological layer cakes that allow us to assess discuss topics as diverse as the nipples pasted on male chests, the impacts of such disasters on the culture of the peoples the deceptive good looks of the palm-like cycads, the hierarchi­ affected. cal levels of the biological world, and why we bother with the BY ROBIN TORRENCE, JIM SPECHT & RICHARD study of biology at all. The poster in this issue is a 19th-century FULLAGAR painting of a Dingo. 456

426 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY CHARLES DARWIN: A RARE & END ANGERED VIEWS FR OM THE VICTIM OF THE BROAD-HEADED FOURTH DIMENSION Columns AGORAPHOBIA? SNAKE COMING TO GRIPS WITH The lesser-known priv�te �ife of This secretive, nocturnal snake MALE NIPPLES his infamous naturaltst zs LETTERS t of south-eastern New South Why do men have nipples? Are Fragile Forests; 'Echo' revealed. Why was he such a Wales is dependent on the they an evolutionary hangover cluse? Why was he prone to Tourism; Give Sago a Go; re weathered sandstone outcrops from a time when (perhaps) RAOU Office at the Australian constant ill health? that are unfortunately also male mammals once suckled DAVID RUTHERFORD Museum; RAAF Food Caches; BY prized by landscape gardeners. their young? Daintree Blues; How Green is 464 BY RICK SHINE BY MICHAEL ARCHER our Government; Land Degradation; Whigged Again; GETTING BLOOD FROM A 442 494 Lillicot 's Bush Fruits; Swap STONE Tourism for Timber. New techniques in the analysis of plant and animal residues 428 stone stools allows a more on QUIPS, QUOTES & accurate reconstruction of the lives of peoples past. CURIOS BY TOM H. LOY Blowing the Cat's Trumpet; Why the Stinkbird Stinks; Liquid Breath of life; An 470 Australian Takes the Pitfalls

I out of Pitfalls; Odyssey of the Green Turtle; What's in a Name?: Tarantula; New Dinosaur from Queensland; WI LD FO OD S Amber Bubble Theory Burst,­ SINISTER CYCADS Cicada Cures; The Ultimate Cycads are one of the few Single Parent?,- Mystery plants that smell and taste Photograph Solution: A edible yet are incredibly STILL EV OLVIN G Parting of the Worm. poisonous. BY TIM LOW THE SACRED ORDER 432 Just as societies are stratified BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 444 into hierarchies, so too is the AND THE CANE TOAD biological world. SYNDROME p R 0 L E BY RALPH MOLNAR & GLEN The Cane Toad has given A LETTER TO MY INGRAM biological control a bad name. But the toad would never have DAUGHTER 496 been introduced had the strict Why study biology? Advice to a tests in place today for budding young scientist. LAST WORD biological control agents been BY ROBYN WILLIAMS AN OLD SOLUTION TO carried out. AN OLD PROBLEM BY ERNEST S. DELFOSSE 446 With rabbits once again on the 480 increase, new methods for their control are being investigated. But why not reintroduce the trusty rabbit-ohs from former Regular Features· plagues? BY DAN O'DONNELL 504

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS A Whale by any Other Name; Paul's !PAT; Cockroach Saga FROM THE ARCHIVES Part III. THE CURIOUS CASE OF 498 WILLIAM HANCOCK An im ed REVIEWS mensely disfigur p H O T O A R The Australian Wildlife Year; human in skull lay dormant Marine Invertebrates of the Australian DESIGN BY PLANKTON Museum's Southern Australia Part 2,­ anthropology The myriad architectural store for over 100 The Survival Factor; Follow Years. We learn designs of microscopic plankton of its discovery that Elephant!; Man on the and about the life of the man make them wonderful behind photographic subjects. Rim: the Peopling of the the mask. Pacific. BY KINGSLEY GREGG BY GUSTAAF HALLEGRAEFF 440 500 490 427 VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 ,, ,'F E E D B A C K h� is_ incorrect, but I thou his different ght ideas should have been presented to the read of �N e H in an explanato;; fashion rather than expect' g us to take his point of view m gospel. · as I do, however, understand LETTERS Flannery's opinion congratulations from concerned on the ef­ Comments, criticisms and �ects of fir�.For correspondents. Readers are invited to air their views. many habitats �n Australia, fire management 1s probably required. I know that the Ground (Pezopo Parrot Fragile Forests 1989 issue (ANH vol. 23, no. nery's most amazing claims (in rus wallicus) of coastal so�th-ea After reading the last few 2). the same review) is that "even ster� Australia re­ such gross disturbance as qmres issues of ANH I was surprised Dr Flannery has spent eight a par�1cular height of to read some of Dr Tim years researching rainforest in mining ...can be tremendously heath and, without occasional Flannery' sviews. In his review Melanesia and obviously must advantageous to rainforest, al­ fires, the heath would grow of The ecology of Australia's have some knowledge in this lowing it to spread well beyond too tall for this bird. In the wet tropics (ANH vol. 23, no. field. However, he holds a its original boundaries". I was question of fire management I 1, 1989) he states: "The view view about rainforests that is under the impression that it �hink eac_h case should be of rainforest that emerges not generally accepted and would take hundreds of years Judged on its merits. from these studies is not one certainly not the point of view for rainforest to reach ma­ I. would just like to finish by of an exquisitely sensitive en­ that I previously held. He turity and, therefore, complex­ saymg that I enjoy the maga­ vironment that wilts at the states that, because of their ity. I would also like to know zine and look forward to con­ touch of man; but of a dyna­ complexity, rainforests are ex­ how Flannery thinks that trop­ ti?uing t_o read the (mostly) mic, resilient environment that ceptionally robust. I thought ical rainforest can cope with high-quality articles presented. if properly managed may be that it was partly because of the construction of logging -Michael Todd more capable than most of their complexity that they roads, which would be re­ Toronto, NSW coping with appropriate human were not robust and I would quired in order for selective exploitation". He expresses appreciate an explanation of logging to occur. I do not pre­ My view that complex sys­ similar views in the Spring this statement. One of Flan- sume so much as to �ay that tems are more stable than simple ones is in part borne out by the history of some Aus­ tralian habitats. The simple desert ecosystems have been devastated, while there has not been a single documented ex­ tinction in rainforest (at least among mammals). Doubtless that some are stable, simple systems but, in a complex system, the individual parts can interact and compensate for disturbance. When com­ menting upon how mining ac­ tually benefited rainforest in one case, I was simply passing on the findings of Messrs Unwin, Stockert and Sand­ erson of the CS/RO, who pub­ lished their findings in The ecology of Australia's wet tropics-the book I reviewed. They conclude that mining disturbed the local fire regime, to the advantage of fire sensi­ tive rainforest. -Tim Flannery Australian Museum

'Echo' Tourism In the article "The Daintree Dilemma" (ANH vol. 23, no. 3, 1989), the key word is 'draconian'. If regulations gov­ erning access and numbers to delicate areas are not accept-

Tin mining in the trop ical rest at Mt Hartley, near rainfo n Co okt own , far-nor ther Queensland.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY able to park authorities and surveying their local bird pop­ managers, then those areas ulations now, or even know of are doomed! someone who may be inter­ The philosophy governing ested in joining the ABC pro­ management of national parks ject, then they should contact in Australia, like it or not, ap­ the RAOU at the Museum. We pears to be based upon the would like to encourage people economic input from tourism. in the more remote regions, in In the United States, tourist particular, to join the ABC be­ operators are granted licences cause it is often so difficult to according to park management obtain regular and reliable in­ plans and in tum the number formation about birds in these of tourists is controlled. In regions. All information will be only a few cases am I aware gratefully accepted and ac­ that such planning is in oper­ knowledged by the RAOU. ation in our national parks. Do Further information about not blame the demon capit­ the ABC and other RAOU ac­ alism-blame human greed tivities in Sydney can be ob­ and a lack of sensible planning! tained by writing to me or � I speak from 25 years ex­ phoning (02 339-8183), or by � perience as owner of the calling into the office person- ai Chakola Wildlife Refuge in ally. :i Kangaroo Valley, New South Give Sago A Go Ant problem? Try Sago! -Stephen Ambrose Wales. Since establishing a 40- Recently I picked up a book Div. Terrestrial Ecology bed experimental centre there in a shop called Greenies define those habitats that are Australian Museum in 1965, the property has been answer to pests (or similar). It most important for the sur­ controlled and numbers of visi­ suggested pouring boiling vival of each species. RAAF Food Caches tors have never exceeded 40 water down ants' nests or Already, the first records I was interested to read the (we recommend 35 as a better even resorting to petrol! An are indicating the overall value article "Indonesian Fishermen social grouping). In fact, be­ old way of discouraging ants in of the ABC project. Previously of Australia's North-west" cause the former owners be­ the kitchen is quite simple: undocumented movements (ANH vol. 23, no. 3, 1989). lieved in annual burning-off for keep all surfaces clean of food, have been noted for several During World War II, supplies grazing cattle, the quality of keep all dishes washed, seal all bird species, the wintering of food and water were the environment has been en­ food stored and place a cup of grounds of some migratory 'cached' on either or both hanced since then. The refuge sago near the invaded area. honeyeaters in south-eastern Ashmore and Cartier Reefs in requires little management­ Within a fortnight ants will not Australia have been defined, case crippled aircraft returning only the people that come come back. (I suppose sago and the build-up in numbers of from the 'Indies' had to crash­ there, and they in turn share gives off a scent.) Congratula­ some inland species such as land there. I can't recall any our concerns for preservation tions on a superb magazine. Crested Pigeons (probably as a details nor do I know if use of the surroundings. The local -Pamela Reid result of the heavy rains that was ever made of the wildlife happily shares our en­ Hurstville, NSW have fallen over much of facilities-I hope not. You may joyment. southern Australia last year) care to pursue the matter I add that this is no 'hands­ have been recorded. More in­ through the RAAF Historical on-heart conservation outfit'. RAOU Office at the formation of this type will Branch. I remember having It is simply a carefully man­ Australian Museum emerge as a more complete flownover these reefs at times aged commercial idea, and a The Royal Australasian Or­ national coverage by observers and being grateful to our re­ small demonstration that has nithologists Union (RAOU), is achieved. liable Pratt & Whitney aircraft been seen to work! I have ap­ the largest bird-study organis­ If anyone has past records engines! plied similar disciplines to­ ation in Australia, has carved of regular bird counts in their -Jack Bice wards growth and quality in yet another milestone in its area, or if they wish to start Lennox Head, NSW my special interest tours oper­ long and varied history-the ations, for we visit areas establishment of a branch where I believe a limited office in the Australian number of tourists is an essen­ Museum. Central to the opera­ tial responsibility towards the tions of the Sydney office is a environment and local cul­ new and exciting national bird tures. census project, the Australian If 'eco-tourism' is to be de­ Bird Count (or ABC) coordi­ veloped in the Daintree, who nated by Dr Stephen Ambrose. will pay? Or will it pay for The ABC claims to investigate itself? Will the young world seasonal and year-to-year travellers described in the arti­ changes in abundance of bush cle pay relevant to the service birds in a broad range of habi­ costs? Possibly not. Recently I tats by encouraging people saw just such a person in the right throughout Australia to Everest National Park, warm­ count these birds in their local ing herself in a local tea shop area several times a year. The by a fire that burned precious project has immense conser­ buffer-zone timber carried in vation and scientific value be­ by yak train. Her T-shirt pro­ cause it will assist in building up a picture, on a national Tim Low thought we would appreciate this photograph. It depicts claimed 'SAVE DAINTREE'. Agnes Lippo and Maggie Timber reading ANH in Belyuen Aborigi­ -Warwick M. M. Deacock scale, of the status of Austra­ nal Community near Darwin. Ausventure, Brighton, Qld lian bush birds, as well as

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 429 Springs was erroneously cap­ tioned 'Replanting of natural vegetation'. In fact, most of this planting was with the in­ troduced species Buffel Grass ( Cenchrus ciliaris), which is now aggressively invading many parts of inland Australia. Much honest hard effort went into these reclamation works, and there is no denying that Buffo) Grass is better than bare blowing soil. In the long run, however, it may not be as good a species as some of the native perennial grasses, either for pastoral production

UJ or for conservation purposes. The reason that Buffel � a: Grass is widely used can prob­ 0z ably be put down to the UJ ::c: all-too-common Australian pre­ ex: occupation with the overseas � Cl. wonder grass (not to mention Oaintree Blues The Daintree: locals say they a sufficient number of Green overseas expertise and tech­ I have been a subscriber to know best. and Democrat preferences to nology). Enormous efforts ANH for many years and have win by a slender majority. were spent on trials with enjoyed most of the articles two million dollars, although However, two intricate ques­ Buffel Grass in the 1960s, and that you have printed. How­ there was a rumour that went tions emerge with Senator seed is now readily available. ever the article on the Dain­ around. There has never been Richardson's exit from the En­ Sadly, equivalent efforts have tree (ANH vol. 23, no. 3, any rezoning of land to High vironment portfolio and entry never been put into our own 1989) annoyed me quite a lot. Density Residential at or near into Social Security. Firstly, native species of grass, which I hope that other articles in Cape Tribulation. And the pic­ will the Labour Government now must face the onslaught this magazine are not as incor­ ture used at the beginning of honour its pre-election com­ of Buffel in addition to that of rect as this one. I think that the article was a mirror image mitment to the environment grazing. the people who wrote the arti­ of a negative; even very few now that conservation's main Even today, native grass cle should stick to science and locals could work out where it party protagonist no longer seed is not widely available, leave the journalism to the was taken. has a say in the matter? (Or and relatively little work has journalists. Most locals were offended will those promises be broken, been done on harvesting tech­ The beginning of the article, by this article. It assumes that as so many others are bound niques and establishment. which states that tourists are we know nothing about our to be?) Secondly, given Sena­ Let's hope the current focus not able to see inside the rainforests. Locals who run tor Richardson's recent record on land degradation includes rainforest or have their ques­ tours and work in the tourist for making and sticking by work on the native grass spe­ tions about it answered, is industry have very high stan­ "hardline" decisions, what sur­ cies for the 70 per cent of our utter rot. It is not by chance dards where tourist infor­ prises lay in waiting for Social continent that is arid! that young North Americans mation is concerned. We have Security beneficiaries in the -Mark Stafford Smith and Europeans turn up here; it forgotten more about the coming months and years of Alice Springs, NT is because they have heard rainforest than you scientists Hawke administration? It is no from their friends that it is one will ever know. When you secret that the nation is in an Whigged Again of the few places where they come here next time, stick to economic quagmire, groping "Whiggery is accused of can be taken inside the science and leave the rest to for ways out. stepping over. .. inconvenient rainforest and have it ex­ the local people. I wonder what ANH readers details, of leaving out the fail­ plained to them. Tourists do -Paul Mason think? ures and blind alleys." So says not leave the area with ques­ Cape Tribulation, Qld -Barry J. Parsons Robyn Williams (ANH vol. 23, tions unanswered. Bunbury, WA no. 3, 1989) who reveals his The writers of the article own whiggery in his quotation complain about tour operators How Green is our attributed to Alexander Pope. hurtling up and down the road Government? Land Degradation Or was Pope's prescience so in one part and then go on to It strikes me as rather too It was good to see a extraordinary that he could say that accommodation should convenient for the Prime Min­ thoughtful article on land praise scientific theory 200 not be built in the area. You ister to move controversially degradation (ANH vol. 23, no. years into the future? can't have it both ways. If 'green' Minister for the En­ 3, 1989). Although the most To set the record straight, there was no accommodation vironment, Senator Graham significant economic effects of Pope wrote Newton's epitaph here the road would not be Richardson, away from that land degradation are in in the 18th century: able to cope with the number portfolio less than a fortnight Australia's agricultural lands, of day visitors. Day visitors to after he almost singlehandedly the largest areas affected are, Nature and Nature's laws lay hid the area must also use toilets won a narrow election for the of course, in our vast arid in night lands. It was unfortunate but God said "Let Newton be!" and and one of the worst aspects Hawke Labour Government. all was light. of the area is its lack of public There is no doubt that perhaps fitting, therefore, that toilets. Senator Richardson's credibil­ an error highlighted a major It was the socialist journalist Other problems with the ar­ ity (not Labour's) with the problem. and later Georgian poet and ticle: there was no nine­ conservation movement was a The photo of 'spiral pitting' publisher who placed the bril­ hectare block of land sold for crucial factor in Labour gaining reclamation works near Alice liance of Einstein in appropri-

430 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY ate relativity in the 20th cen­ of raspberries occur in Austra­ tury: lian rainforest; possibly some will be discovered in this It did not last: the Devil howling rainforest in the future. ANHAustralian Natural History "Ho! Let Einstein be!" restored the Payne did make one fasci­ status quo. nating discovery: the Sydney Order your magazine binders today! Herbarium confirmed that the But I guess "if we recognise Small Fruited Mock Olive These handsome, hard-covered binders are the imperfections and the dead (Notolaea microcarpa var. designed especially for ANH and are now ends, the peccadilloes and the microcarpa) has been found in hiccups, then [literature] be­ this area. This is a firstfor the available for just$1 O each (including postage). comes something for all of us, New South Wales coast. I am Each binder holds eight issues (two years· whether we want to join in or told it has previously been magazines) with easy-to-manage spine strips. not", just as Williams wants thought to be a dry rainforest With gold lettering on black imitation leather, science to be. inland species. What else is as these binders are an attractive addition to your -Peter Frith yet undiscovered in this Daw Park, SA rainforest? bookcase. I hold some fears for Green Point's fate, especially along­ ORDER FORM Lillicot's Bush Fruits side Belmont. This area is Name ______Thomas Lillicot inquired highly valued at a regional Address ______(ANH vol. 23, no. 2, 1989) level and Payne's study rec­ Postcode _____ about whether the passionfruit ommended the area be re­ __ binders@$10 each Total$ ______and raspberries he found in the served entirely for public bush during his childhood were recreation and conservation. D Cheque D Money order D Bankcard D Mastercard native. I can shed some light However, as private property, No.I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I !Expires- both about his childhood it carries a high price tag and Signature ______Date __ __ rainforest and the surrounding the local Mayor has sought send to: area called Green Point major excisions for housing (to � the australian museum society � 6 College Street, Sydney 2000 Estate. minimise acquisition costs). I This rainforest is quite hope that soon all this area be­ special-but for more critical comes a major public reserve. things than Lillicot's fruit -Ken Johnson plants. It is a littoral rainforest Warners Bay, NSW JOIN THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM SOCIETY area of about three hectares, comprising two adjacent dis­ AND FOR $40 YOU CAN SEE AND DO tinct sub-types-'low open' Swap Tourism for Timber and 'closed'-of extreme con­ I refer to the article "The THINGS MOST PEOPLE NEVER servation significance. Daintree Dilemma" (ANH vol. In 1989, botanist Robert 23, no. 3, 1989). Just as tour­ EXPERIENCE Payne inspected habitats ism has suffered from the around the Estate for a pilot's dispute, it also suffers Visit Easter Island with an anthropologist. Attend bushland park appraisal study. from poor management of the lectures, films and dinners with famous guest speakers. He did find two passionfruit areas that bring people over Join rare tours of the Museum and preview major species: Passi/fora herbertiana here. People do not come all and P. edulis. Payne's view is this way to see built-up areas exhibitions. that P. edulis is a non-native that were once unique Austra­ f you're looking for a wealth of new experiences then plant, probably transported by lian rainforests. They want to birds. Lillicot recorded its see untouched land· and, as the don't wait... send this form today! presence 60 years ago-but article mentioned, such pro­ Belmont was first settled by grams have succeeded in many Europeans more than 100 other countries that look at Membership Application years before that, ample time their rainforests as long-term D Single $40 D Dual $50 for plant invasion into this income earners: for medicines, D Family $55 D Sponsor $100 rainforest. foods, discovery of new life As for raspberries, Payne forms and also tourism (that is, D Student $35 D Pensioner $35 recorded none in either 'educational tourism' and 'eco­ Surname rainforest remnant (assuming tourism'), not short-term First Name(s) ______Mr Lillicot's plant is a Rubus money-makers for wood and No. in family ______family member). One, R. hilli, buildings. I am sure any high Address ______was found adjacent to it, how­ school economics, science or Postcode _____ ever, in open forest dominated geography student could tell Telephone(B) ______(H) _____ Eucalyptus tereticornis. you this. by D Please find enclosed my cheque/ money order for$ ___ Elsewhere he found R. par­ Thank you for a good maga­ vifolius and R. fruticosus but zine. We need this sort of arti­ or charge my credit card D Bankcard D Mastercard these were in Spotted Gum cle to be seen more often by Exp. date ;:_.::;:::::;:::::::;::::;;::::::;::::::;..�������� forest, so I doubt these are our uncaring government. I No. I I I I I I I I I I I I I Lillicot's species. thought our government would Neither Payne nor I are take note of the Amazonian Signature bush food tasters so we can't rainforest plight; So the same Send to: @) the australian personally comment. How­ does not happen in Australia. museum society ever, as Tim Low notes in his -E. Fardoulis 6 College Street, Sydney 2000 book, Bush tucker, four types Randwick, NSW Send a letter with these details If you don't want to cut the magazine.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 P O T P O U ft R I poorer transfer of sound energy and an inability to roar. Hast draws an analogy be­ tween the vocal mechanism thnt allows roaring and a brass QUIPS, QUOTES trumpet. He suggests that the vocal cords simulate the trum­ pet mouthpiece, the wide open & CURIOS mouth of the cat is analogous COMPILED BY GEORGINA HICKEY to the bell of the trumpet, and the elastic ligament that re­ SCIENTIFIC EDITOR places one of the bones in the t------1 hyoid apparatus, which was Blowing the Cat's effect of lengthening and in- of energy from a high to a low originally believed to be re- Trumpet creasing the mass of the vocal air resistance, resulting in a sponsible for the roaring sound cords. According to basic better transfer of sound of big cats, may be analogous Why do some cats roar and acoustic principles, a larger energy in an efficient sound ra- to the slide trombone where others miaow or scream? As mass has a lower natural fre- diator (the vocal tract), in further lengthening of the long ago as 1834 Richard quency and thus, when vibrat- other words 'roaring'. instrument proportionately de- Owen discovered that the Lion ing, will produce a higher In the Snow Leopard and creases the pitch. (Panthera Leo) was missing acoustical energy (that is, a the small cats studied, there is On the basis of his study of one of the bones of the hyoid more intense sound). The no pad of fibroelastic tissue to laryngeal morphology, Hast apparatus (the group of bones rounded pad of fibroelastic increase the length and mass believes that the Snow Leop­ that supports the tongue and tissue also means that the of the vocal folds. With longi- ard should not be classified as larynx). In its place was an space between the vocal cords, tudinally shorter and sharper- belonging to the genus elastic ligament about 15 where air passes, is long and edged vocal folds there is a Panthera; rather it should be centimetres long capable of narrow and only gradually in- lower resistance to airflow in reclassified as a separate stretching to over 20 creases at the end. This design the vocal tract, resulting in an genus, Uncia. centimetres, thus lengthening allows for a gradual transition abrupt change to air flow, a -G.H. the acoustic pipe (the section of the tube that runs from the The Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) is the only big cat that doesn'troar. larynx to the mouth). This was later found to be the case also for the Tiger (P. tigris), Leop­ ard (P. pardus), Jaguar (P. onca) and Snow Leopard (P. uncia). Up until recently it was believed that this elastic ligament in the hyoid appar­ atus was the structure that al­ lowed roaring in these big cats. However, despite being grouped in the genus Pan­ thera-the so-called 'roaring' cats-the Snow Leopard had never been heard to roar. An elastic ligament that lengthens the acoustic pipe would certainly lower the pitch of the voice and probably in­ crease its resonance, but it would not produce intense am­ plification of the sound, which is what roaring is. To deter­ mine just what allows some cats to roar, Malcolm H. Hast from the Department of Otalaryngology at the North­ western University Medical School, Chicago, studied the larynges of all big cat species and representatives of all genera of small cats (]. Anat. 8 163: 117-121; 1989). N Hast found that, with the � exception of the Snow Leop- 6 ard, all species of Panthera � are distinguished from 'non- � 2 roaring' cats by a large, � rounded pad of fibroelastic t;:; tissue on the uppermost part t; of the vocal cords. The pad of er: fibroelastic tissue has the

432 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Why the Stinkbird Stinks lower gut (for up to 43 hours) to give micro-organisms a When l 9th-century natural­ chance to break down fibrous ists first encountered the curi­ and often toxic leaves. ous Hoatzin ( Opisthocomos As a flying leaf-eater, the hoazin) of South America, Hoatzin derives a number of they were impressed not only potential advantages over non­ by the 750-gram bird's flying leaf-eaters such as mon­ strange appearance and leaf­ keys, including increased food eating habits, but also by the selectivity and exploitation of fact that it stank-like fresh extremely patchy resources. cow manure. Scientists have fi­ However, there appear to be nally explained why: the some evolutionary trade-offs. Hoatzin or Stinkbird ferments To accommodate the Stink­ food in its foregut, like a cow bird's voluminous fermentation ;,­ (Science 245: 1236-1238; structures (whose contents w0 1989). can weigh up to 17. 7 per cent S; The Hoatzin is the only of the bird's total adult mass) v creature outside of mammals the anterior sternum has been � known to digest food in this greatly reduced, thereby re- � way. It uses its crop and ducing the area for flight 8 oesophagus as the main fer­ muscle attachment. As a ::"; mentation structures, some consequence, Hoatzins are � additional fermentation occur­ poor flyers (young require � ring in the paired caeca (bet­ 60-70 days to learn to fly). z ween the small and large intes­ They have also evolved a G:l tines). Deep ridges in the in­ couple of particularly peculiar � terior lining of the crop traits: functional claws on the V'l increase the absorptive area of wings for climbing trees (a la � the organ, while an oes­ Archaeopteryx?) and, in young � ophagus with many sac-like di­ Hoatzins, the curious predator- w lations effectively delays the escape mechanism of diving � passage of particles to the into water and swimming � away. 0 The Hoatzin or Stinkbird from � central America -S.H. �

Liquid Br�ath of Life ture babies, the natural human test, believes that in pressure oxygen breathing. coatingis incompletely devel­ premature babies perfluoro­ Pe rfluorocarbons have a very After 15 years of testing on oped and high pressure is re­ carbon liquid breathing has a low surface tension enabling animals, United States scien­ quired to keep oxygen moving big advantage over high- them to penetrate into the ti­ tists have conducted the first into the lung tissues. niest cavity of the lungs and human test of liquid breathing Physiologist Thomas A premature baby on a high­ keep them inflated at normal (Science 245: 1043-45; 1989). Shaffer, who performed the pressure machine. atmospheric pressure, thus de­ For 19 hours, a baby girl born livering the vital oxygen with­ prematurely at 28 weeks was out causing damage. In the transferred to Saint Chris­ Ph iladelphia test, the topher's Hospital for Children perfluorocarbon liquid was in Philadelphia and was kept drained from the baby's lungs alive, after all else failed, by after only 15 minutes, but filling her lungs with a enough of the fluid remained in perfluorocarbon liquid-the the alveoli to keep them ex­ kind of liquid used to cool panded and oxygen moving electronics gear. Capable of into the infant's blood for carrying even more dissolved many hours. Schaffer and his oxygen than air, perfluoro­ colleagues believe that liquid carbons are extremely stable, breathing may have other im­ non-toxic organic molecules in portant applications: in treat­ which every possible hydrogen ing adults with pulmonary V'l atom has been replaced by a oedema, lung burns and smoke 0 fluorine. inhalation; and to help pre- � Normally, despite its poten­ serve rare mammals in captiv- � tial for devastating lung tissue, ity, such as Giant Pandas, in � which premature birth is a � high-pressure oxygen is used � to keep premature babies, problem. born before about 35 weeks, -S.H. � alive. In normal lungs, a natu­ ::c ral coating on the moist inner Dr Suzanne Hand, School of Bio logical Science, Uni­ u.J membranes acts like a deter­ ::c versity of New South <.:) gent to lower the water's sur­ ::, Wales, is a regular contribu­ ::c face tension, preventing the tor to QQC. u.J alveoli, or air sacs, from col­ 0 lapsing. In some very prema- �

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 433 An Australian Takes the face or moving quickly to a side of the pit-the more ele­ Odyssey of the Green Pitfalls out of Pitfalls more favourable position, and vated part of the slope on Turtle thus reduces their versatility which the pit is situated-and Ant-lions (family Myrm­ as predators. The pit also run downhill into the pit. In In an amazing display of en­ eleontidae) are familiar to limits the physical size of the some cases, a long furrow is durance, each summer Green many people by the funnel­ larva as a large pit is conspicu­ also constructed along the Turtles ( Chelonia mydas) shaped pitfall traps con­ ous, rendering its occupant base of the cave wall at the leave their shallow-water feed­ structed in sand by larvae of more vulnerable to predation. rock-sand interface. ing grounds off Brazil to travel some species for capturing The perfection of pit­ The addition of radiating more than 2,000 kilometres to prey. The pit-building habit, building therefore appears to trenches increases the dis­ lay their eggs on the sandy which evolved before the frag­ have been a specialised evolu­ tance over which food can be beaches of Ascension Island in mentation of Gondwana, is a tionary cul-de-sac, having secured and, as most furrows the middle of the Atlantic specialised adaptation that has evolved by a successful branch run downhill into the pit, po­ Ocean. Tagging studies of this enabled a few genera, tential victims would be and other breeding colonies in such as Myrmeleon, to expected to follow this the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans proliferate and disperse (easiest) course and be indicate that female Green widely. Myrmeleon spe­ channelled into the pit. Turtles returnannually to nest cies occur throughout Thus the effective trap­ on the particular beach-and the world, wherever ant­ ping area of the pit can even section of beach-of lions are represented, be increased more than their birth (natal homing). For and reflect the success six fold. While the radi­ most Green Turtles the return of the pitfall predation ating trenches enhance trip to the place of their birth technique. prey capture on the sand is just a few kilometres, but for Ant-lion larvae derive surface, food can also be the Ascension Island group it considerable benefit collected from the cave is an epic 4,500-kilometre, from constructing a pit wall by the furrow con­ four-month-long journey. to capture prey. Food is structed at the Two competing theories directed to the jaws of sand-rock interface. have been postulated to ex­ the larva, obviating the This trench intercepts plain this extraordinary mi­ need to hunt or pursue organisms moving up or gration. Archie Carr (Univer­ prey and thereby con­ down the wall at that sity of Florida) and Patrick serving energy; the pit transect and directs Coleman (University of West­ ::I is a selective device for them into the pit. ern Australia) proposed that � prey of a suitable size; it The energy expended the Ascension Island turtles � affords protection, as in constructing such a and their ancestors have been z large animals disrupting complex trapping device making the voyage for millions � the pit cause the larva to is obviously considerable of years (Na.lure 249: 128-30; � retreat into the sub- but is offset by two main 1974). Central to this hypoth­ strate to avoid retalia­ factors: the possibility of esis is continental drift theory tory attacks; it enables the The pit of the Australian ant-lion obtaining prey is enhanced by and the concept of seafloor larva to feed on fast-moving Callistoleon illustris. over 400 per cent and, as the spreading. In the early Ter­ prey that it would otherwise pits are constructed in ex­ tiary, Ascension Island was be unable to capture; and the of the family but apparently tremely sheltered situations, only a few kilometres off the fact that prey is often tempor­ with little potential for further they are unlikely to deterio­ Brazilian coast. However, as arily disoriented upon tumbling development. Recently, how­ rate rapidly from the effects of seafloor spreading in the mid­ into the pit facilitates the cap­ ever, I discovered a remark­ the weather, thus requiring Atlantic forced South America ture of a wide range of organ­ able advance in pit-building minimum maintenance. and Africa apart, the island isms, many larger than the specialisation in Australia Apart from a few taxa (such gradually became more dis­ predator itself. (Aust. ]. Zoo/. 36: 351-356; as Cueta) that have adapted tant, inducing the turtles to Although the ability to 1988). The larva of the Aus­ their pits to counter heat ef­ swim further and further to modify the immediate sandy tralian ant-lion Callistoleon fects, little variation in the nest, a pattern that would environment into a pitfall trap illustris has adapted its pit in conventional pit was apparent, have developed over at least has its advantages, it also an ingenious manner to over­ despite its long history, and no the last 40 million years. places severe restrictions upon come the problem of limited species were hitherto known Carr and Coleman's theory the larva. The most important recruitment area, while still to alter the basic architecture has been challenged by, among of these is the limited area retaining the benefits of a pit­ of the pit to improve preda­ others, Stephen Jay Gould from which prey can be dwelling existence. tion. Now, C. illustris has (Nat. Hist. 87: 22-28; 1978). recruited-in effect this is the Callistoleon illustris builds achieved this in Australia. This He suggests that over such a circumference of the pit that its pit in well-sheltered situa­ species has taken a specialised long period there would surely forms the actual trapping area. tions near the walls of sand­ and established adaptation a have been years in which no The larva is also limited in stone caves and overhangs in logical step further by adding suitable nesting beaches ex­ habitat choice as the pit is the Carnarvon Mountain radiating trenches to the pit­ isted on Ascension Island. If usually constructed in shel­ Range in Queensland. The pit fall. In so doing, C. illustris just one generation of turtles tered situations and energy in­ is constructed in the deep, has provided a unique dimen­ failed to nest on the island, vested in pit construction fine-grainedsand characteristic sion to the evolution of the pit­ subsequent natal homing effectively confines the larva of such habitats, and located in building habit and to ant-lion would have broken the link to the pit. Development of the an area where the sand slopes predation strategies, as well as between Brazil and Ascension pit-building habit has led to a away from the cave wall. It is to insect predation in general. Island. Gould instead prefers loss of capacity for forward lo­ characterised by several deep, one of Carr's earlier theories comotion in some genera (such steep-sided, radiating trenches -Mervyn Mansell to explain the odyssey-that as Myrmeleon and Hage­ resembling the spokes of a National Collection of Insects the colonisation of Ascension nomyia). This prevents them wheel with the pit as the hub. Plant Protection Research Island by Green Turtles was a from pursuing prey on the sur- Most of the trenches lie to one Institute, Pretoria relatively recent accident, ce-

434 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY dence that the mitochondrial DNA of Ascension Island tur­ tles had greatly diverged from that of other Atlantic Ocean turtles, as it would have if Carr and Coleman's interpretation of the antiquity of the Ascen­ sion Island population was cor­ rect. Indeed, Bowen and col­ leagues found an overall simi­ larity among Atlantic Ocean Green Turtle populations, evi­ dently resulting from oc­ casional exchange of genetic material between breeding col­ onies. To explain this phenom­ enon they suggest that either a migrating female may stray widely off course, such that her progeny thereafter mixes with turtles of a different population; or there is an oc­ casional loss of nesting � grounds so that a colony must z seek other beaches on which � to lay their eggs, probably w thereby bringing together pre- � viously separated populations. ;:i mented by the mechanism of tions by Brian Bowen, Anne Why do Green Turtles sometimes Bowen and his colleagues be­ natal homing. Meylan and John Avise (Proc. travel thousands of kilometres to lieve the data are consistent The debate appears to have Natl Acad. Sci. USA 86: lay their eggs? with an origin of the Ascension been settled in favour of 573-76; 1989). These North Island colony less than Gould's suggestion as a result American researchers found sion Island were quite distinct, 100,000 years ago. of a study of mitochondrial that breeding colonies from supporting the natal homing DNA in Green Turtle popula- Florida, Venezuela and Ascen- hypothesis, but found no evi- -S.H.

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VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 435 This is Latrodectus tredecim­ guttatus, the 'Malmignatte', which is common in the fields of southern Europe and whose bite causes painful muscle spasms. The large size and fierceness of the local wolf spider compared with the small, timid Malmignatte prob­ ably helped foster this miscon­ ception. To continue this story we must now go to the 'New World' in the year 1756. While living in Jamaica, a naturalist named Patrik Browne wrote a paper describing representa­ tives of two quite different groups of arachnids. These were a tailless whipscorpion (order Amblypygi, a small group of tropical arachnids) and three very large ground­ dwelling spiders of the family Theraphosidae (order Aran­ eae). In those days modern WHAT'S IN A NAME? taxonomy was in its infancy and Browne described all of his Tarantula animals under a single generic The name 'tarantula' con­ name, Tarantula (he was jures up images of big hairy probably familiar with the spiders and it is the classic term from its common Euro­ spiderphobic's nightmare. But pean usage for spiders). Some just what a 'tarantula' actually years later in 1793, Fabricius, is depends on how you use the another luminary of early tax­ name and where you live. onomy, decided that the name The name arose as a Tarantula would henceforth common term for a southern apply exclusively to Browne's European wolf spider (family genus of tailless whip­ Lycosidae) that was especially scorpions. Under the Rules of notorious in the farming re­ Nomenclature this made the gions around Taranto in south­ name unavailable for any use ern Italy. This city and its in spider taxonomy above spe­ Roman antecedent Tarentum cies level. provided the spider's name and So from the viewpoint of its various spellings: tarantole, scientific nomenclature it tarantola, tarentula, tarantula. seems that a Tarantula is not People bitten by a 'taran­ Poster for the 1955 movie "Ta­ a spider at all but a tailless tole' were seized by painful rantula". whipscorpion! However, in the muscular spasms and their re­ Americas especially, the sultant frenzied movements Th e Red-kn eed Tarantula common name 'tarantula' is became known as the dance of (Brachypelma smithi) from now used to refer to any of the the tarantella. Victims would Mexico. large, hairy mygalomorph spi­ perform this strenuous 'dance' ders of the family Theraph­ day and night to exhaustion, The first bars of the tarentella, osidae, familiar to many from with eventual collapse herald­ from an old Italian music sheet in their dubious use in the Indi­ ing their cure. Other remedies the Bettman Archives. ana Jones adventure films and included placing the victim in the 1955 sci-fi film "Taran­ an oven and baking him over tion of the Rules of Nomencla­ tula". faggots (a bunch of sticks, not ture, the name Aranea be­ it still survives as the specific In Australia we have chosen male homosexuals!). Such came reserved for the orb web name for the 'tarantella' wolf to be different. Our tarantulas cures seem rather adventurous weaving spiders. Latreille, in spider (lycosa tarantula) and (often intriguingly corrupted to in these days of antivenoms. 1804, was the first to group as the common name for this 'triantelope') are the large, The wolf spider said to be the wolf spiders under their and several other southern Eu­ long-legged, often flattened the cause of all this mischief own generic name. He chose ropean wolf spiders. spiders of the family Hetero­ was named Aranea tarantula Lycosa-a name that appeared After all this, it is interest­ podidae, more correctly called in 1758 by Carolus Linneaus, as early as 1583 (Lycos). Sub­ ing to note that the locals huntsman spiders. Although the founder of modem zoologi­ sequently, as a generic name, around Taranto probably got it we have several indigenous cal taxonomy. At that time all Tara(e)ntula has fallen foul of wrong anyway. The spider theraphosid spiders, instead of spiders were grouped in the the rules of priority (applied to that was causing their symp­ tarantulas we call them whis­ genus Araneo. With the rec­ all names designated since toms was much more likely to tling spiders (a story in itself!). ognition of various distinctive 1758) and is now suppressed have been the European equiv­ -Mike Gray spider groups and the applica- in favour of Lycosa. However, alent of our Redback Spider. Australian Museum

436 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY New Dinosaur from through the mail, we were sur­ removed, they provided a fur­ vertebral column, and to have Queensland prised and excited to realise ther surprise: on the under­ been linked with the mode of In October 1989, Mr Ian our assumption was again in­ surface of each, the armour of locomotion of the beast. This levers, who lives on a property correct. This skeleton was of a the back of the trunk was pre­ specimen shows that they are just outside Richmond, north­ dinosaur. In view of the com­ served, still in place as it had more complex than previously ern Queensland, rang the pleteness of the pliosaur, we been in life! In all we had thought. Queensland Museum to report decided to go north as soon as almost 75 per cent of the back All in all, the specimen his discovery of a fossil skele­ possible to collect the new of this animal. So far it is the should provide new infor­ ton in deposits known to be skeleton. Unfortunately local most complete dinosaur skele­ mation on the structure and 100 million years old. He rains, among other things, de­ ton found in Australia, with arrangement of the armour in kindly invited the Museum to layed the trip until January news just to hand that more of ankylosaurs, on the unusual come and collect it. The skull, 1990. When we finally arrived the same specimen has been paravertebral system, and on he said, had a long toothy we were to find that the skele­ found by Mr levers since we the skull and jaw structure (it snout like that of a Freshwater ton was an ankylosaur, Minmi returned to the Museum. is the first time that the skull Crocodile, which suggested it sp. Only three other anky­ of a Gondwanan ankylosaur may have been an ichthyosaur The skeleton was lying in losaurs are known in which the has been discovered). Re­ (' porpoise-like' marine reptile). the black soil of a ridge nine dorsal armour is preserved in search on these animals should Dr Mary Wade, who was keen kilometres east of the home­ situ: these are Edmontonia advance our understanding of to study a complete hind stead. Isolated bones and an rugosidens, Euoplocephalus the prehistory of Australia and paddle of one of these animals, odd block of fossil were em­ cutleri and Sa uropelta the relationship of Australian promptly went to excavate the bedded in the soil. The 'odd edwardsorum all from North Cretaceous (140-65-million­ find. She did indeed find the block', after two days of exam­ America. This new specimen year-old) vertebrates to those hind paddles but they were of ination and a good scrub, was of Minmi is the first from the overseas. But, most impor­ a pliosaur (another marine rep­ recognised as the skull, with Southern Hemisphere to tantly, it will increase our tile but with a large head and the armour of the neck pre­ reveal in detail just what the knowledge about this particu­ stout body), not an ichthy­ served immediately behind it. animal looked like. Further­ lar group of dinosaurs. In all, osaur. Excavating the soil was easy more, there is an indication on the discovery is of great im­ A fortnight after Mary re­ and revealed several large the blocks that traces of the portance. We are all grateful turned to the Museum with blocks of featureless limestone actual skin may be preserved. to the perception of Mr Ian the skeleton, Mr levers rang concretion, one with a limb The new specimen of levers in recognising and again to say that he had found bone embedded in it. Two Minmi also reveals much promptly reporting this im­ a second fossil skeleton. We blocks of soil with bones in detail of the mysterious portant fossil to us, making it assumed it to be the ich­ place were jacketed in plaster paravertebrae-ossified ten­ available to interested people thyosaur that Mary had so and polyurethane foam, and dinous structures found along of Australia and all over the hoped to collect just two brought back to the Museum the vertebral column of the world. weeks prior. But, when we re­ for further preparation. When trunk. These structures are -Ralph Molnar ceived a piece of the skeleton the concretionary blocks were believed to have reinforced the Queensland Museum RAINBOW POWER COMPANY PTY.LTD. anufacture,sales and installation of Mappropriate home energy systems. • Solar electrical systems • Hydro and wind power systems • Solar pumping systems • Deep cycle batteries • High efficiency lighting • Low voltage appliances • 40 1 2 volt to 2 volt inverters

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VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 437 Amber Bubble Theory exuded from trees before crushed under vacuum and the had been chemicalJy incorpor­ Burst being buried and fossilised, gases released were analysed ated into the matrix. And be­ Tiny bubbles of gas trapped commonly contains gas bub­ in a mass spectrometer. cause, according to Cerling, in fossilised tree resin reveal bles ranging in diameter from Cerling' s research indicates atmospheric gases freely ex­ that prehistoric atmospheres less than ten microns to more that the process of crushing change and react with amber were very different from than a millimetre. In Bemer amber releases not only the matrix on exposure to the at­ today's. That's the claim made and Landis' study, amber sam­ oxygen trapped originally in mosphere (explaining why by Robert Bemer of Yale Uni­ ples of various ages were bubbles, but also that which specimens of amber kept in versity and Gary Landis from museums almost always the United States Geological Gas trapped in amber may not reflect the true prehistoric nature of the become darker with time), the Survey who believe that bub­ atmosphere. oxygen measured by Berner bles in Cretaceous amber show and Landis is not a true reflec­ that the air the dinosaurs tion of the prehistoric atmos­ breathed was 30 per cent phere. Instead, it also reflects richer in oxygen than now the history of the amber since & (Science 239: 1406-1409; it was exuded from its host � 1988). Ho wever, Thure tree. In the case of the Creta­ 0 Cerling of the Scripps Institute ceous amber, Cerling reasons that it may have been buried � of Oceanography in California tn has challenged the time­ in oxygen-poor sediments but, § capsule bubble theory, sug­ after erosion (or excavation), t;:; gesting that the oxygen exposure to air would have al­ � measured by Berner and lowed oxygen and other gases � Landis may not have come to leak into the amber. Thus §? only from the bubbles (Nature what was being measured was � 339: 695-69� 1989i 'modern', not prehistoric, '.:'.:: Amber, a translucent, brittle gases . ..J o5 and often hon.ey-coloured resin -S.H.

Cicada Cures pharmacists, bringing three­ Cicadas have fascinated pence per dozen for wings of people for thousands of years, 'desirable' species. At that featuring in ancient mythology time cicada wings were and medicine, and today re­ claimed to contain medicinal taining their mystique for sci­ substances but there is no entists and school children known basis for this claim. alike. The folklore of the Chi­ Before the arrival of Euro­ nese, Greeks and Romans con­ peans, the people of Nokopo, a tain many references to village in an isolated and cicadas. Perhaps this is be­ rugged part of the Finisterre cause of the distinctive and Ranges of Papua New Guinea, most memorable sounds pro­ used, as a topical antibiotic for duced by the males of these infections, a fungus that is insects, or their remarkable parasitic on the soil-dwelling metamorphosis from the mud­ nymphs of a particular cicada, coated sheUs of the immature Cosmopsaltra aurata. This nymphal stage to the winged cicada thrives in montane adults. The Oraibi Indians of rainforests, the nymphs feed­ The fungus that grows on the Arizona in the United States ing on the sap from roots in cicada nymph Cosmopsa/tra thought that the life cycles of the permanently moist soil. aurata (inset) is used as a topical antibiotic by the people of cicadas symbolised resurrec­ When fully grown, which may Nokopo village, Papua New tion of the soul. take several years, the cicada Guinea. As long ago as 1600 BC in nymph prepares a tunnel to ancient China, cicadas were the surface and awaits favour­ power of the cicada fungus, its reputed to have medicinal able weather conditions before use has been discarded in properties and the fungi that emerging from the soil. It is in favour of conventional antibiot­ sometimes attacked the the soil that the nymphs are ics. Even though conventional nymphal stage were also at­ vulnerable to attack by natural antibiotics are expensive and to established antibiotics. Al­ tributed with healing proper­ enemies, including the Cordy­ not so accessible, the people of though the Chinese as weU as ties, some fungi being eaten as ceps fungi. Nokopo have been persuaded Nokopo people have for centu­ a single product rather than White, powdery sporing that 'white man's medicine' is ries gathered species of combined with other medi­ bodies borne on fungal stalks better than their own inherited Cordycej)s fungi from the soil­ cines. Today in the People's (calJed 'stipes'), some two to knowledge. dwelling cicada nymphs and Republic of China, potions are seven centimetres in length, The use of plants, fungi and used them for the treatment of made from cicadas, cock­ protrude from the bodies of insects as medicines in tradi­ disease, it remains to be seen roaches, beetles and crickets, the dead cicada nymphs. It is tional societies of the world whether antibiotic properties all believed to be valuable this white, asexual state of the has continued to attract the at­ of this fungus can be demon­ treatments for a range of in­ fungus that was used by the tention of Western scientists in strated with Western scientific ternal disorders. And during people of Nokopo to treat in­ their search for more effective methods. � the 1950s in Australia, it was fected wounds such as tropical treatments for diseases. This -Christin Kocher Schmid � rumoured among Sydney ulcers. search has been spurred on by Univ. of Basel, Switzerland � school children that cicada Although Nokopo adults are the developing resistance of and Don Sands a wings were in demand by still aware of the healing disease-producing organisms CSIRO, Div. Entomology, Qld

438 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY The Ultimate Single Parent? Rubbish dumps aren't usually thought of as a source of discovery in the world of natural history, but a Queensland university zool­ ogist, Dr Craig Moritz, has found them to be fruitful hunt­ ing grounds for an unusual quarry. He has recently scoured more than 200 dumps in outback Australia for old roofing iron, on the underside of which is often found one of the continent's most remark­ able lizards, Bynoe's Gecko (Heteronotia binoei). Bynoe's Gecko is the only known native vertebrate with all-female populations, a trick it manages by being able to reproduce by parthenogenesis, or 'virgin birth'. It is perhaps the ultimate single parent, z � laying viable eggs without a: w needing fertilisation by male l.j ...J sperm. The eggs have com­ w plete sets of chromosomes and � balanced sets of genes. The Bynoe's Gecko is the only known native vertebrate with all-female populations. offspring are all (barring random genetic mutations) genetic varieties seem to have and Dr Moritz's research is sexually reproducing species identical female clones of their evolved more recently, per­ part of an international study are more likely to adapt mothers. haps only within the past into the phenomenon. As a re­ quickly to changing environ­ Dr Moritz has found that 10,000 years. Their origin was productive strategy it has sev­ mental conditions through Bynoe's Gecko has both all­ probably in Western Australia eral advantages over sexual many new and random combi­ female and sexually reproduc­ and they then spread rapidly reproduction but evolutionary nations of genes in each new ing populations, and that the to central Australia. The all­ biologists are uncertain why it generation. parthenogenetic ones are un­ female forms may still be is so uncommon. Although a -Bob Beale usually widespread ( Qld Univ. spreading eastward, replacing single female can establish a News 16 August 1989: 9). He the sexually reproducing liz­ new population and do so rap­ Adetailed more article by believes the sexually reproduc­ ards as they go. idly (each one of her offspring Dr Cr aig Mo ritz on ing varieties evolved first in Parthenogenesis was first is capable of reproducing) parthenogenesis will appear Australia over one million recognised as occurring in ver­ while still preserving highly in a future issue of ANH. years ago, while the partheno- tebrates as recently as 1958, adaptive gene combinations,

MYSTERY PHOTOGRAPH triggered by the phase of the ensures that the gametes are moon. At the time of spawn­ widely dispersed over the reef SOLUTION ing, the rear end of the worm and that maximum rates of fer­ breaks off from the front. The tilisation occur. The fertilised A Parting of the Worm front end remains in the coral eggs spend little time in the A plucked quail? Decapitated or sediment to breed again plankton layer. Instead, the baby? Something out of Star next year, while the back end larvae sink to the sea floor Wars? No. This animal was fragments into single seg­ where they colonise the sedi­ found one summer's night ments or, in this case, two (the ment or reef substrate, thus swimmingin the surface-water 'waist' -like area separates the completing the cycle. layers of the Great Barrier two segments). The segments, We are currently unable to Reef lagoon, around Lizard which are only 0.2-0.4 relate these swimming sacs of Island. It is part of a seg­ millimetres wide, then swim gametes to particular poly­ mented sea worm or poly­ off into the surface waters by chaete species. No doubt with chaete (superfamily Eunicea, muscular contraction of the the collection and study of fur­ probably of the family Lum­ parapodia (the 'arms' or 'legs', ther specimens we will be able brineridae), which spends most one pair of which is attached to. Polychaetes are an impor­ of its time within the coral to each segment) and with the tant component of coral reef substrate or in the sediment. help of the swimming setae food chains and also contribute During the summer, the (the projections at the end of significantly to bioerosion of worm develops large numbers the parapodia). Later these the reef. It is therefore essen­ of eggs or sperm within its swiniming egg or sperm sacs tial, for the study of reef sys­ segmented body cavity. These break up and release their ga­ tems in general, to understand � sea worms are either males or metes into the water where polychaete reproduction. � females. Breeding is synchro­ fertilisation occurs. And then � nous, taking place on only one A swimming sac of polychaete this strange animal is no more. -Pat Hutchings � night of the year, probably gametes. This process of reproduction Australian Museum o..

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 439 'Rare and Curious' display cabinet for the duration of the exhibition. "The anthropologists were duly surprised to learn that The article, entitled "Case of William Hancock", begins: "There is at present in a supposedly 'damaged' cranium that lacked data the Sydney Museum a skull which excites was, in fact, well documented in a 100-year-old the attention of the pathologist. At a medical journal in the Museum's own library. " recent visit, in company with one of the trustees of the institution, our attention was directed to this remnant of mortality, and through the kindhess of Mr. Krefft, and the willing and most truthful pencil of Mr. T. Hodgson, Principal of the School of Design, Sydney, we are enabled to pre­ THE CURIOUS CASE OF sent our readers with an exact facsimile of the skull, and a copy of the photograph of the individual to whom it belonged WILLIAM HANCOCK taken about twelve months previous to his death. We are enabled, also, through BY KINGSLEY GREGG the kindness of a medical gentleman, under whose immediate observation the EXHIBITION DIVISION, AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM patient was for eighteen months previous to his decease, to give [some] outlines of his history." HILE THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM supposedly 'damaged' cranium, sans lower It is unusual to find biographical infor­ constantly updates its image to jaw, that they had seriously considered mation about those whose bones fill keep pace with current percep­ throwing away because it lacked data neatly labelled cardboard boxes in an an­ Wtions of what constitutes a 'modern' was, in fact, well documented in a 100- thropological collection. Although the de­ museum, some of its activities have year-old medical journal in the Museum's tails of William Hancock's life reported in hardly changed since its establishment in own library. The Gazette article was not the late 1820s. The core of these is the used but the skull was placed in a s�cial Skull and drawing of William Hancock. upkeep of its burgeoning collections, without which there would be no museum. In their now mostly air­ conditioned environments, the collections still evoke a feeling of time frozen-an atmosphere once endemic to the entire Museum, particularly in the cathedral­ hush and poor lighting of the early exhibi­ tion halls. The categories of stored items encom­ pass a plethora of invertebrate and verte­ brate remains, bottled, dried and stuffed, together with skeletons, fossils and min­ erals. The vast anthropological collection includes a wonderful assortment of artefacts and specimens, human bones and skulls, mummified and shrunken heads. Among the skulls is one that "excites the attention of the pathologist", accord­ ing to one old medical journal. Its attrac­ tions could hardly have been confined to pathologists, however. At a time when such items were commonplace in muse­ ums, it must have excited the attention of many visitors. After it was withdrawn from display and passed into the collec­ tions, it remained virtually untouched until about 12 years ago, when material was sought for an exhibition and book ::E celebrating the Museum's sesqui­ a centenary. � An article relating to the skull was dis­ ! covered in a copy of the New South =3 Wales Medical Gazette (May 1872). The � Museum's library assistant who found it \g thought the journalistic gem should be in­ � eluded in the sesquicentennial book. a:: Being involved in both the book and the if: >- exhibition, I was intrigued by the article 5 and promptly went to look for the skull in � the anthropology store. The anthropolo­ < gists were duly surprised to learn that a

440 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY the Medical Gazette are minimal, they give his skull an emotive significance that separates it from others for which data is confined to mere technical details. They !rA1AIKING1 also give substance to a person whose : vv�HDLIDAVB : appearance must have brought a measure y no JOI 1 '"'' Ill •nll\,l'V.. IIVV VI VI. t l.111H.\J I of fame to his neighbourhood. in FRANCE or the MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON That he survived as long as he did sug­ I gests there was a greater acceptance of in RWANDA or in NEPAL. PAKISTAN. I his defects than we normally ascribe to INDIA or SOUTH AMERICA. I the colonial citizens of last century. He Send for a free colour brochure. I ADVENTURE supported himself by selling matches for two years before he died. It is also poss­ ��e�RPA EXPEDITIONS'- ible that part of his life was spent with a AooRess: . ______SPECIALISTS travelling sideshow, a not uncommon fate ------I of people whose deformities made them I OUTDOOR n:IAVEL 1 st fl. 377 Lt Bourke St. I objects of vulgar curiosity. MELBOURNE 3000 (03] 670-7252 SINCE 1965 William Hancock was about 26 years I ------�': I old when he first "came under the care of the medical gentleman" mentioned in the Since 1965 Ausventure Gazette. He "presented a most hideous has pioneered the adven­ aspect": a single hole served as both ROBERTS NISSEN mouth and nose and the eyeballs were ture travel market and first "covered by a membrane". Diction was trekked Nepal and India in made possible by inserting a plug into the 1966. We offer personal "upper part of the cavity through which CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS he spoke." The plug was removed when service and top quality he ate, the "morsel being placed far back Accountancy and Audit outfitting. on the tongue". Understandably, he pre­ Taxation and Computer Services ferred a liquid diet. He had no teeth and Management and Financial Services We are experts in creat­ "both lips were wanting, as well as the entire palate; the epiglottis was clearly Corporate Services ing itineraries along your visible when he spoke". He lacked any SUITE 1803, 44 MARKET ST, guidelines and our cur­ sense of smell but his hearing was appar­ ently excellent. SYDNEY, 2000 rent brochure offers a The cause of William Hancock's "im­ Phone (02) 29 7871 Fax (02) 29 2536 diverse selection of indi­ mense disfigurement" was the subject of vidual modules and fully much medical conjecture. The article's writer was "inclined to believe that he escorted group depar­ was suffering from lupus, and this must tures. have attacked him in early life, as the absence of teeth and alveoli in the lower We are specialists in the jaw is scarcely compatible with accident". I imagine that today's medical practitio­ Indian subcontinent ners would be more inclined to conclude Nepal, Kashmir/India, Pak­ that Mr Hancock's deformity was con­ genital. istan, Bhutan and Tibet. Before concluding with a long anatomi­ With our network of princi­ cal description of the skull, the writer had pals we also offer adven­ this delightful piece to offer: "He used to correspond with his sweetheart, was a turous holidays to South hearty and well-nourished man, and had America, Antarctica, Sri no illness in the knowledge of my medical friend up to three weeks before his death, Lanka, Malaysia, Fiji, when he was attacked with acute bronchi­ Indonesia and a variety of tis, and died about 23rd August, 1868." other destinations. What is not known about William Hancock is where he died, and how soon For your next adventure after death his head was anatomised and Join the tall ship, Eye of displayed for public delectation. There is the Wind, on an adventure in enquiry please call Anne or no doubt that a great deal more to the the South Pacific, and you'll Simon. story of William Hancock is waiting to be discover remote lagoons, mag­ uncovered.• nificent atolls, exotic plants and animals, and people from di­ Quality adventure verse cultures. holidays worldwide Suggested Reading You 'II relive the romantic Anon., 1872. Case of William Hancock. days of the great explorers - but since 1965! N.S. W. Med. Gazette2(8): 246-248. with every modern comfort. Strahan, R. (ed.), 1979. Rare and curious specimens. Australian Museum: Sydney. Ad1we1uure Under Sail. PO Bo, 79. Annandalc. :o,;sw 2039 (02) 560 4035 P.O. Box 54, Mosman NSW 20B8 -::_ Tel: (02) 960 1677 or 9601188 Mr Kingsley Gregg is Project Designer at the Fax: (02) 969 1463 - Australian Museum. He has been there since NSW lie. No. 2TA000437 • 1955.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 441 RARE & ENDANGERED rock'. And third, snakes (especially ven­ omous snakes) do not raise the same wann sympathy as do 'cuddly' animals "Snakes (especially venomous snakes) like Koalas and kangaroos. Hence, many people see the conservation of reptiles as do not raise the same warm sympathy as do a less significant environmental issue than 'cuddly' animals like Koalas and kangaroos." conservation of mammals or birds. Informed members of the general public can play an important role in help­ ing to ensure that the Broad-headed Snake does not move closer to extinction. Here are a few suggestions: 1. Talk to THE BROAD­ your friends about the importance of con­ serving ecosystems, not individual spe­ cies. Many people think that the major HEADED SNAKE problem is to save individual animals (usually large furry ones). This is rarely the case. If we want our grandchildren to BY RICK SHINE enjoy a diversity of Australian wildlife, we must conserve habitats where natural ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY ecosystems can continue to function. This means taking care of all components of these systems, including 'unpopular' ani­ E TEND TO THINK OF 'RARE AND collected, even though the animals may mals like snakes. 2. Support the protec­ endangered' animals as living in well be common where they occur. Other tion of wilderness areas and the creation far-away, exotic locations such common and widespread species, like the of national parks. 3. Support funding for Was tropical rainforests or deserts. How­ Platypus, are regarded as 'rare' because research on the basic biology of the Aus­ ever, the reality is often quite different: they are secretive and hence not often tralian native fauna and flora: we will not urban development is one of the major observed. Many of the genuinely rare be able to plan intelligently to save spe­ factors responsible for destroying the species are those that have suffered di­ cies unless we know something about habitats available for many species, so rectly as a result of human settlement in them! 4. Don't buy 'bush rock' for your that the remnant populations are to be Australia, either through hunting, habitat backyard, especially the weathered rock found close to major cities. For example, destruction, or the depredation by feral that comes from natural outcrops. Old the most densely populated area in Aus­ animals such as cats and Cane Toads. For fallen logs are an aesthetically pleasing tralia is the south-eastern coast, and this alternative. If you really must use rocks is the only known habitat of the small in landscaping, buy your sandstone boul­ spectacularly coloured Broad-headed ders from quarries: they will take a little Snake (Hoplocephalus bungaroides, family while to 'age' and grow lichens but you Elapidae). Although this species was will have the satisfaction of knowing that common in the Sydney area at the time of you haven't supported the destruction of European colonisation, it rapidly became an important habitat. 5. If you see a rare. By 1869, when the first book on flatbed truck loaded with bush rock in a Australian snakes was written by Gerard national park or State forest, report the Krefft, this species was already vanishing truck's registration number to the rapidly. The processes responsible for ranger. There have been several success­ this initial decline have continued ever ful prosecutions and the National Parks since. Little is known scientifically about and Wildlife Service is anxious to stamp this rare species, even though it is found out these illegal destructive activities.

so close to our largest city. It is not that • J The continued survival of the Broad­ the species is particularly difficult to most reptiles and amphibians, it is habitat headed Snake (and many other small study, only that no funds are available for destruction that is the most important sandstone-dwelling species of native such work. Most of what we know comes threat. Most of these animals are small fauna) depends on public attitudes to­ from dissections of preserved specimens and not particularly valued by hunters, so wards conservation of large areas of sand­ in museum collections, and recently from direct predation by humans is less signifi­ stone habitats. A unique and diverse successful breeding of this species in cap­ cant than the continuing destruction of assemblage of species has evolved on the tivity. These secretive, nocturnal snakes large areas of critical habitat. If the habi­ Hawkesbury sandstone plateau. Will we emerge from their sandstone crevices at tat is destroyed, the species will not be destroy it simply to make our gardens a night to feed upon small vertebrates. able to persist. little more attractive? • They are venomous, and two serious The Broad-headed Snake is in a par­ cases of snakebite have been recorded ticularly difficult situation for three rea­ from this species. Females do not lay sons. First, the south-eastern coastal area Suggested Reading eggs, but instead produce about eight live in which it occurs also supports the high­ Shine, R., 1983. Arboreality in snakes: young in late summer. They may not re­ est densities of human population in the ecology of the Australian genus Hoplo­ produce every year in the wild because cepha/us. Copeia 1983: 198-205. continent, so that habitat degradation has Shine, R. & Fitzgerald, M., 1989. Conser­ food supply may sometimes be too low. occurred on a massive scale. Second, vation and reproduction of an endangered Why is the Broad-headed Snake so weathered sandstone outcrops along species: the Broad-headed Snake, Hoplo­ rare? This is not as simple a question as it ridge tops are essential for this snake, cephalus bungaroides (Elapidae). Aust. Zoo/. may first appear because there are many especially the crevices formed by 25: 65-67. reasons why species are classed as 'rare' exfoliating layers of sandstone. Unfortu­ � or 'endangered'. Some taxa are placed in nately, these same rocks are highly prized Dr Rick Shine is a zoologist at the University of � this category simply because they are re- as decorations for home gardens, with the Sydney. His research deals with the evolution, 6 stricted to habitats so remote and inac­ result that many outcrops have been tom ecology and reproductive biology of reptiles, with a: cessible that few specimens are ever apart by commercial collectors of 'bush a strong focus on Australian snakes.

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Captain Cook's crew suffered when they sampled the seeds of the cycad Cycas media at Endeavour River. They endured violent vomiting and diarrhoea, but were left in better shape than the ship's hogs, which fell down and died.

Sheltered canyons of the Macdonnell Range west of Alice Springs are the habitat of the cycad Macrozamia macdonnellii, a survivor from wetter times and the only cycad found in outback Australia. Explorer John Stuart complained that the nut of this species "is not fit to eat".

444 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Wales. At Carnarvon, seeds of M. moorei Belyuen Aboriginal Community near were found in rock shelter sediments at Darwin, told me last year that he had estimated densities of up to 600 seeds been approached by a Sydney wild food per cubic metre of soil. Carbon dating supplier wanting cycad seeds for process­ shows that Aborigines here have been ing into specialist foods. Harry was in­ preparing and eating cycads for at least credulous. "The seeds are too danger­ 4,300 years. ous!" he said, shaking his head. • This age is but a wink of time com­ pared to the antiquity of the plants them­ Suggested Reading selves. Cycads date back to the onset of Beaton, J.M., 1977. Dangerous harvest. the Mesozoic era 180 million years ago, PhD thesis: Australian National University, when dinosaurs first stalked the Earth. Canberra. Indeed, they are the plants invariably fea­ Beck, W., Fullager, R. & White, N., 1988. tured in dinosaur dioramas. The fleshy, Archaeology from ethnography: the Aborigi­ often reddish outer layer of the seed coat nal use of cycad as an example. In Archaeol ­ of many species (in genera Macrozamia ogy wi th ethnography, an Austral ian and Lepidozamia) may well have evolved perspective, ed. by B. Meehan and R. Jones. to tempt dinosaurs to swallow the fruits Australian National University Press: Can­ berra. DISCOVER THE SECRETS and disperse the seeds in their faeces. Stuart, J.M., 1865. Explorations in Austra­ Nowadays Emus (which are descendants lia: the journals of John McDoua/1 Stuart. "' . OF HUMPBACKS IN of dinosaurs), possums and wallabies do Saunders, Otley & Co.: London. HERVEY BAY the job. \\� Cycads have survived for so long partly Tim Low is a full-time nature writer living in �'�"� because they are so poisonous. This tox­ Brisbane. He is the author of three wild food ' � icity has not stopped wild food entrepre­ books, the latest being (Angus & - Bush Tucker x neurs from proposing them as gourmet Robertson), which includes articles reprinted {j ·e:ch year humpback whales foods. Harry Sing, Chairman of the from his ANH column. gather at Hervey Bay to rest and breed. You·u come face to face with these gentle giants. Ever wondered WHY whales ... are BIG? SING? Ever considered HOW whales ... SUCKLE? DIVE so deep? EVOLVED? Let our whale researchers help you to Jnderstand these fascinating crearures. Programs arc on offer in September and October. So book now!

DISCOVER THE SECRETS OF CAPE YORK.

Hear about the �� fascmating ecology of the northern rainforests of Cape York. Its exotic history of settlrment by Aborigines. Chinese and Europeans. An 11 day 4WD Safari and rerum by sea cruise will help you unearth the Cape's secrets. Led by an experienced narurahst and • sc1ennst.

Discover rhc real Australia with ... I ravelearn AUSTRALIA (;!:)• Many ot.her exciting programs on offer. For a free brochure phone Peggy or Anne at Traveleam on {07} 377 2755 or FAX {07} 870 5080 or write to Travclcarn, Continuing Education Unit, University of Queensland, St. Lucia Q4072 An initiarivc of The University Uruversity � College of nf Centra I Queensland Queenslanrl A crumbling cone of the Burrawang Cycad reveals the brightly coloured pulp surrounding the starch-filled seeds. Emus can eat this pulp; people cannot.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 445 PROFILE wonderfully placed, with all those fabu­ lous new techniques that let us study what's happening right down among the "Scientists have had a tough time in molecules or in the remotest part of the the '80s and, in Australia, their planet, to put it all together. numbers have been dwindling. " And why should we want to do that? Well, for the reason I mentioned before: because it's so interesting. Whatever you eventually choose to do for a living, your knowledge of modern science will be en­ riching, often useful. Another reason is because nature is being badly beaten. A LEI IER TO MY Everywhere we look, in the soil, in the air, the oceans or what remain of our forests and wildlife, there are destructive DAUGHTER changes underway more worrying than ever before in human history. But there are still plenty of powerful folk who say the scientists have got it all wrong and BY ROBYN WILLIAMS we don't really have to worry or alter ABC RADIO SCIENCE SHOW what we do. So many gaps in our under­ standing of the natural world remain that there's an enormous amount of research SUALLY, IN THIS COLUMN, I DO A drawings. But I knew that some of the to be done, especially in our region. sketch of an established scientist. most stimulating philosophical writing in Scientists have had a tough time in the This time-if you'll permit-I'd science was by biologists-} .B.S . '80s and, in Australia, their numbers have likeU to address a few remarks to someone Haldane, Sir Julian Huxley, Sir Peter been dwindling. Now is the time to give who may, one day, become scientifically Medawar; and I knew that the old artifi­ them a hand, either as a keen amateur minded: it could be my daughter, it could cial boundaries between the subjects (maybe attached to the Australian be yours. It could be a son. As long as were crashing down. Nowadays scientists Museum Society or a conservation group) young minds in large numbers turn to working in natural history may use every or maybe as a pro. The era of the science. branch of knowledge under the sun, from smartypants making a million at the age Dear Jessica, the languages of indigenous people to the of 23 is over. What we need now is a I know that your science classes, up to mathematical ideas in chaos theory, from brain-led, not a greed-led, recovery. now, have been discouraging and miser­ computation to deep-sea diving. For these and many more reasons, I able. I know that you've done your best In fact, 1990 should be recognised as hope you'll continue to give science a but, like many Australian school children, the year biology returned to its pre­ chance. I'm sure you'll find it fun! have found the subject remote and con­ eminence. (In the 19th century, when still Love RW fusing. As soon as you gain a glimmering strongly and correctly linked to natural PS: When you find out whether Chim­ of understanding of one bit, 20 more are history, biology was the obsession of panzees tell jokes, do let me know. • shoved in front of you. every reasonably educated British and I too had trouble at first. So did Australian household.) I'm not suggesting As Producer of the ABC Radio Science Show, Einstein. Dealing with a set curriculum that biology is better than any other disci­ Robyn Williams has the opportunity to interview and thick books is never easy, and you pline. Far from it. Only that it is now many interesting people in science. hardly ever seem to know enough to be sure of yourself. It's all another world, defined by frightfully clever people, usually men in white coats who use long words and have nothing to do with you. But my own discovery of science (and I suspect everyone else's too) came from finding out how my own world works. Why do we sleep? Why does my cat sleep more? What makes my dog want to pee on every other fencepost and why does he turn three times before lying down? Why is the sky blue, the leaves green and poo brown? How do trees know which way is up when they grow, and why don't flies fall off the ceiling? Why do the pouches of Koalas open downwards and why don't the babies fall out? Do Chim­ panzees tell jokes? When I began finding out the answers to some of those questions my everyday life became enormously enriched. I also started to see parts of my school science fall into place. Then I became confused again. People said that biology, my main delight, was rather Mickey Mouse, not a real subject like maths or physics or chemistry, but an 'easy option' full of fid­ Science is not just men in white lab coats; Australian Museum's nm Flannery attempts, using dling with dead parts and making pretty pictures, to discover the origin of the rare New Guinean cuscus-skin hat.

446 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY ... a flight of great moment ...

THE HANDBOOK OF AUSTRALIAN, NEW ZEALAND AND ANTARCTIC BIRDS

ater this year, OxfordUniversity Press will commence publishing The Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, (HANZAB). L Publication of Volume I will coincide with a major new exhibition to be mounted at the Museum of Victoria in November, 1990. Four more volumes will appear over the next eight years, making HANZAB the most detailed and up-to-date handbook of the birds of Australasia. Produced by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (RAOU), HANZAB is the first comprehensive study of Australian birds since Gregory Mathews' twelve-volume Birds of Australia,which was completed in 1927 and which has long been a collector's item. Volume 1 will cover emus, kiwis, cassowaries, penguins, grebes, albatrosses, shearwaters, petrels, shags, cormorants, boobies, gannets, frigatebirds, herons, egrets, ibis,. storks, swans, geese and ducks. One hundred magnificent plates by Jeff Davies,one of Australia's foremostbird illustrators, depict all living species with an accuracy and attention to detail unsurpassed in any book on the birds of Australia, New Zealand or Antarctica. Each volume examines all aspects of field identification, social organization, behaviour, voice, habitat, distribution, breeding, movement, food,measurements, moult and precise plumage characteristics. To complement the text and plates, sonograms and annual breeding cycle diagrams have been created. Behavioural displays are summarized in succinct vignettes by Frank Knight. Plumage details have been drawn by David Andrew. The most accurate and up-to-date distribution maps ever produced for Australasian birds will be included.

Volume 1, 0 19 553068 3 1100 pages 100 colour and 100 b & w illustrations hardcover $295 (rrp) Due November 1990

------�------� I I wish to join the RAOU. Please send me...... copy/copiesof HANZAB at the special all inclusive price of S270.00 I OR Please send me ...... copy/copies of HANZABat the normal retail I price of S295.00 Customers should add $4.00 for postage and handling. I Send your order to: I RAOU 21 Gladstone Street, Moonee Ponds Victoria 3039 Fax No. (03) 370 9194 I I enclose my cheque for $ . . . • . (payable to the RAOU) or please charge my Bankcard/Visa/Mastercard I l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Expiry Date: ...... I:::�;·:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: I I ...... Postcode: ...... I OXFORD RAOU Signature ...... I CONSERVATION

"The notion of 'original conservationists' is framed in Eurocentric terms and does not do justice to the complex interactions between Aborigines and their environment. "

CONSERVATION AND ABORIGINAL LAND RIGHTS: WHEN GREEN IS NOT BLACK BY LESLEY HEAD DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG

T IS NOT SURPRISING THAT AUS­ tralians interested in the conservation of their natural environment are usually also supportiveI of Aboriginal land rights. The two groups have much in common but their interests are not identical. Where do con­ servationists stand, for instance, if Aborigi­ nes want to mine uranium on traditional lands, or shoot traditional food sources in national parks?

We must accept the concept of inhabited national parks. In other words, we cannot remove people from their land simply to fulfil ·a romantic illusion of a pristine, uninhabited past.

448 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 449 I want to suggest that the community of interest can be maintained and encour­ aged, but not if conservationists are locked into a romanticised view of Abor­ igines and the way they live in the en­ vironment. The same applies to our views HIGH of the Australian environment itself. Here I hope to show that views of Aborigines as 'the original conservationists' and wil­ derness as 'unchanging and virgin land­ scape' are ethnocentric and simplistic. In LOW the long term they may also be counter­ productive. SUGGESTED Although many of the environmental RELATIVE IMPORTANCE and cultural changes that have occurred OF MAJOR in Australia happened thousands of years VEGETATION ago, there are several reasons why they TYPES are relevant to us today. For a start, ideas about long-term changes in the Aus­ a: tralian landscape, and the role of Aborigi­ U.J z nes in those changes, are being used GEOLOGICAL ....,"" more often to justify particular land-use PERIODS :;;) TIME SCALE � decisions. Such ideas take on the role of (YEARS 8.P.) 22 10 MILLION 5 MILLION 50,000 10,000 z myths-narratives that justify and give � meaning to our actions. Because the ulti­ Environmental and vegetation changes from 22 million years ago to the present. (Adapted mate tests of any hypotheses about from A.P. Kershaw, L 'espace Geo. 12: 185-194; 1983.) Australia's past are buried deep in time, the subject will always be controversial much more information about what we environment itself as unchanging. Ar­ and there will be numerous opportunities are trying to preserve. A knowledge that chaeologists have suggested substantial for competing interest groups to use evi­ Australia's rainforests have been shrink­ changes in technology, settlement pat­ dence in conflicting ways. ing for several million years alerts us terns and social organisation during Also, we can't understand how natural even more to the importance of conser­ Australia's 40,000-year prehistory. That systems are likely to respond to present vation. Monash University geographer continues to the present, with Aborigines and future impacts unless we know how Peter Kershaw, the person mainly re­ adopting aspects of Euro-Australian tech­ they have done so in the past. For exam­ sponsible for our knowledge of northern nology and culture. Certainly the pace of ple, to predict the impacts of various Queensland forest history through pollen change has increased dramatically in the greenhouse scenarios, researchers are analysis, argues that such knowledge also last 200 years, but it is false to contrast a looking at the effects of past climatic and indicates implications for management. timeless past with an ever-changing pre­ sea-level changes. To use fire as a forest He points out that reserves should be sent. management tool we need to know how sufficiently large to accommodate poten­ Assessments of Aboriginal impacts on different forest types have responded to tial climatic changes, and should include the prehistoric landscape relate mainly to fire over a time scale longer than a re­ areas that can act as refuges during ad­ the use of fire. It is widely accepted that searcher's lifetime. verse conditions. Relict rainforest com­ Aborigines have used fire to enhance Perhaps the most significant recent munities will require special management, plant productivity, facilitate hunting and shift in views of the Australian landscape such as fire protection, if they are not to maintain access for thousands of years. is from a primeval, unchanging, virgin disappear completely. Much more controversial is the impact continent to a more dynamic one. We It is dangerous for conservationists to of this fire on the wider ecosystem. Scien­ now know that the Australian environ­ cling to ideas, however attractive, that tists are certainly not unanimous in their ment has been shaped by very dramatic are shown to be scientifically untenable. views on the impact of Aboriginal burning climatic changes over thousands and mil­ There are obvious historical reasons why on the Australian vegetation, but there is lions of years, probably exacerbated by Western cultures, having destroyed so considerable evidence that it favoured the Aboriginal impacts in more recent times. much of their environment, respond posi­ expansion of fire-tolerant vegetation Many of our forests have existed in tively to an idealised past when things types such as the sclerophylls at the ex­ their present distribution and composition were better. But we owe it to that very pense of fire-sensitive vegetation such as for only 10,000 years or so, having re­ environment to maintain intellectual in­ drier Araucarian (Hoop Pine etc.) treated to refuges during the last ice age, tegrity, for practical reasons as well as rainforest. Fire may also have had signifi­ when open grassland vegetation expanded ethical ones. cant if localised impacts in areas of slow in the cold, dry conditions. Conservation­ regeneration or vulnerability to erosion, ists who cite great age and stability as ONSERVATIONISTS HAVE OFTEN AS­ and may have exacerbated the effects of reasons for preserving rainforests may sumed community of interest with drying climate. Debate also continues thus find such evidence used against AboriginesC because they have a view of over the extent to which Aborigines, them. A few years ago the Queensland Aborigines as 'the original conservation­ whether through 'overkill' or destruction Forestry Department, for example, ists', living in perfect 'harmony with their of habitat, contributed to the extinction of argued that it is acceptable to log environment'. There is then a backlash the megafauna, a range of giant animals. rainforests because they have recovered against the view and the people when Despite the controversy, we can make from dramatic climatic change before. they act out of character with the stereo­ This argument completely ignores the type. Since the stereotype derives largely Lengths of metal (called 'crowbars' or 'wires' relative time scales over which climatic from perceptions of the way Aborigines depending on thickness) have replaced the and logging impacts have taken place, but 'used to be', we need to examine the wooden digging stick as the fundamental the point is that the myth of the eternal women's tool. Together with an axe, and evidence in this regard. sometimes a gun, they form a versatile all­ forest is demonstrably false. The stereotype contrasts the tradi­ purpose toolkit. Here Polly Wandanga has A far stronger argument is that a tional past with the tainted present. This caught a goanna by probing along the knowledge of forest history gives us has many parallels with the view of the burrow with her wire.

450 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 451 some summary statements. 1. Aborigines have been on the continent for at least 40,000 years and have occupied all parts of it. Even the desert centre has been inhabited for more than 20,000 years. The areas that we like to see as wilder­ ness, whether or not they have been moulded by burning, have been someone's home for that length of time. 2. Kershaw suggests that Aboriginal im­ pacts may have been greatest in the early years of colonisation, when they too were coming to terms with a new environment. The fact that Aborigines use fire in Arnhem Land today to protect fire­ sensitive monsoon jungle thickets sup­ ports this suggestion. As we go into the 1990s we have a lot less time to learn how Australian ecosystems work and modify our actions accordingly. 3. Abor­ iginal lifestyles were sustainable in the environment for a period of 40,000 years, which is considerably better than what we are doing. This sustainability has more to do with technological and popu­ lation limitations, in association with de­ tailed local knowledge, than with people being inherent conservationists. The notion of 'original conservationists' is framed in Eurocentric terms and does not do justice to the complex interactions be­ tween Aborigines and their environment. Many Aborigines are today returning from towns, reserves and missions to tra­ a: < ditional lands to re-establish aspects of a <.:l hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The incorpora­ _, :::, tion of European technology and more u.. er: sedentary settlement patterns into this <.b lifestyle, as well as high population 0 growth rates among Aborigines, raises :ti :i: some new dilemmas. The use of vehicles, _j guns and axes provides the potential for more intensive exploitation than occurred in the past. It is this sort of land use that raises the hackles of conservationists con­ cerned about impacts such as hunting of rare species and erosion around settle­ ments. Although there is no shortage of anecdotal evidence on the favourability or otherwise of such impacts, there is a dis­ tinct lack of systematic monitoring. A number of authors have commented on the incongruity of preventing Aborigi­ nal activity in national parks when it is their stewardship over thousands of years that has maintained the country in a state that makes non-Aborigines value it. Abor­ a: < igines with whom I work in the East Kimberley express bewilderment that _, :::, u.. their relatives in a nearby national park er: were expected not to hunt or burn simply <.b to cater for tourists from thousands of Cl i1i kilometres away. We need to re-educate :i: ourselves as tourists. Are our expecta­ _j tions of pristine, uninhabited areas The outstation movement should not be seen as an attempt to return to the past, as the reasonable? interactions between biosphere and ecosystem peoples have irrevocably altered both the Raymond Dasmann's concepts of 'eco­ resource base and the technology used to exploit it. Foods of the local ecosystem remain system people' and 'biosphere people' are important when they are abundant and easily harvested, for example kilen (Bush Mango, useful here. The former live within a Buchanania obovata). Such fruits are confined to particular seasons, in this case the early wet. Kilen is thought to have provided a staple food for intergroup meetings in the past. single ecosystem, depending for their sur­ Today it is an important source of fresh fruit, and a favourite of children like Mary Simon and vival on the continued functioning of that Helena Thadim (pictured). The method of pounding between stones remains the same as that ecosystem. Biosphere people, on the recorded in the past, with sugar now used as a sweetener instead of bush honey. other hand, are tied in with the global

452 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY technological and economic system. If the world, for example, the rainforest in­ 70,000 BP (350 bicentenaries) or they destroy one ecosystem, they can habitants of South-East Asia and South 120,000 BP (600 bicentenaries) are of draw on others. The areas that Euro­ America. increasing value. Many Aborigines, on the Australians, as biosphere people, increas­ other hand, see themselves as having ingly draw on for recreation and BORIGINES HA VE BEEN FORCED TO JUS­ always been here, since the Dreaming. refreshment are often those where Abor­ tify their land claims within a West­ Similarly, white attention focuses with igines, as ecosystem peoples, are trying Aern world view, often an inadequate some surprise on evidence for complex to preserve their culture against mount­ expression of the way they see their own resource management strategies, stone ing pressure. In a collision between the relationship to the land. The result is an house sites, village clusters, the system­ two, ecosystem cultures are extremely undue emphasis on things that might give atic use of fire and so on. These lifestyles fragile and the destruction of both nature such claims more credence in white eyes. may be valued by whites as much because and culture is often a result. The econ­ White Australians, for example, have they approach their own way of relating omic and ecological dilemmas of Austra­ tended to value antiquity of occupation in to the world as for what they say about lian Aborigines are similar to those faced absolute terms, so dates of Aboriginal ar­ prehistoric Aboriginal socioeconomic by indigenous peoples in many parts of rival of 40,000 BP (200 bicentenaries), structures. Such evidence, of course, can be used against Aborigines-if they are 'Biosphere people', unlike 'ecosystem people', are tied in with the global technological and seen to be rainforest destroyers it invali­ economic system. They do not rely on just one ecosystem. In winter, for example, fruit and dates their claims to land in some quar­ vegetables can be imported from warmer climates. ters. (This argument conveniently avoids the fact that, if rainforest clearance was a barrier to land tenure, we'd all have to leave the country!) Overemphasis on these arguments means that Aborigines literally can't win. White Australia has much to learn about how Aborigines used and use the land. But this should not constitute the criteria by which we judge land rights. These rights surely lie in the fact that Aborigines were here first and that a well-defined system of land tenure was in operation but ignored by the invaders_ Perhaps the most important step to­ wards the future is to increase our aware­ ness of cultural as well as natural � heritage. The logical outcome of such a � stance is a recognition of the concept of � inhabited national parks, as is well estab- � lished in the joint management arrange- � ments operating at Kakadu, Uluru and � � In the East Kimberley both Aborigines and white pastoralists regularly use fire. Biddy � Simon, of Marralam Outstation, burns grass- � land to help in hunting. >£

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 453 The Franklin Blockade in 1983: an effective alliance between conservationists and Aborigines. But there are tensions implicit in the simultaneous proclamation of 'World Heritage' and 'Aboriginal Land'. Gurig. Inhabited national parks do not are asking Australia's poorest communi­ Suggested Reading mean unlimited numbers of people with ties to forego substantial mining royalties Dasmann, R.F., 1984. Environmental con­ unfettered technology having unrestric­ in order to conserve places like Kakadu, servation. 5th ed. Wiley: New York. ted access. They do mean that we particularly where such conservation is Frankel, D., 1984. Who owns the past? Aust. Soc. 3(9): 14-15. shouldn't be able to remove people from considered to be in the national interest, Head, L., 1989. Prehistoric Aboriginal im­ their lands to create replicas of a roman­ then we as a nation must be prepared to pacts on Australian vegetation-an assess­ tic past that never existed. pay them for it. Such payments would in ment of the evidence. Aust. Geog. 20: In response to the World Commission part be a recognition that the Aborigines 37-46. on Environment Report (also known as and their ancestors are responsible for Kershaw, A.P., 1980. Long-term changes the Bruntland Commission Report), the the maintenance of the things we value in rainforest. Pp. 32-38 in Reef, rainforest, International Union for the Conservation about these environments. mangroves, man, ed. by J. Wright, N. of Nature has resolved to take special As a biosphere people tied to the global Mitchell and P. Watling. Wildlife Preser­ measures to protect the rights of tradi­ economy, non-Aboriginal Australia in­ vation Society of Queensland: Brisbane. tional peoples in conservation matters, creasingly values ecosystems that we Dr Lesley Head leaches geography a11d e11viron­ and to give adequate value to what has have not yet devastated. But in fighting men ta l prehistory at the University of become known as 'traditional ecological for the absolute preservation of such eco­ Wollongong. She and Dr R. Fullagar (Austra­ knowledge'. systems we may unwittingly place a lian Museum) are currently researching Aborigi­ The importance of cultural heritage is burden on people who are dependent on nal land use and resource management i11 the well known among conservationists. Most the renewable resources of those sys­ East Kimberley from prehistoric times to the pre­ would be aware that World Heritage tems. As conservationists we must learn sent. The research is funded by the Australian areas such as Kakadu, the Willandra to work with Aborigines in a way that Institute of Aboriginal Studies and the Uni­ versity of Wollongong. None of it would have been Lakes and south-western Tasmania have recognises the complexity of these issues possible without the generous participation of the been proclaimed for conforming to cul­ as well as the present needs of Australia's residents of Marra/an Outstation, particularly tural as well as natural criteria. But if we original inhabitants. • Biddy Simon and Polly Wandanga.

454 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Youcan learn a lot aboutthe history of MacquarieStreet just by looking at thepavement.

Macquarie Street's Sydney Hospital hasn't Further down the street you'll find the site In an effort to pay tribute to this, Caltex,

always enjoyed such an established and con- where the Female School of Industry once stood. in association with the NSW Public Works

In 1826, before anybody had even heard of

'Feminism,' the colony ran short of servants.

site was occupied by Accordingly, the ladies of the colony set plaques along Macquarie

a hospital which was up the Female School of Industry in ordet to Street, each marking a his-

teach their lesser sisters "every branch of liquor of the day, namely, Rum. household work." The site is more appropriately So ii you want to find out what Sydney was

In 1810, three Sydney businessmen built occupied now by the Mitchell Library. really like in the early days, look out for the .a::P-c:'WD. the city a magnificent hospital in exchange for ,p· The fact is, Macquarie Caltex Commemorative Plaques on your next (;' -::E:.E.-� the coveted monopoly over the city's Rum trade. 1fi'Street is more than just ttJ �,E"� 8 You could learn a

lot simply by watching demolished to build the present Sydney Hospital. Australia's, most interesting thoroughfare. where you walk.

Uh(', 0,1 CAu

456 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY "Sudden falls of volcanic ash can freeze asingle segment of time and preserve everything in place for millennia."

BY ROBIN TORRENCE, JIM SPECHT & RICHARD FULLAGAR ANTHROPOI.OGY, AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

OUND 3,500 YEARS AGO THE INHAB­ tants of West New Britain, Papua ew Guinea, witnessed one of the most massive volcanic eruptions to have occurred during the time of Homo sapiens. Mt Witori literally blew its top off, ash was spewed over htmdreds of thousands of kilometres, and fast-moving pyroclastic flows, appropriately nick­ named 'glowing avalanches', destroyed everything in their wake for hundreds of kilometres around the volcano. Not sur­ prisingly, this single event had a profound and possibly long-lasting effect on hwnan adaptation in this part of the world.

A new road mt at Bl1Dbra Mission reY8lls 1he camplex ...... "'ashesand sols that Is chwactill'tsdc1he "' wlcanlc hlslury "' West New Britain. HIie Dn .lnl Spechtand Richard Fullagar are explalnl 1D .. many ,-ng :.L;:: ....who=-' akemlnllnstln1he work.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 457 Centuries later archaeologists are grateful for volcanic events because of their unique role in preserving the past. One only has to think of the famous site of Pompeii, which was sealed intact under the ash of the eruption of Mt Vesuvius in AD79. Sudden falls of volcanic ash can freeze a single segment of time and pre­ serve everything in place for millennia. What a difference from the sites that ar­ chaeologists normally study. People usually abandon settlements deliberately, leaving only their garbage behind. In con- cx: trast, archaeological sites like Pompeii � provide us with very rich glimpses into :3 the past, but such golden opportunities i:r are extremely rare. � Thanks to the violent eruptions of Mt 1 Witori and other volcanoes in West New � Britain, Pompeii-like sites are not uncom- mon there. Archaeological fieldwork in An aerial view across Garua Harbour looking north toward Mt Wangore (see map) shows the 1988-89 has revealed that landscapes active volcanic landscape around Talasea. The cluster of white buildings in the lower left spread over thousands of square corner is Bitokara Mission. kilometres have been preserved under a series of ashes from a number of different Bismarck and Solomon plates come The area around Talasea provided the volcanic events over the past 10,000 together. The volcanic history of the area focus of our investigations because it years. Although nothing so spectacular as has been the recent subject of analysis by holds a special significance for Pacific pre­ Pompeii has emerged, we have discov­ Russell Blong from Macquarie University history. Obsidian derived from outcrops ered buried settlements, quarries and and his Japanese colleagues. Around Cape nearby was widely distributed throughout workshops. From the finds unearthed so Hoskins and the Willaumez Peninsula, the Pacific from 20,000 years ago up to far, we can begin to speculate about the they have identified nine phases of vol­ the present. At its greatest extent, the impact of these dramatic events on shap­ canic eruptions dated within the past prehistoric distribution network of ing human history. 10,000 years. Archaeological remains are Talasea obsidian covered an area stretch­ The volcanoes that dominate the land­ sealed under ashes from a number of ing from eastern Indonesia to Fiji, about scape of West New Britain belong to the these events, but the best evidence is 7,000 kilometres. One aim of our project eastern group of the Bismarck Volcanic centred around the eruption of Mt Witori is to trace changes in the way obsidian Arc, which is located where the South 3,500 years ago. was extracted and manufactured at the

Malaiol Stream Garua Island

UJ>­ I < <.;l A Mt Witori � >- 8 .&Mopir

458 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY o C-o o'b> • o oa o

0 •o �o .._. :,,;;q

At Bitokara Mission a three-metre-deep trench revealed a textbook example of ar­ chaeological stratigraphy. The dark layers are soils that contain the waste by-products from the manufacture of obsidian tools. In two cases these obsidian workshops have been covered by thick falls of volcanic ash, represented by the yellow layers. The lower ash fell when Mt Witori, located 60km east of Talasea, erupted about 3,500 years ago. A dense band of obsidian waste from the manufacture of stemmed tools can be seen in the lowest soil horizon. sources as a way of reconstructing the cultural mechanisms responsible for dis­ tributing it over such a large area. At Bitokara Mission we found a re­ markable layer cake of history. Our VOLCANIC ASH three-metre-deep trench revealed three D distinct ashes clearly separated by well­ developed soils. The distinctive colour DARK BROWN LOAM and texture of the middle layer of ash II identified it as coming from the Witori eruption. A radiocarbon date on charcoal from just below the ash correlates with IIBLACK-BROWN LOAM Blong's date for the eruption at about 3,500 years ago. The excavation revealed waste by-products of obsidian tool manu­ IIRED-BROWN CLA y facture sealed in the dark soil horizons both above and beneath the Witori ash. Slightly further uphill a new road conve­ IIRE-DEPOSITED VOLCANIC ASH !;;IOBSIDIAN niently cut further slices into the well­ preserved layers of prehistoric land­ PUMICE scapes. YELLOW-BROWN CLAY One of the most important findings II IOI from Bitokara comes from the obsidian RED STONE artefacts buried under the Witori ash. PUMICE BAND � Among the abundant flaking debris were toool retouched tools with various shapes, but all with clearly defined stems or tangs, probably for fitting into a handle. Material At Bitokara Mission ashes of two volcanic preserved along the road shows that eruptions have sealed prehistoric obsidian people quarried obsidian from outcrops on workshops. the hillside, trimmed the nodules, and then knocked off larger pieces that could An outcrop of obsidian once buried by vol­ be made into stemmed tools. Partially canic ashes but now uncovered in the bed of prepared flakes were then carried down Malaiol Stream on Garua Island. to the area of our excavation for the final stages of tool manufacture. At this same A number of. tantalising questions are spot, small flakes also used as tools, were raised by these preliminary findings. Did struck from fist-sized nodules. After the the catastrophe associated with the Witori ash fell, stemmed tools disappear Witori eruption cause the changes in tool from Bitokara and the obsidian-working production and the decline in the obsidian areas contain significantly less waste ma­ industry at Bitokara? Does the loss of terial. stemmed tools mean that a different

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 459 Stemmed obsidian tools come in all shapes O ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS, WE NEED crop of obsidian and buried under the and sizes. The largest in this photograph is more information-more 'Pompeiis'. Witori ash. As at Bitokara, the greatest 21cm long. The stem probably made it easier TFinding buried archaeological sites re­ density of working material accumulated to hold the tool, but we are uncertain quires special strategies. We have found before the ash fell and the obsidian source whether it was set into a handle or simply that, apart from scanning fresh road cut­ wrapped with leaves or vines to form a grip. was buried. With well over a metre of tings, the best technique is to look along densely packed obsidian flakes, however, group of people had settled the area? watercourses. Tracing the course of a the thickness of the working floors under Since at least some of the obsidian out­ stream provides a long, narrow window Witori ash is much greater than at crops would have been covered over by on past activities: a slice through the Bitokara. Stemmed tools were recovered ash, the Bitokara sources may have gone layers as well as a transect across the throughout the working floors under the out of use and been replaced by outcrops prehistoric landscapes. ash. Not far downstream from our trench, in other areas. In any case, buried out­ Malaiol Stream on Garua Island pro­ two tools were discovered lying on a crops would have had to be quarried by a vides an ideal setting for studying how ground surface immediately below the different method than was used pre­ techniques of obsidian quarrying and tool ash. After the Witori ash was deposited, viously. What effect would a change in manufacture changed through time. At obsidian-working at the Malaiol Stream sources have had on the wider exchange one locality we found a series of stratified site declined, possibly because people network? working floors directly adjacent to an out- were forced to dig down to the obsidian.

460 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Obsidian block, or core, partially reconstructed from chipped pieces, or flakes, found in the Bitokara Mission excavation. Although incomplete, this shows the typical way of flaking obsidian to make tools in the period after the Witori eruption. Richard Fullagar has refitted 20 flakes and pieces to reconstruct the original core. Most flakes were struck from the flat surface shown here. The stone tool maker also turned the core to strike off flakes from other flat surfaces, but selected only some flakes to be used as tools. Richard has microscopically examined these tools and has identified traces of plant residues on their edges suggesting that they were used to process plant materials. ex:: <( Q ...J:s ::::, u.. 0 ex:: <( :c er:u

1- :c u UJ 0.. V, When surveying Malaiol Stream on Garua ::iE Island, Richard Fullagar and Robin Torrence ::::; found a thick layer of obsidian artefacts People living in the vicinity of Bitokara Mis­ in the stream bank several metres below sion are eager to help archaeologists learn the ground surface and lying underneath a about their past. Leo Metta, shown here with volcanic ash (here visible at about head his family, was our main guide and assistant height). in 1988.

Outlines of pits present on the sides of the stream show that some were willing to search for outcrops but that others simply quarried the buried waste by­ products left by previous obsidian workers. To date most of our efforts have been ex:: devoted to uncovering the obsidian � quarry-workshop localities. We have, ...J:s ::::, however, also discovered several settle­ u.. C) ex:: ments sealed under the Witori ash. At <( :c site FAO, located on the hillside above u Malaiol Stream, two pieces of decorated er: pottery were discovered directly above Archaeologists can find sites by searching along watercourses, such as Malaiol Stream on the Witori ash. The style of the decora­ Garua Island. Here the stream has cut a slice through the la.Yers, revealing a sequence of past tion is Lapita (see ANH vol. 22, no. 9, landscapes sealed under volcanic ashes. Dr Robin Torrence is standing by a prehistoric 1988), which is dated to the period from workshop that has been covered by a layer of yellow ash.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 461 canarium nuts, but to everyone's disap­ pointment there was very little pottery. By the time of the next volcanic eruption, this village had already been abandoned. On top of a second layer of ash we found obsidian and pottery belonging to a settle­ ment occupied sometime during the last 200 years or so. Local oral history states that this was the ancestral village to modern Kilu, which is now on the beach about two kilometres away.

HE WITORI ERUPTION CLEARLY HAD A profound impact on the way people Textracted obsidian and manufactured tools in the Talasea area. Not only did they stop producing stemmed tools after the eruption, but also large-scale quarry­ ing of obsidian at two localities seems to have been abandoned. What other effects could this eruption have had on human life in this region? Although we do not know the original thickness of the Witori ash that fell around Talasea, the depths preserved in our archaeological sites are sufficient to have destroyed all plant life in the area. Tropical plants have been known to recover quickly from such di­ sasters, but it would take several months, if not longer, to re-establish gardens. People at Talasea, as well as their neighbours over hundreds of thousands of square kilometres, would have faced cer­ tain starvation. It seems likely that every­ one would have been forced to leave the area. We still know very little about the people who returned to the Talasea area but it is extremely interesting that they possessed Lapita pottery. It is important to note that, at the same time that people were re-colonising the northern coast of West New Britain, groups bearing Lapita pottery were beginning to settle some of the remote islands of the Pacific for the first time-places like Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. What is similar about these two different areas is that they were both risky places for colonists. In the case of Talasea, the eruption had destroyed all the potential sources of food. People would therefore have had to rely on im­ ports until new gardens were established. For the remote Pacific, people faced enormous hazards in travelling long dis­ tances to small islands. Having landed safely, they still had to keep themselves alive in an unfamiliar environment. It seems likely that the pioneers in both areas would have actively sought to Without the constant high spirits and good cheer of our TAMS volunteers, the excavations at keep in touch with people who could pro­ the Walindi site would not have been possible. vide backup assistance in times of hard­ ship. The widespread distribution of about 3,500 to 2,000 years ago. Given Pompeiis. The earliest use of the site is Lapita pottery and of obsidian may be an the dates we have for the Witori erup­ represented by obsidian artefacts occur­ archaeological signature of the communi­ tion, Lapita production must have begun ring in a sticky brown soil identical to cation networks that linked small com­ at Talasea soon after the event. that containing stemmed tools at Malaiol munities of pioneers to each other and Lapita sherds have also been found Stream and Bitokara. Next, the landscape back to their home bases. Because the lying on the surface at Walindi Plantation, was destroyed by the Witori ash. Around designs on Lapita pottery are similar about 20 kilometres south of Talasea. In 2,000 years ago another village was built throughout the large area in which it is July 1989, excavations carried out by vol­ on top of the ash. The volunteers un­ found, the people who decorated the pots unteers from The Australian Museum So­ earthed a hearth, post holes and large must have shared ideas and been in rela­ ciety revealed yet another layer cake of quantities of shells from coconuts and tively frequent contact. Similarly, the ob-

462 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY sidian found on sites spread over a large area of the Pacific at this time comes from only a small number of sources. It could only have been obtained by travel­ ling to the source area, considerable dis­ tances in many cases, or by exchange with other groups. Perhaps the people re-colonising Talasea actively promoted the use of obsidian in order to create a reason for people who were potential sources of aid to keep in contact with them. Whether the people bearing Lapila pot­ tery were new to West New Britain or were previous residents returning with an adaptation to the new risks they would face, cannot yet be determined. Only fur­ ther research will resolve these issues. But we can be certain that the Pompeiian landscapes around Talasea will be essen­ tial for understanding what life was like during the time of Lapita pottery. Exca­ vation in the levels preserved under the Witori ash will also yield highly important data, since sites dating before the time of Lapila pottery are extremely rare any­ where in the Pacific. The prehistory of West New Britain, like many areas of the Pacific, is a story coloured by cataclysmic volcanic events. It is fascinating to see how over many millennia people have reacted to these disasters. By learning about how prehis­ toric people interacted with their environ­ ment, archaeology can help the crisis managers of the future assess potential hazards and perhaps even suggest strat­ egies for coping with them. •

Suggested Reading Blong, R.J., 1984. Volcanic hazards: a sourcebook on the effects of eruptions. Aca­ demic Press: Sydney. Kirch, P.V., 1988. Long-distance exchange and island colonization. Norweg. Archaeol. Rev. 21: 103-117. Specht, J., Fullagar, R., Torrence, R. & Baker, N., 1988. Prehistoric obsidian ex­ change in Melanesia: a perspective from the Talasea sources. Aust. Archaeol. 27: 3-16. White, P., Allen; J. & Specht, J., 1988. The Lapita Homeland Project. Aust. Nat. Hist. 22: 410-416.

Dr Robin Torre11ce is a Research Affiliate i II the Divisio11 of Anthropology, Australian Museum. Previously she /aught at the University of Sheffield in England and has carried out arclzae­ ological fieldwork in Europe and the United States. Dr Jim Specht is a se11ior scientist in the Division of Anthropology, Australian Museum. He has carried out archaeological research in Papua New Guinea for over 20 years. His main research interests lie in u11dersta11di11g the devel­ opment of social and economic stmctures in the Bismarck Archipelago. Dr Richard Fullagar holds an Australian Research Council National Research Fellowship in the Division of A nthro­ po/ogy, Australian Museum. His research focuses a:: on the study of how stone tools were made and <( used. Robin, Jim and Richard arecurrently work- � ing together with Dr Chris Gosden, La Trobe :::, University, Melbourne, 011 an Australian Re- � search Council-fimded research project, studying � The enormous depth of the buff-coloured volcanic ash in a road cutting near Mopir leaves no the prehistoric settlement, social and economic 0 doubt about the catastrophic effects of volcanic activity on human life in West New Britian. systems of West New Britain. a:

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 463 "During the first part of our residence [at Downe], we went a little into society, and received a few friends here; but my health almost always suffered from the excitement, violent shivering and vomiting attacks being thus brought on. " CHARLES DARWIN:

A VICTIM OF AGORAPHOBIA? BY DAVID RUTHERFORD ARCHIVIST

OST PEOPLE KNOW OF CHARLES Darwin as one of the world's great scientists, as the father of modern biology and as the advocate of that most influential of scientific theories, evolution.M But how many people know very much about Darwin the man? How many are aware that, for the last half of his life, he was a virtual recluse, unable to leave his house in Kent except for the smallest of journeys. For over 30 years, Darwin saw very few people, apart from his immediate family. As he himself ad- Right: portrait of Charles Darwin by John Collier. Did he suffer from agoraphobia, the fear of public and open places? The image above may capture the feelingsan agoraph& bic experiences when going out in a crowd.

464 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 465 nation was due to ill health, yet the army doctors could find nothing wrong with him. ,_ This idea that Darwin's illness may have been not physical but psychosomatic -- ,,.__ ...... , ...... is given some weight by the testimony of the naturalist's friends and colleagues. To ,, -·. , ,(_ ...... -.. # most of them he looked quite well. As , .. 1... ( /.•• · $. • ,:,-, - .,,_ Darwin complained in a letter to his . ,.. ' '> ,.. -t. ,1,'.,. _,.. .-.. friend, Joseph Hooker, "Every one tells ,l' c/-'- /·• me that I look quite blooming and beauti­ '...:. ,I ful; and most think I am shamming... " ...... , ... ,, • f (quoted by Chancellor 1973). f• C (• . ' But if current opinion seems to suggest ,:-..,.1 "- 'I that a psychological problem may have • re' been the cause of Darwin's 'illness', there is not as yet much agreement on what exactly that problem was. The view I want to put forward here is that Darwin was a victim of agoraphobia. This would explain his obsession with privacy. It would also explain why he was so fre­ quently struck down with 'ill health' when The many letters that Darwin exchanged social demands were placed upon him. with friends and family hold clues to the nat­ The word 'agoraphobia' means fear of uralist's 'illness'. public and open places. The condition can still managed to reach the proverbial take a variety of forms and people can three score years and ten. When he fi­ suffer from it to varying degrees. In the nally died in 1882, it was from a heart worst cases, they are unable to leave attack. their homes for fear of having a panic There has been much speculation attack, the symptoms of which can be about Darwin's mystery illness. Some dizziness, sweating, palpitations, head­ writers have argued that it may have aches, weakness about the limbs and so been some exotic disease that he picked on. Home is equated with safety, while up during his voyage around the world on the outside world is to be feared and HMS Beagle (between 1831 and 1835). shunned. In the milder cases, the victims Before this voyage, Darwin was remark­ of agoraphobia can control their anxiety. ably healthy; after it, he never knew good For example, they may be afraid of large health again. Particular attention has fo­ crowds yet they conquer that fear every cused on South America, where the day in going to work. It is known that a Charles Darwin and his sister Catherine. As a young naturalist spent a good deal of traumatic experience can sometimes trig­ child, Darwin favoured solitary 1Jursuits. time. It has been pointed out that in ger off the condition. Often the person 1836, while travelling through the Argen­ will be struck down with a panic attack mitted in his autobiography (quoted in tine, he was bitten by the Benchuca Bug. when starting a new job or when travel­ Railing 1978): "Few persons can have As Darwin states in his diary, for the ling overseas and this can unleash the full lived a more retired life than we have purposes of experiment he allowed this onset of the illness. Subsequent investiga­ done. Besides short visits to the houses of blood-sucking beetle to bite him repeat­ tion usually shows, however, that it was relations, and occasionally to the seaside edly. Now the Benchuca Bug is a known not the new job or the travel that was the or elsewhere, we have gone nowhere." carrier of Trypanosoma cruzi, a micro­ real cause. A long period of stress and a Why did Darwin lead such a retired organism that can give rise to Chagas' psychological predisposition were the real existence? Was it through fear of abuse Disease. This disease has some of the underlying factors. from opponents of his scientific theories? symptoms about which Darwin was later Not really. He had deliberately chosen to to complain. But if this theory is correct, O WHAT EXTENT DOES CHARLES DARWIN live in a remote part of Kent in 1842, 17 then there is still the awkward fact of fit this model of agoraphobia? The years before The origin of species was Darwin's longevity. His allegedly fatal Tmain evidence comes from his autobio­ published. At that stage of his life (he was complaint took 46 years to kill him. graphical writings. Shortly before his only 33), Darwin was not known for any Another group of writers has argued death, Darwin was persuaded by his wife radical ideas. Quite the contrary, his writ­ that Darwin did not have a real, long­ Emma to write a short account of his life ings up to that time placed him in the term illness at all; that his problem was for the benefit of their children. This au­ mainstream of science. not physical, but psychological. For exam­ tobiography was never intended for publi­ One reason for this very secluded ple, James Bunting in his recent biogra­ cation. However, fortunately for pos­ existence was illness. Charles Darwin was phy has produced a wealth of evidence to terity, it has been published in full and it the victim of frequent ill health for the the effect that the Darwin family was ob­ provides many insights into the scientist's last 45 years of his life. In his autobiogra­ sessed with ill health. Many of the natu­ mind and character. In addition to phy, he complained bitterly about all the ralist's children fell victim to a range of Darwin's autobiography, there is the time that he had lost through illness. But psychosomatic disorders. Francis Darwin diary that he kept during his fiveyears on what was this mysterious complaint? Its was, in his father's own words a "moody HMS Beagle. This consists of 18 tiny symptoms were very vague: dizziness, young fellow". He was subsequently to pocket books. A third source is the official bouts of nausea and persistent tiredness. suffer from acute depression. Henrietta journal of the voyage, originally published Moreover, it did not conform to any dis­ and George were notorious hypochondri­ in three parts in 1839. Part III was writ­ ease pattern. The attacks came and went. acs. Leonard was apparently happy as an ten by Darwin and was based on his diary Nor did it prove fatal. Darwin had the army officer, until he suddenly resigned but with many additions and deletions. complaint for more than 40 years and yet his commission. He insisted that his resig- Finally, there are the many letters that

466 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY For most of his five-year voyage around the world on HMS Beagle, Darwin suffered from terrible seasickness and homesickness.

England for such a long time: "I was troubled with palpitations and pain about the heart, and like many an [ignorant] young man, especially one with a smat­ tering of medical knowledge, was con­ vinced that I had heart disease." The five-year voyage around the world was to prove a watershed in Darwin's life. It awakened in him an intense interest in geology and palaeontology, subjects that until then he had dismissed as being of little value. It gave him nearly all the original material and research data he � was to use in his subsequent scientific 8 work and, towards the end of the voyage, � he had already conceived some of his � ideas on natural selection. But Darwin :;; also paid a price for these gains. He had � to spend five years in cramped quarters g (the Beagle was just 28 metres long with � a crew of 70). This was very hard for a i person who craved solitude. Further- � more, he had to share a cabin with the Darwin ship's captain, Robert Fitzroy. Fitzroy family. was a difficult man, proneto bouts of rage On the basis of these sources, it is and depression (he later committed possible to reconstruct the chief events of suicide). But worst of all for Darwin was Darwin's life. Let us briefly consider what the suffering caused by seasickness. As those events were. From his autobiogra­ he later commented in his journal, this phy it is clear that, as a child and as a was "no trifling evil cured in a week, as young man, Darwin was already some­ most people suppose." For much of the thing of a loner. He favoured solitary pur­ voyage, he was in a wretched state � suits, such as collecting beetles, shooting � indeed. cc birds and going for long walks in the With his usual fortitude, however, :::; countryside. After the death of his �z mother (when he was only eight), the LU chief influence on his life was his rather Left: Darwins wife Emma ( 1808-1896 ). � Below: the Darwin family outside Down a: domineering father. Robert Darwin was a House. cc medical practitioner in Shrewsbury. Be­ ::e cause he was a doctor, he decided that 6 Charles would be one also. In 1825 at the tender age of 16, Darwin was packed off to Edinburgh to study medicine. For a sensitive young man, this was to prove a tralli:1atic experience. D�g his studies, he witnessed two operations, one of them performed upon a child. This was in the days before anaesthetic and Darwin found them so shocking that he rushed out of the operating theatre, never to return: "The two cases fairly haunted me for many a long year." It was soon obvious to his family that he was not suited to a medical career. His father then proposed that Charles become a clergyman. This time he went to Cambridge University. It was as a consequence of his studies there that Darwin quite by chance heard about a job going on the British survey ship HMS Beagle. Essentially the position involved serving as the ship's naturalist, but with­ out pay. Darwin was accepted and was initially full of enthusiasm for the voyage. He had long hoped to emulate the feats of the great naturalist Alexander von Humboldt who had explored much of South America. But as the date of depar­ ture loomed, Darwin started to suffer from acute anxiety about having to leave

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 467 would have challenged most modern mountaineers. Unfortunately for the young naturalist, these stops on dry land were few and far between. The Beagle was a survey ship and, for most of its five-year journey, it was at sea. Apart from seasickness, he also suffered terribly from homesickness. His tribulations were only "partly re­ lieved by anticipating the long-wished-for day of return ". He was later to describe the sea as "a tedious waste, a desert of water ". In October 1836, the traveller finally returned home. He was a very different person to the one who had left. Before the voyage, Darwin had a passion for ex­ ploration and travel. His journey round the world seemed to have killed that. He never left Britain again (apart from a brief holiday in Paris) and his horizons became more and more restricted. The voyage of the Beagle also seems to have affected his a:: UJ \.J relations with other people. His propen­ 8 sity for solitude, already apparent before ...J the voyage, was greatly intensified.For a ::r: variably brings on so much swimming of u.. the head, nausea and other symptoms, 0 UJ that the effect of sitting... in a public ...J� chair would be quite intolerable to me ...J 8 [my emphasis]." ...J Darwin's condition seemed to have become worse with age. Towards the end ! of his life, he found himself shying away

468 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Stone carving of Charles Darwinon the front wall of Down House from all social contact, except for his im­ mediate family. He could not even bear to see his friend and champion Thomas Huxley. Like many agoraphobics, Darwin seems to have used physical illness as a means of avoiding unwanted social con­ tact. To some extent this was uncon­ scious but perhaps not entirely so. As he admitted in his autobiography "Even ill­ health, though it has annihilated several years of my life, has saved me from the distractions of society... " This is not, of course, to say that all of his ill health was psychosomatic. Darwin was prone to overwork and this probably made him vulnerable to many viral infections.

N THE FOREGOING SURVEY OF DARWfN'S I life, I have concentrated on certain LJ.J negative aspects of his personality. How­ V\ ::, ever, it would be unfair to this great man 0 to leave it simply at that. Darwin had ::i:: many positive qualities that are worthy of note. Although he was attacked by ortho­ dox Victorians as the Devil incarnate, Darwin was in his private life a model of �I the family virtues. As his surviving corre­ � spondence makes clear, he was a loving husband and a devoted father. He was also extremely tolerant and good-natured, even towards his staunchest critics. Top: the living room in Down House and, Suggested Reading Darwin disliked controversy and disputa­ below, the study in Down House where tion. When his friend, Thomas Huxley, Darwin wrote The origin of species. Bunting, J., 1974. Charles Darwin. Bailey sprang to his defence, Darwin urged him Brothers and Swinfen Ltd: London. not to attack the critics too vigorously. The origin of species. In spite of the Chancellor, J., 1973. Charles Darwin. Darwin felt that the best defence against storm that raged over his book, Darwin George Weidenfeld and Nicholson Ltd: criticism was to simply get on with his continued to live in peaceful solitude until London. work. He remained remarkably produc­ the end. Clark, R.W., 1984. The survival of Charles tive right through his declining years. He Anyone who has read Charles Darwin's Darwin. George Weidenfeld and Nicholson autobiographical writings cannot help but Ltd: London. was still writing at his death in 1882. Darwin, C., 1959. The voyage of the It could be argued, in fact, that respect and admire him. His character Beagle. Everyman's Library, J.M. Dent and Darwin's agoraphobia, far from hindering was complex. He combined great sensi­ Sons Ltd: London. him in the progress of his scientific work, tivity with great courage. He was ambi­ Ralling, C., 1978. The voyage of Charles may actually have helped him. Because he tious, in the sense of seeking public Darwin. British Broadcasting Corporation: led the life of a recluse for some 40 years, recognition for his ideas but, at the same London. he was entirely free to pursue his own time, he was a humble and reticent man. interests, without the pressures of having To say that he was prone to certain Mr David Rutherford studied history at the Uni­ to account to other people. His isolation human weaknesses is in no way to detract versity of Sydney and has a Diploma in Archives also helped to mitigate against the deluge from his status as one of the great men of Administration. He has held a long-time interest of criticism that followed publication of science.• i11 Charles Darwin.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 469 "One of the most exciting applications ofresidue analysis lies in the extraction and analysis of DNA from both blood and bone." GETTING BLOOD FROM A STONE

470 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY -· .. -....

.,.- ¥ ---.- • - • .... • A .. ------�" ... . ' - ...... �,.�_,...... ,.,.,,..:...... - -- - ..,_ .... l .., -- ' •. -·. - .....-� -----�"'�· -��-�.�------.- ---.C-..��- -���----'"-----' BY TOM H. LOY RESEARCH SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & PACIFIC STUDIES AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

ETWEEN 20 AND 35 THOUSAND YEARS moment of artistic creation in a person's ago a hunter stopped near what is life, a life now only hinted at by that now the southern end of the Lake painting. MungoB sand dune to make and use some What was the hunter doing? How were stone tools. He left behind a few stone the tools used, and on what materials? flakes as the only evidence of his passing. Were the extinct animals part of the diet Associated with those tools are the bones of the hunter, or does their presence of extinct animals. Similarly, a few thou­ merely reflect the natural death of the sand kilometres further north, near what animals? When was the rock painting is now called Laurie Creek, a small and made? What part did that creative act faded rock painting is all that remains of a play in the life of the painter and his

The sand dune on the shore of Lake Mungo in western New South Wales. People have lived along this lakeshore for at least 30,000 years. Campsites with hearths, scatters of tools and the debris from making these tools, and the bones of extinct animals can be found all along the now-eroding sand dune.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 471 MM jl1111111 q 111111111jl 1111111 q 11111111'I '11 11 111 1j :i :E 2 culture? How closely related in a genetic sense are the two people who made and used the tools and painted on the cliff wall? Archaeologists have used many methods to tease answers to such ques­ tions out of the fragmentary and often obscure remnants of the lives of peoples have emphasised similarity and dissimilar­ past. However, the methods of discovery, ity in tool shape; and the presence or excavation and analysis that have been absence of specific types of tools has been brought to bear on understanding life in used as part of the pattern recognition prehistoric times have often been limited process. The patterns of prehistory have to answering the most obvious questions. been analysed using our modern perspec­ The limitations come from two major tive of what makes a tool a tool. And our sources. One lies in the fragmentary inferences that lead to the recognition of nature of the evidence itself and reflects 'cultural signatures' have been based on a the profound difference in technology and kind of 'what if. . .' mode of thinking. lifestyle between ourselves and those Analogies are drawn from ethnographic whose lifestyles we want to understand. accounts of people's lives at the time of From our own direct experience, for historical contact, or from direct inter­ example, we can appreciate and partially views with elders who remember the old understand some of the details of the ar­ ways of living; we also rely on our sys­ chitectural design, building techniques tems of scientific observationand discrim­ . and economy and organisation of labour ination to weave together broad •" of ancient Egypt or Mesoamerica, but we reconstructions of the past. are largely at a loss to comprehend the To this type of reasoning, modern ar­ everyday details of living in Australia 300 chaeologists add studies of diet and recon­ Above: a small scraping tool used to work years ago, let alone 20,000 years ago. structions of climate and environments wood. In the course of tool use, the person The other source is largely technologi­ from the evidence of discarded bones and using the tool sustained a cut and left behind cal. Faced with the vast amount of enig­ macroscopic plant remains. The study of a thick blood residue, visible as a dark line matic evidence left by people who lived soils and sediments allows individual site near the lower edge. Bottom: photomicro­ by hunting animals and collecting plants, occupations to be distinguished and graph of some of the thick blood residue on the approach has been to describe tools changes through time to be documented. the tool. The tool is from a site in north­ The analysis of human skeletons can western Iraq that has been dated to about or art and seek the regularities that con­ 100,000 years old. This is the oldest human stitute distinctive cultural patterning and point towards the genetic changes that blood yet known. The tool is about four permit subdivisions into similar time occurred over long periods of human his­ centimetres long and the thick crust of blood periods, task or art styles. Traditionally tory. And dating techniques, such as ra­ is about 50 microns in width. the methods of archaeological analysis diocarbon dating, thermoluminescence or 472 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Modern replica of a tool used experimentally to remove meat and tissue from a rib bone. Note Researchers had been using edge large build-up of organic residue on the tool surface resulting from only a brief period of use. damage to suggest the type of raw ma­ terial on which the tool was used but uranium series dating, have been invalu­ preserved over time periods that range accidental damage during manufacture, or able in sorting out the relative (and some­ now in excess of 100,000 years. The use even after abandonment of the tool, can times absolute) chronology of occupations of modern biochemical and genetic tech­ lead to uncertainty in the determination and periods in the past when specific niques of analysis, and small-sample radio­ of tool function and worked material. types of tools were made, and correlating carbon dating of these residues, provides Lawrence Keeley, from the University of changes in environment to better under­ a way to eliminate much of the intrinsic Chicago's Anthropology Department, stand the way people coped with a de­ uncertainty of archaeological reconstruc­ then published a series of papers suggest­ manding and changing world. tion. ing that, by examination of the surface of As the physical and biological sciences the tool at high magnification, it was develop and refine their own analytical HE DISCOVERY HAD ITS BEGINNING SOME possible to observe types and degrees of techniques, many have been adapted to ten years ago when I undertook an the polish that were produced by dif­ the study of prehistoric evidence. Archae­ Tanalysis of over 700 chipped and ground ferent tasks and were specifically related ologists, too, have refined and broadened stone tools that came from a large to different raw materials. their own unique methods of analysis. number of sites from the Pacific North­ During the course of my own experi­ The recent development of experimental west Coast of British Columbia in Canada. ments to replicate Keeley's use-polish archaeology, for example, has enabled a The purpose of that analysis was to dis­ analysis it became clear that, in the ma­ better understanding of how tools were cover the extent, if any, of changes in jority of cases, the polish was not caused made and how they sustained damage and preferred style of projectile points (arrow­ by a reduction of the tool surface, but by wear when they were used to do different heads and spearpoints) during the past the addition of remnants of the worked tasks. But with most analytical techniques 4,000 years. Although there is a common­ material to the surface of the tool. When there is an intrinsic uncertainty contained sense understanding of what constitutes cutting meat with stone tools I had made in the reconstruction of past human the basic shape of projectile points, it was myself, for example, the polish I observed events and processes. imperative to be able to specify the exact was made up of a layer of blood and fat. Eight years ago I discovered a fact that function of each object under study and Another anthropologist, Frederick Bruier has profound implications in the analysis thus it was necessary to develop a from California State University, had pub­ of past human activities: blood and other method of distinguishing similarly shaped lished an article describing plant tissues organic materials are deposited on tool objects that had different functions, such still adhering to tools collected from cave surfaces during use, and are commonly as a knife and an arrowhead. sites in the south-west of the United VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 473 0 5 CMS

States; he used biological stains and microscopic techniques to identify some of the residues. Using Keeley's and Bruier's techniques, I decided to examine a collection of microblades (small flakes made by a highly specialised technique) that had not been washed following exca­ vation. On many of the microblades I found features and cells similar to those observed on tools I had used to butcher small game. Using a variety of tests I was eventually able to confirm that the resi­ dues contained proteins typical of blood, the most easily identified being the mole­ cules of haemoglobin and albumin. Widen­ ing my search and extending the types of tests used, I was able to document the presence not only of blood, but hairs, feathers, starch grains, resins and plant tissue. While trying to identify the origin of a butchered animal by analysis of scale pat­ terns of hairs imbedded in blood films, I was alerted to a study by Robert Washino (Entomology Department, University of Above: chert knife from north-western Canada covered with blood residue and, near the tip, California at Davis) that used the regular­ hairs identified as probably from Bison. Species identification of the blood indicated that the blood was indeed from Bison. Below: a close-up of the hair and blood near the tip of the tool. ity of crystals of haemoglobin extracted Fifty micrograms of the blood residue on this tool was radiocarbon dated using Accelerator from blood to identify the species of Mass Spectrometry and yielded a date of tool use about 2,680±280 years ago. This repre­ animal that mosquitoes had been feeding sents the first time a tool has been directly dated. Usually ages are assigned with reference to on. After three years of experimentation stratigraphy and dates are based on charcoal in the site. and blind testing I was able to adapt the

474 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY haemoglobin crystallisation technique to the identification of animal species whose blood residues lay on stone tools. Each animal species has a slightly different se­ quence of amino acids in the haemoglobin molecule; these sequence differences ulti­ mately reflect non-lethal mutations of the DNA genetic code that occur in the course of evolution. The small differences in amino acid sequence change the elec­ trochemical properties of the molecule with the result that, given the right con­ ditions of growth, different species' mole­ cules will form differently shaped crystals. The problem with this method of species identification is that there is no correla­ tion of crystal shapes within higher taxo­ nomic groupings. Although it was possible to identify the species exactly, if no known blood is available for comparison then it is impossible to suggest an identi­ fication at the genus or family level. Other tests for species identification, or simply the identification of specific blood molecules as part of the screening process, have been adapted using immu­ nological techniques. Specific antibodies will bind with target molecules and can be labelled to permit the detection of minute amounts of protein. It is not uncommon to identify less than a thousand-milliontb (billionth) of a gram (nanogram) of pro­ tein on tool surfaces. Although immuno­ logical techniques are very sensitive, highly specific and reliable, they are ex­ pensive to make and commercially avail­ able antibodies are limited to commonly used laboratory animals and human blood proteins. Another method of species identifi­ lsoelectric focusing equipment shown here includes a power supply with high-voltage leads cation that is still in the finaldevelopment attached to a separation chamber with a separation gel plate and electrodes in place. A stages relies, like haemoglobin crystal­ complex mixture of proteins is separated under high voltage into purified components. This lisation, on the small changes in electro­ separation is used for further analysis of specific proteins or species of origin of blood chemical properties caused by genetically residues. driven changes in the amino acid se­ quence of blood molecules. Called 'isoelectric focusing', the technique uses a strong electric current passed through a thin gel of polyacrylamide that contains a water-based mix of various organic and inorganic compounds. When the current is passed through the gel, the mixture of compounds creates a gradient of pH from one end of the gel to the other (acid at one end, basic or alkaline at the other). A mix of blood proteins is then applied to the gel and the proteins are driven through the gel by the electric current. Each protein has a specific pH value at which it becomes electrically neutral and, at that point in the pH gradient, it ceases to move further. The end result is a pat­ tern of bands along the separation lane on the gel; minor changes to the amino acid sequence will alter the pH value and thus the exact location on the gel. By compari­ Antibodies that are linked to colour reagents can be used to identify certain molecules from son of the unknown protein mix with specific animal species with great accuracy. The·test illustrated uses a monoclonal antibody to blood samples from known species it is identify serum albumin molecules from human blood. The sample on the far left is known possible to calculate a similarity index human blood, the next is known non-human blood, and these constitute the control samples. and, from that, identify the species of The remainder of the samples come from pigment at two rock art sites, one at Laurie Creek in animal. Unlike the haemoglobin the Northern Territory and the other from Judds Cavern, Tasmania. The intensity of the crystallisation method, isoelectric focus­ colour is a measure of the concentration of the blood in the original extract from the rock art ing allows identification of animal bloods pigment. VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 475 Top left: moa feather fragment from a site in New Zealand about 500 years old. The mor­ phology of feather barbules can be used to identify the bird to the taxonomic level of order. Top right: feather barbules from a fragment of a feather cape known to be made from moa feathers. These were used for identification purposes. Feather barbules are about 0.1 millimetres in diameter. at higher taxonomic levels so, even if the exact species blood is not available, it is possible to suggest identification of the genus or family of the unknown animal blood. Microscopy is also used to identify the animal of origin using hair and feathers, and the type of root or tuber by analysis of starch grains; some plants can be iden­ tified by unique groupings of various tissue attributes, or by chemical markers. For example, yams (Dioscorea sp.) con­ tain a unique alkaloid poison called dioscorean that can be relatively easily identified. So we now know that the hunter who stopped by Lake Mungo to make and use a few stone tools left behind not only the tools but a wealth of information about his activities. Some of the tools in this small group have abundant starch grains on their surfaces as well as small frag­ ments of plant tissue; others still have remnants of blood residues, sinew and the tissue layer that surrounds bone (the periosteum layer). Immediately we can begin to reconstruct some of the details, and two food preparation tasks are evi­ denced: cleaning tubers and stripping meat from bone. The type of plant tissue is typical of the outer covering or cortex of tubers, and the abundance of starch grains is consistent with cutting or shred­ ding a starchy material. The simultaneous occurrence of blood, sinew and perio­ steum is consistent with modern experi­ ments involving the removal and cleaning of fresh meat from bone. Exactly what species of plant and animal are represented by the residues is still unknown. Comparison with a limited and still-growing collection of reference starches and blood allows me at least to say what plants and animals are not part of the residue in this collection. One im­ portant part of the current research on residues is the continued search for refer­ ence materials. This search includes sam­ pling from living populations of plants and animals and, for animals at least, the ex­ traction of still-extant blood molecules Middle left: a mass of starch grains preserved on the surface of a tool from the Lake Mungo from subfossil bone and fauna! remains. site in western New South Wales, estimated to be at least 30,000 years old. The grains For example, the blood of the now-extinct average 15 microns in diameter. Middle right: starch grains removed from a tool of unknown progenitor of domesticated cattle, the (but probably more recent) age and identified as a native sweet potato (/pomea polpha). The Aurochs (Bos primigenius), was identified largest grain is about 15 microns in diameter. Preliminary analysis suggests that the starch by myself and Andre Wood (Oriental In­ from the Lake Mungo tool is from a native sweet potato. Bottom left: haemoglobin crystal, stitute, University of Chicago) on the bone powder and red cells. The crystal was grown from the bone of an Aurochs-an extinct floor of a 7-9,000-year-old ceremonial ox, Bos primigenius-to provide an identification of some of the blood found on a sandstone building at the Cayonii Tepesi site in slab in the floor of a building at the �ayonii Tepesi site in central Turkey. Both human and Aurochs blood was identified on the slab floor; the building dates to between 7,000 and Turkey by first crystallising haemoglobin g 9,000 years old. The crystal is about ten microns in length. Bottom right: the haemoglobin extracted from identified bones of :i crystal of a California Sea Lion grown from a 1,000-year-old blood residue on a tool from the Aurochs found elsewhere in the village ::e western coast of Canada; each species' haemoglobin crystal shape is different, permitting site. The bones of the extinct animals at � identification of species of origin of blood residues. The crystal is about 25 microns in length. the Lake Mungo site (such as Diprotodon

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. . : •. , 1 ; ��. ,. V, . .\ �, zUJ Q � :I: er ii Human hand outlined in red ochre and human blood paint from Judds Cavern in south-western Tasmania. Radiocarbon dates using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry on 40 millionths of a gram (40 micrograms) of carbon removed from the paint yielded ages of between 9,500 and 10,500 years. This is the first time rock art has been directly dated in Australia and the first evidence of a ritual significance for the use of human blood in prehistoric painting.

all the samples he had collected contained human blood. Ethnographic evidence, as well as still-current ritual, suggest that human blood is an important element in the creation of rock art. The question of the antiquity of the human blood used in rock art then became very important. In collaboration with Erle Nelson and his group at the Simon Fraser/ MacMaster Universities Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating facility and Procoptodon species) will provide the A bone marrow cell with the nucleus stained in Canada, I had previously obtained dates reference samples of blood and may well a deep blue by Wrights stain (a standard from the blood residues on stone tools be represented on the recovered tools. staining technique for blood and bone cells). from sites in north-western Canada. This cell lies next to fragments of bone. The Nelson's group has pioneered the dating THER APPLICATIONS OF THE TECH­ cell was extracted from a human bone about of very small carbon samples using the niques of residue analysis have re­ 30,000 years old from the Lake Mungo site O in western New South Wales. The finding of sensitive AMS technique, which directly vealed startling new evidence about the intact nucleated cells in old bone has stimu­ counts the atoms of radiocarbon to antiquity of rock art. While recording the lated research to extract and study DNA normal carbon contained in the sample (as Laurie Creek rock art site, Rhys Jones from both bone and blood residues. The cell opposed to the conventional radiocarbon (Department of Prehistory, Australian is about 20 microns in diameter. method that estimates the amount of ra­ National University) collected a diocarbon by detecting the radiation as fingernail-size piece of a small and now­ south-western Tasmania, was collected the radiocarbon atoms decay). Having al­ faded painting of a stylised face. This because Jones suspected that blood might ready worked out a method to eliminate sample, along with others from both have been used as part of the pigment, or contaminants, Nelson and I removed very Laurie Creek and from Judds Cavern in as a binder. I eventually determined that small amounts of protein (40 micrograms, 478 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY or 40 millionths of a gram) from both the Suggested Reading Laurie Creek and Judds Cavern pigments and prepared them for dating. The Judds Bruier, F., 1976. New clues to stone tool Cavern samples gave ages of 9,200 and function: plant and animal residues. Amer. Antiquity 41: 478-484. 10,700 years, which are in close agree­ Loy, T.H., 1983. Prehistoric blood resi­ ment with other estimates of the occu­ dues: detection on tool surfaces and identifi­ pation of the cave. The Laurie Creek cation of species of origin. Science 220: pigment gave an age of 20,000 years­ 1269-1271. the oldest directly dated rock art now Loy, T.H., 1987. Recent advances in blood known. residue analysis. Pp. 57-65 in Archaeo­ And what about the genetic connection metry: further Australasian studies, ed. by between the tool maker and the artist; W.R. Ambrose and J.M.J. Mummery. ANU: how can we ever know those details? One Canberra. Loy, T.H., Jones, R., Nelson, D.E., of the most exciting applications of resi­ Meehan, B., Vogel, J., Southon, J. & due analysis lies in the extraction and Cosgrove, R., 1990. Accelerator radiocarbon analysis of DNA from both blood and dating of human blood proteins in pigments bone. By examining the genetic material from Late Pleistocene art sites in Australia. contained in skeletal remains from the Antiquity 64: 110-116. Lake Mungo sites and from the human Loy, T.H. & Wood, A.R., 1989. Blood resi­ blood in the Laurie Creek pigments, I due analysis at (ayi:inO Tepesi, Turkey. J. expect that within the year it will be FieldArchaeol. 16(4): 451-460. possible to use the latest techniques in Nelson, D.E., Long, T.H., Vogel, J. & Southon, J., 1986. Radiocarbon dating blood genetic analysis to identify the differences residues on prehistoric stone tools. Radiocar­ and similarities in the DNA sequence of bon 28(1 ): 170-174. specific genes extracted from as few as Washino, R., 1977. Identification of host three or four cells. Intact cells containing blood meal in arthropods. US Army Medical a nucleus have already been identified Research & Development Command: Wash­ from both blood and bone extracts; it now ington, DC. remains to finalise the details of tech­ niques needed to analyse this partially de­ Dr Tom H. Loy is a visiting fellow in the Depart­ graded genetic material. These lines of ment of Prehistory, Research School of Social analysis will permit the resolution of Sciences and Pacific Studies, Australian longstanding problems in the current National University. The last ten years of his ,: debate on the origins of Australian Abor­ research have been directed towards blood residue ., igines and, indeed, the course of human analysis. He is originally from the British Co­ ,, . ' evolution.• lumbia Provincial Museum in Victoria, Canada. BACK ISSUES & SUPPLEMENTS

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prevent 'Cane Toad-type' introductions? Does it eradicate pests? When did it THE MAIN OPTIONS FOR PEST MANAGEMENT begin? Is it ecologically safe to use and economically affordable? lo short, what Control Method Example are the risks and advantages of using bio­ logical control to help manage major Biological Natural enemies. pests? Chemical Insecticides, miticides, herbicides Biological control is one of several etc. available options for managing pest popu­ lations (see table). It involves the study Cultural Crop rotation, mulches, covers, and use of living natural enemies for the resistant cultivars. regulation of target pest populations. Legal/preventive Legislation, cleanliness. There are a wide variety of natural en­ Mechanical/physical Cutting, hoeing, fly swatters. emies that can be used, including para­ sites, predators and diseases. The pests Genetic Manipulation of heritable characters. targeted for biological control are usually Integrated Combinations of other methods. weeds or insects that interfere with the production of food or fibre, but can in­ clude weeds of national parks, other in­ control. Successful classical biological control vertebrates (mites, snails, millipedes The modern era of classical biological results in essentially permanent ecological etc.), plant diseases, vertebrates such as control began in about 1890. However, management, using host-specific natural rabbits, or even dung! the concept and earliest-recorded prac­ enemies of the pest, whereas other types There are actually four types of bio­ tice of biological control began with the of control are relatively short-lived. How­ logical control: 'classical' or 'inoculative', Chinese hundreds of years ago, and in­ ever, unlike chemical control, for exam­ which involves introduction of relatively volved the use of predatory ants to con­ ple, biological control is relatively slow­ small numbers ('inoculation') of host­ trol citrus pests. The first use of parasites acting, normally taking several years for specific natural enemies (the biological in biological control occurred in Europe in agents to have widespread effects. control agents) from the home range of the early 1800s. Biological control of No harmful environmental side effects the pest to the country where the pest is weeds started in the early 1900s and has occur with biological control because the a problem; 'inundative' or 'augmentative', experienced the most dramatic growth of agents selected are restricted either to which usually involves the mass pro­ any of the techniques in the last 90 years. one pest species or, if acceptable, to a duction and release of large numbers ('in­ The following discussion pertains mainly small group of closely related species. undation') of host-specific native natural to classical biological weed control. Other types of control are often non­ enemies against native pests; 'conserva­ specificand can be used to control several tive', where, for example, the number of HERE ARE SEVERAL ADVANTAGES OF pests in one area, but they can cause native parasites, predators and diseases biological weed control over other significant non-target damage. of (usually) native natural enemies of Tmethods of pest management (see table). Biological control agents are self­ weeds are reduced; and 'broad spectrum', These fall generally into ecological, econ­ perpetuating, generally spread without which involves artificial manipulation of omic and risk-analysis areas. Interest­ help by humans, and usually fluctuate in numbers of non-specific or habitat-specific ingly, the disadvantages of biological number as the population of the target natural enemies to restrict the level of control are often just the other side of the species changes (the 'density-dependent' attack. Classical biological control was coin from the advantages and, depending factor) and thus do not eradicate their recognised and practised first, and re­ on your viewpoint, may not be disadvan­ host. Other types of control are labour­ mains the most-used type of biological tages at all. intensive and usually act regardless of the density of the target pest. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF Biological weed control has been used most often in pastures but is also suited CLASSICAL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL to national parks and wildlife reserves Advantages Disadvantages where exotic, invasive weeds often push out native vegetation, and chemical herbi­ Essentially permanent management Once released, agents cannot be cides or intensive grazing often cannot be of the target pest. recalled. used. No harmful environmental side Multiple-pest species groups cannot Costs of biological control are non- effects, because each agent is be controlled. restricted to one or a small number Paterson's Curse has become a major pest in of target species. the rural country (main photo). Among the agents approved for release are the leaf­ Agents are self-perpetuating, Set-up costs are relatively high. mining Moth (Dialectica scalariella; top self-distributing and dependent. right) whose larvae burrow inside the leaves. It was the first agent to be released for this Risks are known before release into Risks are present, albeit much less weed and has spread over 20 kilometres in the environment. than other types of pest eighteen months. One small release has been made of the Paterson's Curse Weevil management, and society must (Ceutorhynchus larvatus; top left) but it is decide if they are worth taking. too early to tell if it has been successful. The Native natural enemies may impede adults eat the leaves and the larvae feed on the tap root just below the soil surface. The introduced agents. adults of Paterson's Curse Stem-boring High benefit: cost ratios for Political commitment must be made Beetle (Phytoecia coerulescens; middle) eat successful program. the leaves and flowers, while the larvae bore to allocate funds. inside the main stem. This species has not Once agents are established, no been released and, because it attacks the further inputs are needed. plant later in the season than some other agents, has a lower priority for introduction.

482 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 8--' 0 ::E

UJ� 0 a: uVl

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 483 LU � 0 L.L.__, LU 0 vi u,j recurrent and relatively small compared fact, the Cane Toad would not be allowed pie, where a new and potentially damag­ to the damage caused by the target pest. to be introduced under the strict proce­ ing weed species is discovered in low For example, yearly costs of the CSIRO dures in place today. numbers, an attempt at eradication with research program against the introduced Even though the likely host range of an herbicides would be the best option. Mediterranean weed Paterson's Curse or agent can be predicted, its final effect on Finally, although safety of agents is Salvation Jane (Echium plantagineum) the weed cannot. Two or three out of five evaluated and is predictable, results are are only about two per cent of the introduced agent species fail to stress the not guaranteed because, once released, annual damage caused by this weed. target significantly. Chemical control of agents must cope with the unpredictable Also, there are high (up to 100:1 or weeds, for example, can give a much elements of the Australian environment. higher) benefit to cost ratios for success­ more reliable effect on a target weed but, For example, a very promising potential ful programs. even though chemicals can be used in agent (a leaf-galling midge called Importantly, risks of introduction of specific habitats, inherently they are not Cystiphora schmidti) for Skeleton Weed agents are evaluated and known before as specific as biological control. has been virtually eliminated as an effec­ release into the Australian environment is Biological weed control has an exem­ tive agent because a native wasp allowed. Most of the early effort in a bio­ plary record of safety, cost-effectiveness ( Tetrastichus sp.) kills most of the larvae logical weed control program concen­ and environmental protection. It is ironic of the midge in the galls each year. It is trates on testing a large number of plant that, despite this, it is often the last not often possible to predict these types species to determine the range of plants option investigated for management of of biotic interactions, and they can negate on which each agent species will feed or pest species. Very rarely is a biological years of exploration and safety-testing reproduce (the 'host range'). If the host control program funded when the level of work. range of each agent is restricted, it is the target pest is low and chances for then predictable to a high degree. This rapid success much higher. However, bio­ EARLY ALL CLASSICAL BIOLOGICAL scientific procedure can be contrasted to logical control is not a panacea for pest control programs begin in the same introduction of the Cane Toad (Bufo problems and is clearly not the method of way.N An introduced pest species becomes marinus), which had no prior testing; in choice in some circumstances. For exam- a dominant feature of the environment,

484 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY UJ V'I V'I

..J2 UJ 0 viw Co mmon Heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum) can blanket pasture in summer (main photo). There are several possible agents for control of this weed, including the Heliotrope Rust Fungus ( Uromyc es heliotropii), which has the capacity to damage plants severely and halt seed pro­ duction and which may be released soon in Australia (top); a leaf spot fungus, Cercospora he/iotropii-bocconi, which is cur­ rently under study (middle); and the flea beetle Longitarsus a/bineus, whose larvae feed on the root hairs and rootlets, causing severe stress and possible death of the plant (bottom). and chemical, mechanical or cultural con­ trol methods are tried, often for decades, without much success. An awareness emerges that there are no economically or environmentally acceptable methods of management of the pest species, often a public outcry for a better method arises, and then biological control is suggested. Each biological weed control program involves basic ecological research, takes 20 scientist-years to conduct and costs

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 48S Several South American water weeds have been controlled with natural en­ emies in the subtropical parts of Austra­ lia, dramatically reducing the use of herbicides in and around water bodies. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), for example, has been controlled by a weevil (Neochetina eichhomiae) that feeds on leaves as adults and tunnels inside the bulbous stems as larvae. Another weevil (Neohydronomous pul­ chellus) controlled Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) within a few years after re­ lease, and has even been more spectacu­ lar in Florida in the United States, where it controlled plants within a year after release. Widespread damage to the aquatic form of Alligator Weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) was caused by a Aea beetle (Agasicles hygroph ila) within 14 months of release. Interest­ ingly, this weed also has a terrestrial form that is not controlled by the agents, so additional surveys are needed in South America for a suitable agent. Possibly the most outstanding example of biological control of aquatic plants is the extremely rapid control in Australia and Papua New Guinea of a water fem called Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) by a small weevil ( Cyrtobagous salviniae) from Brazil. This invasive weed completely covered waterways in both countries. In­ novative ecological work was combined in Several agents were released to control prickly pear cacti. Shown here is Opuntia stricta. The Cactoblastis cactorum Brazil (the home of the weed) and Austra­ most effective was the moth whose larvae feed inside the cacti (inset). lia to match the agent with the weed. The weevil cleared blocked waterways a perhaps five million dollars. Because of conducted and the natural enemies of the year after release. This project won the inadequate funding and the current push pest are discovered. From this often large United Nations Science Prize in 1985 for for conduct of research projects that group, a short list of the most promising helping save the riverine economy of demand quick and easily identifiable re­ species are subjected to rigorous host­ Sepik villagers. More recently, the turns, support for basic ecological re­ specificity testing. Only those agents that Salvinia weevil has been established in search has been reduced significantly. pass these tests are approved by Federal Africa, where the rapid successes are Thus, there is at least a 50-year backlog Government bodies (after wide circulation continuing. of biological weed control projects to con­ for comment to the Australian agricultu­ Terrestrial weeds have also been con­ duct. Damage in Australia from weeds ral and environmental community) for re­ trolled safely with natural enemies. For alone exceeds $2 billion per annum, and lease as biological control agents. example, nine agent species were re­ many of these weeds are suitable targets There have been many outstanding ex­ leased in Australia against St John's Wart for biological control. amples of classical biological control in (Hypericum perforatum)-a Mediterra­ If funding can be found, a project is Australia. One of the oldest programs was nean weed-but only one of these, the initiated by determfoing the native range against prickly pear cacti ( Opuntia spp.). beetle Chrysolina quadrigemina, contrib­ of the pest, and examining the published Several agent species were introduced utes significantly to its control. It has con­ literature to find out what is known about against the common pest pear 0. inermis trolled millions of hectares of the weed in the target pest and its natural enemies. and other cacti. The moth Cactoblastis Australia, the United States, ew For a weed, formal approval is sought as cactorum (released in 1926), whose Zealand, Chile, South Africa and Canada, a target species. Once approved, foreign larvae feed inside the cacti, was the most but only where there is a true Mediterra­ surveys in the home range of the pest are effective agent in Australia. nean climate (that is, predictable long,

486 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY >-

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Water Hyacinth choking a lagoon on the Nepean River, Richmond. Inset: a weevil (Neochetina eichhorniae) has been released to bring this South American weed under control. dry summers followed by autumn rains). Where the climate is different from this, as is the case in the Great Dividing Range of eastern Australia, the weed is still a pest because the Chrysolina beetle be­ comes out-of-phase with the weed. How this happens is an interesting example of plant-insect interaction. If rains occur in early summer, the beetles, which nor­ mally aestivate in summer, become active and feed on what little St John's Wort is present. They soon consume all the St John's Wort and die. When the autumn break occurs, there are thus no beetles in the area to come out of aestivation, and nothing to cut back on the weed's growth. Management of this weed has thus demanded an integrated approach. In addition to the Chrysolina beetle, se­ lective grazing, herbicide application, cul­ tivation, and application of super­ phosphate fertilisers (resulting in significantly increased plant competition) have been used. Two new agents have also been stud­ ied for biological control of St John's Wort. The first is an aphid (Aphis chloris) One of the biological control agents that have been released to control the prickly in­ vader Mimosa (Mimosa pigra) is a leaf­ feeding beetle (Chlamisus sp.). However, it has only established with difficulty and seems unlikely to have a major effect on its own.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 487 VI 0

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Howard River, Northern Territory, shown covered in Salvinia (top) and six months later (bottom) after control by the Brazilian weevil Cynobagous salviniae (middle).

that has recently been released. It is spreading widely and is starting to have an effect on the plant. The second is a mite (Aculus hyperici) that attacks the growing tips of the plant and, based on studies in its home range, appears to be very effective. Host-specificity testing of this mite has been completed and hope­ VI 0 z fully it will be released next year. :;i An outstanding example of biological z 0 control of a crop weed also marks the 0 world's first use of a pathogen in biologi-

488 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY UJ Vl Vl

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St John's Wort on the foreshores of weed species over the last 90 years. Burrendong Dam near Wellington, New Thus, classical biological weed control has South Wales. This Mediterranean weed often an extremely good safety record, and becomes dominant in the Great Dividing fears of lack of specificity by introduced Range because the main biological control agents (the Cane Toad Syndrome) are un­ agent-the Chrysolina quadrigemina beetle (left)-is not successful in that climate. founded. Inset: St John's Wort in flower. There certainly are risks that must be evaluated whenever exotic species are in­ started to move into some of the areas troduced, and such introductions should formerly dominated by the most common never be undertaken without exhaustive form. Work is on-going at the CSIRO Bio­ research into host-specificity and efficacy. logical Control Unit in Montpellier, For the conservation-minded, classical France, to findvirulent strains of the rust biological control of introduced weed spe­ for the other two forms of the weed. cies that threaten crops, pastures and Many other examples of successful natural areas should be supported as the programs could be cited (see ANH vol. best (and sometimes the only) option for 23, no. 3, 1989 for a discussion of safe, inexpensive, permanent and envi­ Paterson's Curse), and new programs are ronmentally acceptable control. • z currently underway by CSIRO and State UJ UJ"' biological control groups for weeds such Suggested Reading \J as Nodding and Slender Thistles (Cardu­ z Bosch, R. van den & Messenger, P.S., ::c us spp.), Scotch Thistle ( Onopordum 1973. Biological control. lntext Educational 5< acanthium), Parthenium Weed Publishers: New York. cal weed control. A specific strain of a (Parthenium hysterophorous), for woody De Bach, P. (ed.), 1964. Biological control rust fungus (Puccinia chondrillina) was weeds such as Mimosa (Mimosa pigra), of insect pests and weeds. Chapman and released in 1971 to control the most which threatens Kakadu National Park Hall: London. common of the three genetic forms of and vast areas of the Northern Territory Delfosse, E.S. & Cullen, J.M., 1982. Bio­ Skeleton Weed (Chondrilla juncea). By and Queensland, and others. Most of logical control of weeds of Mediterranean 1972 the fungus was widespread on the these projects could not be conducted origin: a progress report. Aust. Weeds 2: weed. A high level of control has per­ without the support of the Rural Industry 25-30. Wapshere, A.J., Delfosse, E.S. & Cullen, sisted for nearly 20 years, with no decline Research Funds, primarily from the Aus­ J.M., 1989. Recent developments in biologi­ in virulence and with massive economic tralian Wool Corporation, the Australian cal control of weeds. Crop Protection 8: returns to the wheat industry (estimated Meat and Live-stock Research and Devel­ 227-50. to be $260 million by the year 2000 for a opment Corporation, and the Wheat Re­ $3.5 million initial investment). Ironically, search Council. Dr Ernest Delfosse is a Principle Research Scien­ however, the extreme specificity of this No biological control agent released tist with the CS/RO in Canberra. He is Research particular rust strain works against com­ after detailed host-specificity testing has Leader for biological control of boraginaceous plete biological control of the weed spe­ ever become a major pest of a crop or weeds, and has conducted research on biological cies: the other two forms of Skeleton native plant species. This includes about and integrated control of te"estrial and aquatic Weed are not attacked by it and have 200 organisms released against about 90 weeds in the United States and Australia.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 489

V I E W S F R OM T H E F O U R TH D I M E N S I O N first infected females 1.5 billion years ago. But perhaps that's how sexuality "Male nipples may be non-functional vestigial started? organs-structures betraying an earl£er evolutionary Whatever, the point follows on. The mass of all humans, from Arnold condition where both sexes nursed the young. " Schwarzenegger to Madonna, is almost totally made of grade-A female stuff. This is because sperm, being stripped down as it is for the death-defying race along the vaginal-uterine speedway, brings little else to gamete-gathering parties apart COMING TO GRIPS from its infective strands of DNA. The naive egg squatting on the finishing line congratulates the infectious winner by WITH MALE NIPPLES swallowing him-something eggs have done to sperm for millions of years, which is perhaps an intimation of how gametic fusion began in the first place-an indi­ gestible meal that came to stay, much in BY MICHAEL ARCHER the same way that free-living mito­ SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE chondria and chloroplasts are thought to UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES have been 'swallowed' by prokaryotic predators but then retained as organelles all 'LL BET I'M NOT THE ONLY MALE IN THE recorded is ten. These extra breasts may (Margulis 1981). Anyway, the rest of world who used to feel puzzled and be an atavism (reappearance of an ances­ the resulting embryo is derived from even somewhat squirmy about his nip­ tral condition) because they mostly occur female tissues present in the egg because ples.I As a young adolescent, it seemed to along the position of the primitive she alone has the factories and raw ma­ me that these embarrassing buttons were mammal nipple lines, which extend, one terials necessary to build the new beast. pasted onto our chests by mother nature on each side, from the front of the chest He does little else apart from corrupt her to mock our emerging maleness. After to the lower abdomen. Some mammals genetic blueprint for a female clone. all, what possible good were they? Female produce nipples only at the front of these Seen in this light, it is not the female of nipples, on the other hand, were things of lines (humans and bats), others at the the species whose body form departs mystery and intrigue, part of all that was rear (cows and marsupials), while some from the essence of humanity-it is the delightfully woman. go the whole hog (dogs and pigs). male. Basic human is female; basic male is As evolutionary biologists, we are con­ Humans of both sexes appear to retain perversion of basic female. It is only if stantly exposed to plausible, if highly the genetic potential for sporting nipples and when male hormones (in particular imaginative, post hoe explanations for the along the entire length of these prehis­ testosterone) start rampaging through evolutionary development of some struc­ toric refuelling lines. our system, following instructions from a ture or behaviour that lacks an adequate Breasts, nipples and milk do occasion­ rogue 'maleness gene' hidden somewhere fossil record-evolutionary 'just-so' sto­ ally sprout from other areas of the body on the Y chromosome, that distortion of ries as it were. What kind of 'just-so' (in 1835 a 21-year-old man was recorded the basic female pattern occurs. The story could possibly account for male nip­ whose scrotum exuded milk; Howard ovaries do not develop, the developing ples? 1977) but these are abnormalities pre­ brain converts from a cyclic to a non- Perhaps in the first mammals, both sumably resulting from bits of embryonic males and females shared the task of tissues developing in the wrong place nourishing the young with milk, the such as dermoid cysts in female ovaries protein-rich skin secretion unique to that sometimes contain teeth. mammals. Then, at some time this side of But humour a minor divergence here: if 200 million years ago, in a major setback male nipples are useless lumps of ancient for sexual equality in mammals, males history reflecting a more egalitarian past, may have begun to specialise at other what of males themselves? What are tasks and shrivelled, while females kept males as a whole in the grand scheme of well abreast of the situation and doubled biological things? Females of many spe­ their output. Since then, male nipples cies get along quite well without them, may simply have persisted because there thank you very much. Parthenogenetic was no good reason for natural selection births, where eggs develop into viable to rub them out. Like the rudimentary embryos in the absence of sperm, are hind limbs complete with leg bones and surprisingly common in the animal king­ muscles occasionally found protruding dom. Parthenogenetic species are also from the pelvic regions of whales, male well known, such as lizard species from nipples may be non-functional vestigial central Australia that are only known organs-structures betraying an earlier from females. So why doesthe world have evolutionary condition where both sexes males? nursed the young. Even though many biological reasons Certainly it is clear that genetic in­ have been offered for males, it amuses structions for a belly-full of nipples lurk me to consider the similarities between somewhere in the shadowy comers of the the sneaky way sperm invades the egg human genome. While humans rarely and tricks it into reproducing the male's sport more than the standard two-on-the­ DNA, and the way that a virus tricks a chest, some individuals (males more fre­ host cell into reproducing viral DNA. Un­ quently than females) are found with derstandably, it might not do much for extras in other positions. The condition is the male ego to be thought of as an incur­ A woman sports four breasts. This rare con­ called polymazia and the largest number able, sexually transmitted disease that dition is known as polymazia.

494 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY even a training bra, the duct that nor­ mally conducts milk to the nipple does RICELESS persist in males. If there are higher than ENTERTAINMENT normal levels of female hormones P (oestrogen, prolactin etc.) in the male's ORSUBTLE , system (such as may occur if there is a LEARNING • tumour of the pituitary gland), the glan­ dular tissue of his breasts may enlarge ur trips are both! Our and he may secrete milk. And just as fe­ academics can take you males without children can be induced to O produce milk by allowing someone else's to fascinating places only we infant to suckle their breasts, some males know intimately and explain can do the same. Sixteenth-century mis­ nature's patterns in simple sionaries in Brazil even reported a tribe whose women had "small and withered words. breasts and whose children were brought e can show you the up from birth by suckling the males" natural history of: (Howard 1977). W Perhaps a similar uncommon balance of .6. The 300 million-year-old male and female hormones accounts for a Yerranderie Volcano (we found herd of goats in the Bathurst area re­ it) .6. lord Howe Island (we've ported to me by Ms Tessa Guilfoyle of collected on Ball's Pyramid!) Sydney University. The males in this .6. Deserts and gorges and their herd not only had huge udders but were secrets .6. Architect's Greece deliberately milked by the goatherds who obtained copious quantities of milk. .6. Italian volcanoes .6. 200- Here then might be another ration­ million-year-old environments -'w >- alisation for hanging on to male nipples: recorded in sandstone as a fall-back system should future natural .6. Hawksbury River biology, 5 ..., selection pressures once again nudge geology and history .6. Iceland < ,. . males towards a more active role in nour­ Vl ...... ·�. w �� ,,. ,.ii � ishing their infants. This possibility, com­ .6. Hawaii .6. Newfoundland I- �:�l!l!f:�''"i��....,;•:,:l- "i" a,-.,.. . . i:: .6. Galapagos .6. Cherry One of a number of male goats from a bined with the theoretical capacity of Bathurst herd that showed conspicuous males to give birth (via implanted ectopic blossom time in Japan udders as well as scrota and penises. These pregnancies and caesarian deliveries), in­ .6. Prince Edward Island (Ann males sired many of the herd's young. vites organisations working towards of Green Cables home) sexual equality to broaden their horizons. cyclic organ (the female hypothalamus The point of this catalogue of curiosi­ hy not let us: undergoes monthly cycles in harmony ties is not to jam a pin into the chest of w with the cycles of the solar system­ macho males or provide a biological .6. Explain the real Blue Moun­ imagine how the male ego would have rationalisation for the women's liberation capitalised on this cosmic synchrony if movement. Even if males are a prehis­ tains crossing problem (we males rather than females menstruated!), toric sexually transmitted disease, fe­ solved it) .6. Walk you (no pack) the presumptive clitoris develops into a males have long since come to terms with through the Blue Mountains for penis, the Milllerian ducts (which nor­ the plague much as humans as a whole a week .6. Trek you to where mally transport eggs) degenerate, the have learned to live with the common Asia joins India (we mapped it) pelvic bones narrow and humanity's ex­ cold. On the other hand, because I sus­ .6. Raft you through the Grand quisite curves vanish-a metamorphosis pect that most of the blame for human so profound it would make Dr Jekyll livid damage to the environment can be laid Canyon with a geologist ex­ with envy. squarely at the feet of the perverse little plaining the sweep of geological Returning to the central points of this bit of DNA that codes for male aggres­ time .6. Dive with you on the essay, maleness may be a perversion of sion, can the Earth continue to tolerate outer Barrier Reef from a re­ femaleness but, at least when it comes to males? search station .6. Follow the male nipples, the essential female ground Anyway, I feel a bit better about my plan is still there. It has long been known miserable male nipples. Rather than autumn colours through Nova that, if male animals are given injections seeing them as pointless bits of biological Scotia. of female hormones, their normally small history, they now appear as reminders of asy or hard, long or short breasts will enlarge (a condition known as the vast, ancient maternal core lurking trips, we'd love to take gynaecomastia). For example, if male just below the thin veneer of all that's E Echidnas are given ovarian hormone in­ male-things that should make the chest­ you there as part of a small jections, their breasts not only become thumping of males sound decidedly group. Write, phone or fax larger than those of the females, they also hollow.• for trip details to: begin to secrete milk. Clearly male and female breasts are 'equipotential' insofar Suggested Reading Dr David Roots as both are capable of producing and se­ Sturdee Lane, Howard, M., 1977. Victorian grotesque. Elvina Bay. creting milk. Jupiter Books: London. In some human males, as Director of Margulis, L., 1981. Symbiosis in cell evol­ NSW 2105, Australia the Sydney STD Centre (Sydney Hospi­ ution. W.H. Freeman & Co.: San Francisco. Ph. (02) 997 6894 tal) Dr Basil Donovan recently told me, Fax (02) 979 5561 constant manipulation of the nipples can Professor Michael Archer lectures in biology at �-- AUSTRALIAN cause them to exude colostrum, a the University of New South Wales. Most of his - protein-rich milk. While the glandular non-teaching hours are devoted to the study ofthe ACADEMIC tissue in the male breast rarely merits fossil faunas of Riversleigh. =====- TOURS

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 495 STILL EVOLVING as superior to others. Most, if not all, societies are stratified into a hierarchy­ a word derived from a phrase literally "With the shift of emphasis from the static to the meaning 'the sacred reign' (even the gods dynamic-and with the social effects of the French had hierarchies). The social hierarchy Revolution-the usefulness of hierarchies tn seems to be of great antiquity. biology seemed at an end. " It is not surprising that hierarchies were also perceived in the natural world. Living organisms, for example, were ar­ ranged in a scale of lower to higher, known as the scala naturae. Plants were at the lower end of the scala and animals, arranged according to the increasing so­ phistication of their behaviour, toward the THE SACRED ORDER top. This arrangement reflected the degree of their similarity either to God (at the higher end), or to inert matter (at the lower). Each level was seen as dis­ BY RALPH MOLNAR & GLEN INGRAM tinct from every other. The discovery of VERTEBRATE FOSSILS, QUEENSLAND MUSEUM the hydra by Abraham Trembley in 17 40 VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY, QUEENSLAND MUSEUM was thus considered a shock to the system, until it was realised that hydras 1------t simply belonged to a hitherto unknown F YOU HAVE SERVED IN THE MILITARY, not trans1t1ve both upwards and down­ level. you will be familiar with the concept of wards. A leading seaman may report to a Darwin's theory of evolution explained a hierarchy. Military personnel are warrant officer, but the warrant officer the scala as the result of a continuing givenI ranks corresponding to the scope of issues orders to the leading seaman. It is process, natural selection, and later mod­ their authority. Those with greater scope in the nature of hierarchies that the ifications of evolutionary theory have are toward the 'top' and those with lesser upward and downward influences are not added further processes. Thus the scala toward the 'bottom'. In addition to rank, the same. naturae came to be seen not as an estab­ hierarchies have other features: consider Not all actions at a given rank are tran­ lished order designed by the Almighty but that of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). sitive. The lieutenant in command of as the result of dynamic processes. This In order of increasing rank the levels are HMAS Runabout decides when the vessel reflected the integration into biology of ordinary seaman, able seaman, leading will get underway, but it makes no differ­ processes pioneered for physics by seaman, petty officer, chief petty officer, ence to him how the vessel gets under- Galileo two-and-a-half centuries earlier. warrant officer, sub-lieutenant, With the shift of emphasis lieutenant, lieutenan t­ from the static to the commander, commander, cap- ELDREDGE'S HIERARCHIES dynamic-and with the social tain, commodore, rear admiral effects of the Fr ench and vice admiral. (The admiral Revolution-the usefulness participates in the command of of hierarchies in biology the entire Australian Defence GENEALOGICAL ECOLOGICAL seemed at an end. Force and so is not included HIERARCHIES HIERARCHIES However, just as social hi­ here as part of the RAN.) These erarchies had been rehabili­ ranks have different duties. The Monophyletic taxon Regional biota tated by the recently rear admiral may decide that the deceased Marxist govern­ fleet will proceed to the South Species Community ments of eastern Europe, China Sea, while the commo­ Deme Population biological hieran:hies have dore might decide that squadron (or avatar) again come into favour. three will make the move. The Organism Organism These hierarchies, however, commander might then decide Reproductive cell are fundamentally different that HMAS Runabout will ac­ from the old sea/a naturae. company the third squadron, (gamete) Somatic cell The scala ordered the vari­ while the lieutenant in command Gene Molecule ous and diverse known or­ of that vessel will decide when ganisms by kind, that is, they will leave Darwin to rendezvous with way. The leading seaman may start the roughly by the species of modern biology. the squadron in the South China Sea. engines by pressing a button, throwing a The modern hierarchies of biology order Each lower rank carries out the decisions switch, or even punching "get underway" entities such as genes and populations, of the next higher rank and makes the into a computer console; it is all the same which are sometimes less perceptible but decisions appropriate to his rank to carry to the lieutenant (so long as the vessel no less real. The levels of the hierarchy out his superior's orders. So influence does get underway). The method of start­ are not taken to be higher or lower in the 'travels' down the hierarchy from higher ing the engines is unique to one level of same sense as those of the old sea/a. The to lower rank. Such influences (the the hierarchy. old terminology is still retained but the orders) are transitive downwards-they Each level in this hierarchy is distinct: direction of the major influence is often affect not only the rank at which they are captains do not take on the duties of lieu­ reversed (from 'lower' to 'higher'). made, but all ranks below it. tenants, and leading seamen only assume Perhaps the most concise of the hier­ Other influences, in this case reports, the duties of chief petty officers when archical evolutionists is Dr Niles Eldredge are transitive upwards. The chief petty they are promoted to that rank. from the Department of Invertebrate Pa­ officer reports the condition of the vessel The military hierarchy is a relic of ear­ leontology at the American Museum of to the lieutenant, the lieutenant reports lier social hierarchies, of which perhaps Natural History, New York. He has sug­ to the commander, and so on. In this the best known is that of traditional gested that there are two hierarchies. hierarchy information is transitive up­ Indian society. Not only are the social One, which he terms the genealogical hi­ wards. Note that the same influences are groups distinct, but some are perceived erarchy (GH), includes reproducing enti-

496 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY Interactions do occur at higher levels of bio­ ences greater than those that distinguish the makeup of the pool of genes by acting logical hierarchies. Pack hunting by African species. This kind of change marks the on organisms. Hunting Dogs (Lycaon pictus) is an example appearance of a new monophyletic taxon. How do these hierarchies interact? The of energy acquisition by a population. It may occur at any level 'above' that of impact of the EH on the GH is what we species, even at the family, class or order call natural selection according to levels. Eldredge points out that these Eldredge, while it is the GH that provides ties and the other, the ecological 'higher' taxa are more resistant to extinc­ the participating entities for the EH. hierarchy (EH), includes ecological enti­ tion than species. When the level of Hierarchies seem to be an inherent fea­ ties. The entities of the EH are involved phylum is reached, that is of groups such ture of biology and in 1973 Richard in the give and take of obtaining energy, as molluscs and arthropods, few of these Levins gave reasons why hierarchical primarily by eating or photosynthesis. groups have ever become extinct. organisations, such as the GH, would be The interactions of these two hierarchies While the lower-level entities of the expected as the result of natural pro­ produce evolution. EH are clear, the higher-level entities cesses, especially natural selection. He Each level of the GH, such as cells (such as biotas or communities) are noto­ ended his paper with the observation that (gametes), organisms or species, is con­ riously difficult to perceive and define. we had got it wrong: "Confusion evolves sidered to be made up of individuals. It is Yet this difficulty may well stem only into order spontaneously. What God easy enough to recognise separate ga­ from our own position, as organisms, in really said was, 'Let there be chaos'."• metes and organisms as individuals, but the EH rather than any unreality of the we are not used to thinking of species in higher levels themselves. We can see di­ Suggested Reading that light. Nonetheless Eldredge points rectly some interactions at the population out that, like reproductive cells and or­ level: Eldredge points to pack hunting as Allen, T.F.H. & Starr, T.B., 1982. Hier­ archy. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. ganisms, species have distinct, if some­ an example of energy acquisition by a Eldredge, N., 1985. Unfinished synthesis. times diffuse, boundaries. They also have population. Oxford University Press: Oxford. a discrete origin in time (at the event of The hierarchies show both upward and Levins, R., 1973. The limits of complexity. speciation) and a discrete 'death' (extinc­ downward influences. 'More-making', as In Hierarchy theory, ed. by H.H. Pattee. tion). Furthermore, they have an internal Eldredge calls it, of entities at one level in George Braziller: New York. cohesion or 'glue' that is provided by the the GH provides the cohesion for those of Salthe, S.N., 1985. Evolving hierarchical reproduction of their component groups. the next higher level. But while the pro­ systems. Columbia University Press: New In biology such a component group of cesses of 'birth' are unique to each level, York. reproducing individuals is called a deme. those of death are transitive upwards. Each entity in the GH has its own charac­ The deaths of all organisms in a deme will Dr Ralph Molnar is curator of Palaeontology at teristic process for making more of itself: bring about the death of that deme and the Queensland Museum. His research has been directed towards filling the vast gap in knowledge genes replicate, chromosomes duplicate, the 'deaths' of all demes in a species will of Australian vertebrate history between the gametes divide, organisms reproduce, cause the extinction of the species. Devonian and the Miocene. Dr Glen Ingram is demes colonise and species speciate. Genes, at a lower hierarchical level than interested in evolution and the philosophy of sci­ An d every so often a more organisms, upwardly influence the struc­ ence. In 1987 he received a special commenda­ profound change may occur in an evolving ture and metabolism of the organism. But tion from the BBC Wildlife Nature Writing lineage, with the appearance of differ- natural selection downwardly influences Awards.

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 497 THE ENQUIRIN G MIND units are for each of the four variables, that is, how are they quantified and against what etalons? -J.C. Larcey QUESTIONS & ANSWERS Glen Waverely, Vic. . 'A' is per capita affluence A• or consumption, and 'T' COMPILED BY JENNIFER SAUNDERS is some measure of the en­ vironmental destructiveness of EDITORIAL ASSISTANT the technologies employed to supply each unit of consump­ tion. Obviously, the equation is just a heuristic device and is an oversimplification since the factors are not independent. About the closest we come to actual quantitative treatment of the situation is to use per capita commerical energy con­ sumption as a surrogate for 'A' x 'T'. That can be justified as an approximation, but only as that. -Paul Ehrlich Stanford University, Ca., USA

Cockroach Saga Part Ill The cockroach problem in Q •. my household has, I'm afraid, worsened. No longer con­ tent with merely joy-riding in the microwave, they have decided to damage the workings of my flatmate's answering machine to the tune of $67 .00. Is there any way of getting rid of the little A Whale by any Other The Giant Sperm Whale, Physeter Paul's IPAT beasts without having to spray Name macrocepha/us. Could you please answer a the entire house full of noxious Depending on which book Q • query of mine regarding chemicals (which never last long Q .o. ne reads, the Giant of the species decides which the IPAT equation mentioned in anyway)? I've also tried a Spenn Whale seems to have two name applies. In this case, that the radio talks given by Paul number of old remedies including apparently valid scientific names: means P. macrocephalus is Ehrlich when he visited Australia bay leaves, bicarbonate of soda Physeter macrocephalus and P. correct. So current usage sup­ recently. The equation is and simply stamping on them. catadon. I read somewhere that ports P. macrocephalus as the l=PxAxT Are there any new, simple and the great Linnaeus himself may where 'I' refers to environmental correct scientific name for the impact,'P' population size, 'A' Professor Paul Ehrlich explains be to blame. Which is correct? Giant Sperm Whale. -Thomas Cobcroft level of affluence and 'T' destruc­ his theories on population dy­ Ipswich, Qld -Linda Gibson tiveness of technology needed. I namics to staff at the Australian Australian Museum would like to know what the Museum. This is one of those •. problems that have kept Ataxonomists busy for years and years, and still it seems that the argument continues. Yes, it is the fault of Linnaeus; he did indeed use both Physeter catadon and P. macrocephalus in 1758. For many years P. catadon was used as it was the � first species name. There was \g some argument th at P. � macrocephalus applied to a dif­ � ferent whale, and not the sperm whale. Lately, however, � :;;;,. the P. macrocephalus support- � ers have argued that both i names are synonyms for the i'.l: same animal and so the rule @ called 'first revisor' applies. :i:: This means that the first zool­ � ogist to revise the taxonomy

498 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY environmentally safe ways to rid your household is high, so an fares (that are not human 'con­ off the opening and leave it out our house of the mongrels? all-out effort is called for. I tact' areas) with small in the sun for a few hours. The -Matthew Feierabend suggest that you and your quantities of diatomaceous high temperature should kill Kirribilli, NSW flatmatespend an entire day or earth (available from pool any insects hidden inside but, weekend on 'Operation Cock­ supply shops) or spray with should it fail, you will have to . At severe levels of infes­ roach'. Thoroughly scrub all synthetic pyrethroids. And fi­ resort to a squirt of pyre­ A• tation, there is no magi­ areas of the house where the nally, get a bulk supply of throids inside the bag. How cal cure for hordes of ravaging cockroaches occur, especially sticky traps from the hardware dead cockroaches affect elec­ cockroaches. Indeed, if there the kitchen. Remove and wash store and place these around trical equipment I don't know. were, somebody certainly everything in the cupboards, the house (or make your own Rotting corpses might even be would have marketed it and making sure that any unsealed baits from borax and honey­ worse than live cockroaches! made a fortune by now. If you food is stored in airtight con­ but make sure they are inac­ You could always try an­ don't want to use pesticides, tainers. Seal all cracks­ cessible to children and pets). other old remedy, which I you may have to live with the around drainage pipes, under Follow up by removing all dead found in the very first issue of problem. Once cockroaches benches, around the sink, and cockroaches and, most import­ this magazine (vol. 1, no. 1, have taken hold they are ex­ anywhere else they come in­ antly, maintaining a high level 1921): "Cockroaches are best tremely difficult to remove. with silicone sealant. Dust any of hygiene. Outside the kitchen destroyed by placing baits of The old remedies can and do breeding areas and thorough- you can use 'Roachban' cock­ borax and breadcrumbs, or work-but usually only at low roach bombs, which contain a equal parts of ground-up choc­ levels of infestation. It sounds Most people's idea of a good mixture of hydroprene (a olate and borax, in the places like the level of infestation in cockroach is a dead cockroach. growth steriliser) and where they lurk. Plaster of pyrethrin. Paris sprinkled about will also Cockroaches are attracted be greedily consumed by the to electrical equipment be­ insects, and on being taken cause of the warmth. (We even into their digestion system it had a couple move into our fax hardens, and so causes death. machine in the ANH office!) Paris green blown into their They cause havoc with the hiding places has the effect of equipment because they can driving them out." No guaran­ short-circuit it, either by tees for success, but I'd be in­ simply walking over or defe­ terested to hear if anyone has cating on the circuitry. The tried this, or knows of a way only way to rid your electrical to get cockroaches out of elec­ appliances of the vermin is to trical equipment without dam­ place the appliance inside a big aging it. black plastic garbage bag, seal -F.D r.------� SUBSCRIBE AND SAVE 2s c1c: I

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Post to FREEPOST 11, 4th Floor, 64 Kippax Street, Surry Hills 2010. L ______J VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 499 R E F E R E N C E S daylights out of the bush each year. Hazard-reduction burn­ ing is needed, but it must be used with care. There are several other in­ accuracies throughout the book, but they are generally REVIEWS quite minor and detract only minimally from the book. Its COMPILED BY JENNIFER SAUNDERS interesting text, original ap­ proach to the topic and lavish EDITORIAL ASSISTANT illustrations make it a very nice addition to the book­ size, a few extra paragraphs on shelves of anyone who enjoys this point would have been nature. easy to include, making this -John Dengate section much more useful. NSW National Parks One interesting piece of and Wildlife trivia included in this work concerns the courtship of Blue Marine Invertebrates of Sharks. The male's idea of Southern Australia Part 2 'whispering sweet nothings' is Edited by S.A. Shepherd and to bite the female's back and I.M. Thomas. South sides-hard. To cope with the Australian Government dental equipment of these Printing Division, Adelaide, over-zealous Romeos, females 7989, 400 pp. $39.95 have especially thick skin in (softcover); $49. 95 the appropriate areas. (waterproof). In a nature book of this length, there are bound to be a In 1982 the first of what few problems of fact and dis­ promised to be an excellent agreements about interpret­ series of handbooks on the ation. For example, the section marine invertebrate fauna of on bushfires suggests that all southern Australia was pub­ eucalypts need fire to repro­ lished by the Flora and Fauna duce and that the trees retain of South Australia Handbooks their seeds until a fire releases Committee (South Australian them from the gumnuts. This Government). After many isn't true for most eucalypts, years of gestation the second which drop their seeds each volume, which deals entirely year. The scribbly gums that with molluscs, has now been come up each year in my published. lawn-without fire-certainly Molluscs, or at least their don't fit this rule. shells, have been prized collec­ More seriously, the book in­ tors' items for centuries, and The Australian Wildlife backs, as species accounts may advertently gives only one side the South Australian region is Year end up being spread over half of a current debate over fire historically important for the By David Underhill. Readers a dozen chapters. To get management. The adaptations early collections made by the Digest, Sydney, 7 989, 336 around this difficulty, the of plants to fire feature so French during Baudin's voy­ pp. $45.00. author has wisely kept only prominently that you could be ages on the Astrolabe and loosely to the monthly format. forgiven for thinking fires pose Naturaliste at the beginning of The Australian Wildlife So, for example, April deals no problem at all for our the 19th century. As men­ Year is packed with full-colour with interesting general ac­ plants. But no mention is made tioned in the introduction to photos, together with an inter­ counts of spiders and flying of the problems caused by fires this volume, the shallow seas esting text that assumes no foxes, as well as seasonal infor­ occurring too close together. of South Australia support a prior knowledge of wildlife. It mation on ducks, logrunners, The recent trend towards unique regional molluscan takes an eclectic approach to boobies, frigatebirds, fish and burning the bush each year fauna, having its origin, ac­ Australia's animals and plants, prawns. during the cooler months, to cording to N.H. Ludbrook, covering a wide range of topics The guide to observing wild- reduce fire fuels, has great po­ largely in the faunas of the and events. 1 if e contains some good tential for wiping out some southern basins formed in the Most of the book is devoted ideas-such as going out at species. Plants like banksias Tertiary after the separation to a month-by-month account dawn and dusk, keeping a that rely on seeds to repro­ of Australia from Antarctica. of what various creatures are notebook of sightings, using duce are vulnerable. Although Shell collectors and other doing at different times of the your car as a hide and being their seeds can survive fire, it students of molluscs have been year and what interesting aware of how the weather will takes about five years for the well served in South Australia events are taking place. Also affect the things you want to seeds to grow into plants old from the firstpublished studies included are sections on how see. Unfortunately binoculars enough to set their own seeds. by Lamarck in 1818 to the ex­ our erratic climate affects (one of the naturalist's most If another fire comes through haustive Handbooks of the wildlife and a useful table of useful tools) are not very well the area before this time, the South Australian Mollusca, wildlife events throughout the dealt with here; you couldn't, species can be virtually elimi­ first published in 1938 by B.C. year. for example, go out and choose nated. By omitting this point, Cotton and F.K. Godfrey, and Unfortunately the seasonal the right ones after reading the book plays into the hands continued in updated sections approach does have its draw- this section. In a book of this of those who would burn the by Bernard Cotton unW 1961.

500 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY of South Australian molluscs. cies, or unrelated species living Throughout the text there are under similar conditions. Strat­ many snippets of biological in­ egies discussed include mim­ formation that raise this publi­ icry, drought adaptation, tool cation above the level of most use, breeding strategies and typical descriptive shell books. social organisation. Hopefully any future edition For a book that has been will concentrate on replacing published as a written version some of the plates and fillingin of a TV series, it must be a few of the obvious gaps in realised that any bias, mis­ coverage. takes, omissions and the like The authors, and especially are probably the fault of the the editors, are to be congrat­ TV series. The book can ulated for persevering with hardly report different infor­ this handbook. Despite my mation to the series, although criticisms this book at $39.95 it can elaborate. It must also (softcover) and $49.95 (water­ be remembered that, although proo0 is a valuable addition to published in 1989, the footage Australia's malacological re­ and script for the series was source material and should be probably prepared and aired acquired by anyone wishing to some years previously, so in­ collect or study the shells of formation may be outdated in the region. this way. -W.B. Rudman Having made these conces­ Australian Museum sions I was still disappointed by some areas of the book. In The Survival Factor the authors' blurb on the By Mike Burkhead and Tim inside back dustjacket their Shepherd and Thomas' pods, perhaps of more interest Burkhead. Survival Anglia studies and books on birds are handbook, then, has to be to shell collectors, there are Ltd, England, 7 989, 208pp. mentioned. This seems to have compared with these earlier also puzzling gaps. There are $37.95. resulted in a strong leaning to­ studies. Specialist authors have coloured illustrations of five wards birds. The subject prepared chapters on different species of the volutes but, in The Survival Factor is a matter breakdown for the groups with comprehensive ac­ the text, only two species are selection of episodes from the chapters runs as follows: counts on the chitons, bival­ described and well-known spe­ English TV series "Survival". birds-five chapters (The ves, opisthobranchs, cepha­ cies are not mentioned. Of This series deals with wildlife, Cuckoo, Bigamy Birds, White lopods and planktonic forms. A even greater surprise is the conservation and the environ­ Water Blue Duck, Woodpeck­ most innovative and well­ lack of coverage of the ment. The book deals with ers, Eagles); mammals-two illustrated section deals with Toxoglossa. This huge super­ why certain animals have chapters (Life on the Edge, molluscan egg masses and family of advanced carnivorous adapted to live in certain envi­ Underwater Mammals); gen­ should be useful for shell col­ snails has many southern rep­ ronments. eral topics-two chapters lectors and ecologists who resentatives. In this handbook In ten chapters, 208 pages, (Tool Users, Venomous Ani­ often find these puzzling and they are represented by one 141 beautiful colour photo­ mals); amphibians-one chap­ usually unidentifiable objects. species of Conus. graphs and 39 detailed black­ ter (The Spadefoot Toad). For a book of this nature it In the introduction mention and-white illustrations, the au­ While I have nothing against is curious to find that the many is made of the characteristic, thors set out to give examples birds, I think that a bias of half groups of sea-snails are dealt often endemic fauna that is of 'survival factors' by showing a book (or more if you include with in a cursory manner. In covered in this book, yet no avian "Tool Users") was over­ the introduction we are told attempt has been made to doing it. A second source of that "only common and rep­ draw the reader's attention to disappointment is the noted resenta tive species of the examples of this endemism. shortage of Australian exam­ region are described briefly Perhaps the editors of this ples given in the book. In fact, and figured". With such a multi-authored book should it seems that the authors went speciose phylum it is necessary have written an introductory out of their way to ignore Aus­ to balance the cost of exhaus­ account tying the various tralia. In the chapter on the tively describing every known chapters together and discuss­ Spadefoot Toad, where a lot of species against the need to ing some of the features of this other examples of arid adapta­ present a representative cov­ undoubtedly interesting fauna. tion by amphibians were men­ erage. Unfortunately there are One last criticism: many of the tioned, the arid zone amph­ groups that are not given even black-and-white plates have ibian fauna of Australia was a representative coverage. For been prepared by cutting out omitted entirely. Even the example, among micromol­ individual photos and famous Water-holding Frog luscs, not one species of the rephotographing them. This (Cyclorana platycephala) Eatoniellidae, "which reach only works satisfactorily when about which much has been their greatest numbers in New the cutting-out is done meticu­ written didn't get a mention. Zealand and southern Austra­ lously and accurately. In many But perhaps the most surpris­ lia", is illustrated, and for the cases this has not occurred and case studies of certain animals ing omission, especially after Rissoacea, another prolific the shape of many of the shells and how they have adapted to the statement "Australia is group of micromolluscs, only has had to be guessed. their environments thus ensur­ host to some of the world's two species living in hyper­ To finish on a more positive ing their species' survival. most dangerous animals" saline environments are fig­ note: the coloured illustrations Where possible it also com­ (p.92) is the passage "only a ured. are on the whole excellent and pares and contrasts other handful of [spider] species are Among the larger gastro- cover a representative section strategies used by related spe- dangerous. These include the

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 501 black widow spiders, found in those in the reader's experi­ 1850s, this book will join the cheap, accurate and historical North and South America, ence. For that reason. at least, ranks of a select few that have read, it is worth every cent of Africa and many parts of Aus­ the book is good. Just a final appeared in print for those of its price. tralia [no mention of New word to the publisher or dis­ you who don't regularly read Follow that Elephant can be Zealand here], and to a lesser tributor: if you are going to journals covering Asian biol­ purchased through any good extent, tarantulas" (p. 96). send a book to Australia on a ogy. bookseller or by post from the Now what resident of the general natural history subject, In this book George covers Australian Museum Shop, or United Kingdom has not heard use a few more Australian ex­ several trips, personal in directly from Mandala Publish­ and been warned about the amples and make sure you get nature but in all cases of ers, 80 Gondola Road, 'dreaded' Sydney Funnel-web them right! nature value. He flits from Narrabeen, NSW 2101. Postal Spider? There must be few -Martyn Robinson Nepal to Sumatra, Sarawak to costs by surface mail within outside of the book authors! Australian Museum Thailand, the Philippines to Australia of $3.00 should Later on in the same page Sabah. Most of the time he has cover any town. they mention the female Black Australian Museum hangers­ -Phil Colman Widow being deadlier than the Follow that Elephant! on in tow, but never has he Australian Museum male and promptly miss an­ By George Hangay. Mandala claimed his trips to be official. other opportunity to mention Publishers, Sydney, 7 990, He has done the organising, he funnel-webs (the male, in this 337pp. $79.95. has picked the personnel to ac­ Man on the Rim: the case, is the most potent). company him, and he has de­ Peopling of the Pacific The chapter on venomous How many museum person­ cided the ultimate purpose By Alan Thome and Robert animals seems to have given nel have not only documented behind the expedition. This Raymond. Angus & them a bit of trouble all round, their field travels but actually has always been, first,a love of Robertson Publishers and for in the beginning (p.89) published them? I haven't, and travel and adventure, but ABC Enterprises, 7 989, they define venomous animals I know of no others in Austra­ second, a strive to collect in­ 288pp. $39.95. as being able to "secret toxic lia other than George Hangay. sects, his personal love, from matter and inject it by biting What's more, George hasn't wherever possible on this Both the 11-part documen­ or stinging or by some other only published them in this de­ planet. These trips have tary series (shown on ABC TV means" and "poisonous ani­ lightful book, he's avoided the boosted the contents of the late 1989) and this publication mals secrete lethal toxins but major publishers and picked an entomological coffers of the have the specific aim of in­ do not actively attack other unknown who allowed 331 Australian Museum enor­ creasing our awareness of the creatures with them" (that is, pages, 21 colour plates, 59 mously, and George will rest Pacific Rim as a cultural region you get sick if you bite or eat black-and-white photos and in­ contented with the fact that, of world significance. The au­ them). They then talk about numerable line drawings (all although the lands he has vis­ thors, an Australian prehist­ poison glands and poison with taken or drawn by the author) ited may by now be covered in orian-physical anthropologist regard to sea urchins, which for the purchase price of just rubber plantations and be to­ and writer-film-maker, set out inject it via "prolonged $19.95. tally dead insect-wise, his ef­ to demonstrate that there are pinchers" when stepped on Although George's Follow forts have added at least a strong evolutionary and mi­ (p. 92) and "symptoms of poi­ that Elephant will probably chapter, if not more, to the gratory links among all the soning" with regard to not quite join the ranks of sum total of Indo-Pacific ento­ peoples of the region, which stonefish and sculpin finspines. Alfred Russell Wallace's docu­ mological knowledge. date back 50,000 years and They also seem to have mentation of collecting in Sure this book is not with­ which underpin the variety of trouble with the terms 'ven­ South-East Asia from the out errors but, for a good, present-day peoples, languages omous' and 'dangerous to man' and lifestyles. as in "approximately 80 per Like the TV series, the cent of the Australian species book first provides evidence of [of sea snake] are venomous". human evolution in Asia, and As far as I understood it all sea describes likely migration snakes were venomous but not routes and methods from there all were dangerous. I also dis­ around the Pacific. Chapters pute the claim on p.106 that then cover the populating of sea snakes' main prey is eels; Australia and the Arctic; cul­ and the statement "Almost all tural adaptation in Indonesia the major fins [of Scorpion and New Guinea; technological Fish] possess spines and development in mainland venom glands", as the two South-East Asia and China; the largest fins (the showy pecto­ Japanese story; the habitation rals) are harmless. of North, Central and South There are other troubling America; and, finally, the set­ statements in the book but I tlement of the Pacific Islands won't mention them here. All themselves. in all the book is easy reading The scope of such a task is and provides the average immense and presents the au­ person with a mixture of gen­ thors with a considerable chal­ eral and detailed information lenge: how to communicate a on the various attributes re­ synthesis of such a range of quired for a particular lifestyle. subjects in a not-too-superficial The text is poorly researched way. Do they succeed? The in some parts and badly ex­ answer is both yes and no. plained in others, but overall Where the TV series suf­ the book is interesting and fered from an attempt at David stimulates thought on similari­ Attenborough-style presen­ ties and contrasts between tation that bordered on carica­ those examples depicted and ture (Alan Thorne in front of

502 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY The Sydney Tropical Centre

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anything and everything), the people) is a theory not highly book is a delight to the eye. regarded by Thorne's aca­ Also, the content is cleverly demic colleagues in the light of structured so that the regional present physical anthropologi­ case-study chapters provide cal evidence. Not even in the opportunities to discuss vari­ "End Notes/Further Reading" ous themes that are central to is reference made to alterna­ the Pacific story: boats and tive interpretations of the evi­ sailing, metal working, domes­ dence, currently favoured by tication of plants and animals, other experts. A similar lack of �""'· hunting and agricultural devel­ even-handedness is apparent in .j,,J/:; opments such as controlled the chapters on the Americas, _\fiF Country Life burningand irrigation, physical with the coverage of Central . (11,rt/Ylta and cultural adaptation to ex­ America being more adequate tremes of habitat and tempera­ and based on more reliable ref­ TUGALONG STATION ture, and the ecological impact erences than the chapter on of humans in the region. South America. This lends the Unfortunately, however, book a certain uneasy bias, not Graham & Sue Pizzey Thorne's didactic and over­ to mention a feeling that the earnest delivery has survived authors' personal missionary Ornithologists, Authors in the prose style. We are told zeal has overridden their scien­ how it (probably) was and, tific common sense. For the and Naturalists. moreover, how we should feel sake of intellectual honesty (at about it, with frequent use of the risk of complexity), I would At Tugalong Station emotive words such as "com­ prefer a more balanced discus­ on 24th & 25th November '90 pelling", "masterly", "aston­ sion of current interpretations ishing", "unmatched" etc. (even if only in the footnotes) Graham & Sue will lead expeditions Thorne's pontifical enthusiasm or a more open statement does not give the reader credit from the authors concerning through this 5,340 acre property, rich for being able to decide his or the particular lines they have in flora and fauna. her own reactions to the ma­ followed. Cost per person, includes 2 nights' terial presented. With these qualifications in A more serious criticism is mind, it must be said that the accomm., all meals and guided walks with the authors' decision to pre­ issues raised in this book are Graham andSue, $220. sent certain contentious theo­ timely ones for the Australian ries as if they were generally reader. Despite its limitations, Limited strictly to 40 people. agreed interpretations of the Man on the Rim makes a big For further information & bookings past. For example, the possi­ contribution to expanding our contact: bility that Australia was popu­ awareness of the cultural con­ DAVID & PENNIE MITCHELL & SONS lated by two distinct physical text in which Australia is belat­ P.O. BOX 846, BOWRAL N.S.W. 2576 "types" from Indonesia and edly learning to function as a the Asian mainland (which nation. Telephone 048-78 9247/ 78 9171 have subsequently merged to -Zoe Wakelin-King Fax 048-78 9325 produce modern Aboriginal Australian Museum

VOLUME 23 NUMBER 6, SPRING 1990 503 I T H E L A s T w 0 R D i oh out of business. Within the first few months, the myxoma virus destroyed "Why not reintroduce the professional rabbit-ohs, some 99 per cent of all rabbits but today, with less virulent forms of the virus and the financial return to them being with genetic resistance in the rabbit commensurate with the importance population, another population explosion of their work with farmers?" threatens the nation. Natural predators such as feral cats, foxes, dingoes and eagles apply some curbs. And farmers employ several self­ help measures (poisoning, ripping-up war­ AN OLD SOLUTION rens, fumigating and trapping) but these are only small-scale and localised, doomed to ultimate failure as a consequence of TO AN OLD the mobility and breeding propensity of the pest. Recent research from Europe offers hope of a solution. One virus, viral PROBLEM tracheopneumonia, has killed some 32 million rabbits in Italy. However, it also BY DAN O'DONNELL affects European hares and its effect on HISTORY & EDUCATION WRITER other species is still unknown. From Spain, Australia may import two types of flea considered useful in spreading USTRALIA HAS ALWAYS SUFFERED State of Washington, a large white Cali­ myxomatosis in arid regions. And in Aus­ from a delicate ecological balance, fornian hybrid rabbit, dressing to five tralia itself, pioneering work with the rev­ its irregular rainfall and climate of pounds, was being bred as a source of olutionary 'gene shears' technology, by Aextremes making it especially vulnerable nutritious protein for both American and which scientists can effectively sterilise to the slightest environmental pressure Asian consumers. The enterprise, known rabbits by chemically controlling their or disturbance. We learned the lesson as Thumpa Industries and which is still a genes, holds more promise for the well with prickly pear, and we are still going concern, demonstrates the viability farmer. paying for the luxury of introducing 24 of the venture. By 1976, it was looking at But surely Thomas Dawson's sugges­ European rabbits in 1859. Within 20 annual production of over ten million rab- tion still has much practical merit, not years the rabbits had spread north and only in controlling the ever-swelling north-west from Thomas Austin's prop­ rabbit population but also in providing erty near Geelong, soon engulfing south­ jobs? Why not reintroduce the pro­ eastern Australia at a rate of over 110 fessional rabbit-ohs, the financial return kilometres per year. And in less than half "Why not make to them being commensurate with the a century the pest had crossed the whole importance of their work to farmers? continent. Not even the rare cooperation the rabbit Why could all costs not be recouped by of all States in the construction of mass­ the establishment of a reputable Rabbit ive rabbit-proof fences could halt its ad­ pay its way Marketing Board, along the lines of a Fish vance. or Meat Marketing Board? The export In 1887, the New South Wales Gov­ Ior a change? '' arms of both these bodies surely could ernment offered a huge reward of furnish the expertise to gauge the viabil­ £25,000 to any person who could devise ity of marketing rabbit flesh in Asian, a method for the extermination of rabbits. bits from a breeding stock of two million, Middle Eastern or European countries. Worldwide interest was aroused, the all from a self-contained complex of large Farmers whose land is saved from degra­ prestigious Pasteur Institute of Paris dis­ cages, feed mill, tannery, abattoir and fer­ dation would hardly baulk at a modest patching representatives forthwith. Their tilising works, and all constructed on charge for the service provided by solution of chicken cholera was soon dis­ about 140 hectares. Compare this strictly freelance rabbit-ohs, their work moni­ carded, as were suggestions from home controlled industry with the Australian tored by the local Rabbit Board empow­ and elsewhere overseas. The United experience of the 1880s and 1890s, ered to employ and recompense rabbit­ States also manifested much interest, where the continent itself was the rabbit ohs, and maintain standards in the rabbit with the United States Commercial run and the awesome infestation appar­ meat industry. Attache for Newcastle, Thomas Dawson, ently out of control. In pre-myxomatosis days the work of sending off an urgent dispatch to Califor­ My own recollection of my consterna­ the rabbit-ohs was laudable but poorly nia on 25 October 1887: "The rabbit pest tion in 1950 when I first witnessed the paid. Properly harvested and marketed, seems to have become as great a terror hundreds upon hundreds of hectares of however, the rabbit could be an enor­ to these colonies as the locusts were to sheep country in western New South mously valuable natural resource and a Egypt ... I do not understand why a syn­ Wales rendered useless by the burrowing potentially lucrative sideline for farmers. dicate could not be formed to preserve and foraging of thousands upon thousands After all, the stock is virtually unlimited. and export meat so highly prized to for­ of rabbits is still vivid. Vivid also is the Given their preference for the most nutri­ eign markets." Is the point not still valid? memory of my first rabbit drive, the long tious of grasses and their capacity for Why can't rabbit meat for the protein­ line of beaters advancing with as much stripping whole fields bare, they exact an starved markets of the world, especially noise as possible to drive thousands of exorbitant charge on their host. Why not Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and rabbits into the prepared funnel at the make the rabbit pay its way for a change? Hong Kong, be harvested and marketed? end of the 1.5-kilometre-long run. Never The meat must have enormous potential Why can't a domestic market also be es­ had I seen so many rabbits, all swiftly and value, not to mention the fur. • tablished, with sensible marketing to expertly killed and skinned by the pro­ eradicate historic aversion to the product, fessional rabbit-ohs who later sold pelt Mr Da11 0 'D01111ell, former lecturer at Newcastle an important spin-off being the pet-food and carcass before moving on to the next a11dNorth Brisba11e Colleges of Advanced Educa­ market for meat surplus to human needs? property. The next year, things were dif­ tio11, is author of five books 011Australia11 history In 1975, just outside Olympia in the ferent: myxomatosis had put the rabbit- a11d educatio11, a11d scores of articles.

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