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International Perspectives on Mining Rare Earths: a Case Study in the Southern Jiangxi Province, China

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International Perspectives on Mining Rare Earths: a Case Study in the Southern Jiangxi Province, China International perspectives on mining rare earths: a case study in the Southern Jiangxi Province, China Communication | Editorial | Invited contribution | Perspective | Report | Review Colin Barnes Centre for Energy, the Environment and Natural Resource Governance University of Cambridge [email protected] Abstract The international profile of rare earth elements (REEs) has increased rapidly in recent years—highlighted by their importance in a wide range of applications including lasers, wind turbines, medical equipment, mobile phones, cars, electrical vehicles and defence equipment. Given the increasing demand for these minerals for crucial uses within the ‘green economy’, securing supply to the major consumers of REEs is essential. At the international level, the current dominance of China in known reserves, REE based processing, industries and international trade strengthens the country’s importance in geopolitical terms. This article provides a background to REEs at the international level, focussing on mining REEs in southern Jiangxi province in south east China and highlights the upcoming challenges faced by the sector. former mining has been carried out on populated Introduction areas with agricultural activities. This article consists of two main sections: firstly the importance and geographical location of rare earth elements (REEs) globally will be discussed, Rare earth elements (REEs) and secondly the case study of an REE mining area in Dingnan county (Jiangxi Province) will Despite their name, REEs are commonly found be described; the case study [1] included field- in the Earth’s crust. However, the extraction work and work with a number of universities of individual REEs via mining and processing is and government bureaux based in Nanchang, the problematic and requires the use of potentially capital of Jiangxi Province. A noticeable differ- polluting chemicals. REEs comprise the 15 ele- ence between REE mining in Dingnan county, as ments known as lanthanides and the transition compared with REE mining in other countries metal yttrium (Figure 1). Scandium, another including Australia and the US, is that in the transition metal, is sometimes considered a REE International Perspectives on mining rare earths 1 IA 18 VIIIA 1 1.0079 2 4.0025 1 H Light, Medium, and Heavy Rare Earth Elements He Hydrogen 2 IIA 13 IIIA 14 IVA 15 VA 16 VIA 17 VIIA Helium 3 6.941 4 9.0122 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 9 18.998 10 20.180 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Flourine Neon 11 22.990 12 24.305 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Sodium Magnesium 3 IIIA 4 IVB 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 VIIIB 9 VIIIB 10 VIIIB 11 IB 12 IIB Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon 19 39.098 20 40.078 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933 28 58.693 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.8 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton 37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 96 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.6 53 126.9 54 131.29 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon 55 132.91 56 137.33 57-71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.98 84 209 85 210 86 222 6 Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Caesium Barium Lanthanide Halfnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon 87 223 88 226 89-103 104 261 105 262 106 266 107 264 108 277 109 268 110 281 111 280 112 285 113 284 114 289 115 288 116 293 117 292 118 294 7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og Francium Radium Actinide Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson Light REEs Medium REEs 57 138.91 58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 145 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97 Heavy REEs La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Z mass 89 227 90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 237 94 244 95 243 96 247 97 247 98 251 99 252 100 257 101 258 102 259 103 262 man- Symbol made Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Name Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Figure 1: Periodic table showing heavy, medium, and light rare earths [1]. due to its presence in REE mineral deposits, but in new technologies and substitutes, REE mining its status is subject to debate [1]. developments, and global trade [1]. Disruptions to supply chains caused by tariff changes and REEs are commonly divided into heavy (HREEs) geopolitics pose important issues for the global and light REEs (LREEs) according to their REE economy [2]. atomic weights, and their association in mined deposits. For example, scandium and yttrium, Figure 2 shows estimates of the projected de- which have a lower atomic weight than LREEs, mand for REEs by end-use sector [2] and how the are grouped with HREEs because of their paired demand is divided across different REEs, while electronic configuration: LREEs have unpaired Table 1 summarises the overall demand for REEs electrons and HREEs have paired electrons [1]. by end-use sector [2, 3]. The existing and future Some divisions also include medium REEs (ele- demand for REEs is projected to increase, and ments between europium and dysprosium). the demand will be dominated by neodymium (Nd), terbium (Tb) and Dysprosium (Dy). These elements are required to manufacture magnets The International context used in wind turbines and other applications for renewable energy globally. The REE mining and processing industry con- There are two stages in the exploitation of REEs tinues to be not only an important part of the resources: the first is mining, which is mainly development and manufacture of high-end tech- surface mining, and the second is the processing nologies, but also a geopolitical tool in an increas- and extraction of individual REEs. ingly unstable and unpredictable global market. Figure 3 shows the overall distribution of REE The high-end technologies referred to will mostly mines, deposits and reserves globally. The main be related to the development of ‘green economy’ concentrations of these minerals are to be found and the transition towards low-carbon economies. in China and Australia, with other important There are several comprehensive reviews within reserves in Brazil, India, Malaysia, Russia and the REEs sector; for example, the report from the Vietnam.. Apart from these REE reserves, many British Geological Survey which includes informa- other countries–like Burundi and Malawi, as well tion on REE deposits worldwide, their extraction as Denmark (Greenland), Norway and Sweden– and processing routes, the specification of uses 98 Cambridge Journal of Science & Policy, Vol 1 (2020) Issue 2 International Perspectives on mining rare earths Figure 2: Projected demand for REEs by end-use sector. Reprinted with permission from [2]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society. Table 1: Uses of key REEs by sector. Italic: REEs used in metallic state; bold: REEs used in oxidised state. Data from [3]. Sector REEs Uses Phosphors Eu, Y, Tb, Nd, LED, lasers, flat panel display, fluorescent lamps, Xray Er, Gd, (Ce, Pr) imaging, optical sensors, fibre optics Catalyst and Chem- La, Ce, (Pr, Nd) Petroleum refining, automotive catalysts, diesel addi- ical Process tive, water treatment Ceramics and Glass Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Polishing media, UV resistant glass, thermal glass, ca- Gd, Er, Ho pacitors, sensors, colourants, refractories, fuel cells, super-conductors Metal alloys Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Y NimH batteries, Superalloys, Al-Mg alloys, steel Magnets Nd, Pr, Sm, (Tb, Motors and genertors, HD drives, microphones and Dy) speakers, MRI machines, defence industry, magnetic refrigeration Other Fertilisers, pigments, nuclear energy, medical tracers have these resources, but mining is currently ex- to curtail REE exports to the US, highlighting ploratory or there is relatively small production. the geopolitical power these elements have [7]. [4]. The US, EU and other major users of REEs are The dominance of China in the resourcing, mining prospecting for alternative, non-chinese sources of and processing of REEs (Table 2) has increased REEs in a number of countries including Norway, the dependence of the rest of the world, partic- Sweden, and more recently Greenland.
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