International Perspectives on Mining Rare Earths: a Case Study in the Southern Jiangxi Province, China

International perspectives on mining rare earths: a case study in the Southern Jiangxi Province, China

Colin Barnes Centre for Energy, the Environment and Natural Resource Governance University of Cambridge [email protected] Abstract

The international proﬁle of rare earth elements (REEs) has increased rapidly in recent years—highlighted by their importance in a wide range of applications including lasers, wind turbines, medical equipment, mobile phones, cars, electrical vehicles and defence equipment. Given the increasing demand for these minerals for crucial uses within the ‘green economy’, securing supply to the major consumers of REEs is essential. At the international level, the current dominance of China in known reserves, REE based processing, industries and international trade strengthens the country’s importance in geopolitical terms. This article provides a background to REEs at the international level, focussing on mining REEs in southern Jiangxi province in south east China and highlights the upcoming challenges faced by the sector.

former mining has been carried out on populated Introduction areas with agricultural activities.

This article consists of two main sections: firstly the importance and geographical location of rare earth elements (REEs) globally will be discussed, Rare earth elements (REEs) and secondly the case study of an REE mining area in Dingnan county (Jiangxi Province) will Despite their name, REEs are commonly found be described; the case study [1] included field- in the Earth’s crust. However, the extraction work and work with a number of universities of individual REEs via mining and processing is and government bureaux based in Nanchang, the problematic and requires the use of potentially capital of Jiangxi Province. A noticeable differ- polluting chemicals. REEs comprise the 15 ele- ence between REE mining in Dingnan county, as ments known as lanthanides and the transition compared with REE mining in other countries metal yttrium (Figure 1). Scandium, another including Australia and the US, is that in the transition metal, is sometimes considered a REE International Perspectives on mining rare earths

1 IA 18 VIIIA

1 1.0079 2 4.0025 1 H Light, Medium, and Heavy Rare Earth Elements He Hydrogen 2 IIA 13 IIIA 14 IVA 15 VA 16 VIA 17 VIIA Helium

3 6.941 4 9.0122 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 9 18.998 10 20.180 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Flourine Neon

11 22.990 12 24.305 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Sodium Magnesium 3 IIIA 4 IVB 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 VIIIB 9 VIIIB 10 VIIIB 11 IB 12 IIB Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon

19 39.098 20 40.078 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933 28 58.693 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.8 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 96 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.6 53 126.9 54 131.29 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 132.91 56 137.33 57-71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.98 84 209 85 210 86 222 6 Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Caesium Barium Lanthanide Halfnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 223 88 226 89-103 104 261 105 262 106 266 107 264 108 277 109 268 110 281 111 280 112 285 113 284 114 289 115 288 116 293 117 292 118 294 7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og Francium Radium Actinide Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson

Light REEs

Medium REEs 57 138.91 58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 145 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97 Heavy REEs La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

Z mass 89 227 90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 237 94 244 95 243 96 247 97 247 98 251 99 252 100 257 101 258 102 259 103 262 man- Symbol made Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Name Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

Figure 1: Periodic table showing heavy, medium, and light rare earths [1]. due to its presence in REE mineral deposits, but in new technologies and substitutes, REE mining its status is subject to debate [1]. developments, and global trade [1]. Disruptions to supply chains caused by tariff changes and REEs are commonly divided into heavy (HREEs) geopolitics pose important issues for the global and light REEs (LREEs) according to their REE economy [2]. atomic weights, and their association in mined deposits. For example, scandium and yttrium, Figure 2 shows estimates of the projected de- which have a lower atomic weight than LREEs, mand for REEs by end-use sector [2] and how the are grouped with HREEs because of their paired demand is divided across different REEs, while electronic configuration: LREEs have unpaired Table 1 summarises the overall demand for REEs electrons and HREEs have paired electrons [1]. by end-use sector [2, 3]. The existing and future Some divisions also include medium REEs (ele- demand for REEs is projected to increase, and ments between europium and dysprosium). the demand will be dominated by neodymium (Nd), terbium (Tb) and Dysprosium (Dy). These elements are required to manufacture magnets The International context used in wind turbines and other applications for renewable energy globally.

The REE mining and processing industry con- There are two stages in the exploitation of REEs tinues to be not only an important part of the resources: the ﬁrst is mining, which is mainly development and manufacture of high-end tech- surface mining, and the second is the processing nologies, but also a geopolitical tool in an increas- and extraction of individual REEs. ingly unstable and unpredictable global market. Figure 3 shows the overall distribution of REE The high-end technologies referred to will mostly mines, deposits and reserves globally. The main be related to the development of ‘green economy’ concentrations of these minerals are to be found and the transition towards low-carbon economies. in China and Australia, with other important There are several comprehensive reviews within reserves in Brazil, India, Malaysia, Russia and the REEs sector; for example, the report from the Vietnam.. Apart from these REE reserves, many British Geological Survey which includes informa- other countries–like Burundi and Malawi, as well tion on REE deposits worldwide, their extraction as Denmark (Greenland), Norway and Sweden– and processing routes, the speciﬁcation of uses

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Table 1: Uses of key REEs by sector. Italic: REEs used in metallic state; bold: REEs used in oxidised state. Data from [3].

Sector REEs Uses Phosphors Eu, Y, Tb, Nd, LED, lasers, flat panel display, fluorescent lamps, Xray Er, Gd, (Ce, Pr) imaging, optical sensors, fibre optics Catalyst and Chem- La, Ce, (Pr, Nd) Petroleum refining, automotive catalysts, diesel addi- ical Process tive, water treatment Ceramics and Glass Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Polishing media, UV resistant glass, thermal glass, ca- Gd, Er, Ho pacitors, sensors, colourants, refractories, fuel cells, super-conductors Metal alloys Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Y NimH batteries, Superalloys, Al-Mg alloys, steel Magnets Nd, Pr, Sm, (Tb, Motors and genertors, HD drives, microphones and Dy) speakers, MRI machines, defence industry, magnetic refrigeration Other Fertilisers, pigments, nuclear energy, medical tracers have these resources, but mining is currently ex- to curtail REE exports to the US, highlighting ploratory or there is relatively small production. the geopolitical power these elements have [7]. [4]. The US, EU and other major users of REEs are The dominance of China in the resourcing, mining prospecting for alternative, non-chinese sources of and processing of REEs (Table 2) has increased REEs in a number of countries including Norway, the dependence of the rest of the world, partic- Sweden, and more recently Greenland. Initial ge- ularly the US and the EU, who are the main ological exploration indicates that there are con- importers, on REE supply from China. REEs are siderable deposits of REEs in Greenland–in many considered to be critical minerals and therefore of cases associated with uranium–and this attracted major importance to economic development and investments from both Australian and Chinese geopolitical strategy [5, 6]. Supply security is of companies1. Exploitation may develop after envi- crucial importance for the US [6], where REEs ronmental impact assessments have been carried imported from China are employed in the defence out and the mining companies have received gov- industry. During the recent trade disputes be- ernment approval. tween China and the US, China had threatened

1Chinese companies are increasingly investing in REE mining and REE resources outside of China in order to better conserve some of the national REE resources. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.58904 99 International Perspectives on mining rare earths

180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45° 90° 135° 180°

80°

70° Lovozero Sarfartoq Nechalacho 60° Strange Kvanefjeld, Norra Kärr Plant in Hoidas Lake Eldor Lake Sørensen, Two Tom Zone 3 Stepnogorsk Bokan Mountain 50° Clay-Howells Montviel Foxtrot Bear Lodge Eco Ridge Kipawa and Zeus Kutessay II Lavergne-Springer Bayan Obo 40° Elk Creek Mountain Pass Canakli Round Top Maoniuping Weishan 30° Daluxiang South China clays 20° Dong Pao Odisha

10° Kerala

0° Ngualla Mrima Hill EXPLANATION Wigu Hill 10° Active mines TRE Carbonatite Araxá Songwe Hill Cummins Range Hastings 20° Milo Peralkaline igneous Lofdal Buena Norte Charley Creek Nolans Bore Heavy-mineral sands mining district Glenover Mount Weld 30° Clays Zandkopsdrift Steenkampskraal Dubbo Zirconia Advanced projects 40° Carbonatite Peralkaline igneous 50° Heavy-mineral sands Other

60°

70°

80°

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Global 30 arc-second elevation data (1996) and from Natural Earth (2014); Robinson projection; World Geodetic System 1984 datum Figure 3: Global mining of REEs. Reprinted from the US Geological Survey [4]. Figure O4. World map showing locations of active or recently active rare-earth-element (REE) mines and ongoing advanced exploration projects. The exploration Geology projects are at the assessment stage, meaning that they are being evaluated to determine if they are economic to develop. REE resource estimates, which are

usually based on extensive drilling programs, have been conducted on all the projects. Tables O3 and O4 contain additional information about the deposits shown on this map. Mountain Pass Mine in California (United States) was placed on care-and-maintenaceTable status 2: in 2015. Current reserves of REEs worldwide (in Environmental risks and REE metric tons of rare earths oxide equivalent). Data O9 mining from the US Geological Survey [4]. Country Reserves (metric tons) The environmental risks associated with mining REEs, as with other surface mining, are associ- China 44 Million ated with air pollution and soil and groundwater Brazil 22 Million contamination, with consequent impacts on local Vietnam 22 Million human populations, biodiversity, agriculture and Russia 12 Million other land use (Table 3). The presence of radioac- India 6.9 Million tive elements, notably thorium and uranium and Australia 3.4 Million other LREEs, is a further risk at the processing United States 1.4 Million level (water leachate, formation of dust); however the overall risks from radiation are considered to be small. A review from Ault and colleagues dis- cusses further environmental and social aspects of REEs industries [8].

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Process Element Risk Hazard level Mining Open Pit Land consumption – Waste rock storage Leachate of rain water into groundwater Medium (e.g. heavy metal contamination) Damming Tailing dam collapse due to poor construc- High tion, overtopping, seismic event Milling Impoundment areas: water Leachate of rain water into groundwater High and basins with extraction chemi- (e.g. heavy metal and radioactive contami- Flotation cals and tailings (small-sized nation) particles with large surface area) Land use – Dust (e.g. heavy metal and radioactive Medium contamination) Further – Air emission Low processing – Waste water Low

Table 3: Ecological risks at diﬀerent steps of REEs mining. Data adapted from [9].

Inner Mongolia Beijing RE-rich provinces Medium/Heavy REE Light REE Shandong

Shanghai Sichuan Hunan Jiangxi

Yunnan Fujian Guangxi GuangdongHong Kong

Figure 4: Chinese Provinces rich in REEs [10]. The class of the most extracted REEs is shown for each region.

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with agriculture and other economic activities REEs in China which were disrupted by REE mining.

The main deposits of REEs in China are found in The aim of the project in the Jiangxi province was the provinces of Fujian, Hainan, Jiangxi, Guan- to assess the impacts of REEs mining on the local dong and Guanxi in South East China (Figure 4) physical, economic and ecological environments, [10, 11]. In 2016, a non-profit organisation called as well as comparing the legal implications with China Water Risk compiled a comprehensive re- other countries and international approaches to view of the Chinese REE extraction sector and the remediation of mining areas. It was appar- its future challenges, including assessments of the ent that the remediation options for abandoned resource base, market share, and the history of mines–including phasing and cost effectiveness– illegal mining and its environmental consequences had not been comprehensively planned in the [10]. project area. The central government in China produces ex- It is estimated that Jiangxi Province produces port quotas for REE production by province (Fig- 38% of the total HREE and 50.3% of high grade ure 5), although in some cases these quotas are REEs production in China [10]. These figures circumvented by illegal mining and exports. Ille- show how important REE mining and processing gal activities have been stopped in large part by are to the Jiangxi and national economies via central government policing [10]. This measure direct and indirect employment in mining and has led to a fall in REE production in China, remediation: in fact, mining accounts for 4.4% which resulted in Chinese imports of some REE of provincial GDP. The distribution of mining ores from the USA, Myanmar, and Vietnam. provincial GDP value by sub sector is shown in Figure 6.

80,000.00 The physicalForma5ed:impacts Font: Bold of the REE surface mining 70,000.00 in GanzhouDeleted: Prefecturein some cases (Jiangxi province) are il- 60,000.00 Deleted: through channels such as The i 50,000.00 lustratedDeleted: in Figure 7, showing the the landscape Deleted: PRC 40,000.00 before and after the mining activities. Estimates Deleted: has meant that China has in some years 30,000.00 of the relationshipDeleted: ed between remediation costs and 20,000.00 the salesDeleted: income of the REEs industry in Ganzhou Deleted: provincial 10,000.00 PrefectureDeleted: in in 2011what is a mainly [14 rural], area show. The remediation that of while past re- - abandoned REE mine areas in Southern Jiangxi Jiangxi Guangxi Guangdong Hunan Sichuan Fujian Inner mediationDeleted: costs and thetotalled ecological US$ 5.8 billion, the sales Mongolia Deleted: at the national level as have the impacts on both the Light REEs (REO tonnes) Medium/Heavy REEs (REO (tonnes) income ofenvironment REEs and public was health only US$ 4.7 billion while Deleted: [19, 20,21] Figure 10: The control quotas for the production of REEs in China [18] the annual profit of Ganzhou’s REEs industry Environmental impacts¶ Source:Figure Ministry 5: Controlof Industry and quotas Information for Technology the production (MIIT) quoted in ADB of and Nareewas onlyDeleted: US$ 0.3 billion over 10 years. report (2019) Deleted: Using the flow chart in Figure 3 [12], t REEs in China (2018) [12]. Deleted: including surface \subsection*{Rare earths mining in Jiangxi Province: envirnmental impact} AbandonedDeleted: REE both mine sites–in what is a mainly rural area–continueDeleted: and to offer challenges for central The central government in China produces export quotas for REE production by province Deleted: the (Figure~\ref{fig:quotas}), although in some cases these quotas are circumvented by illegaland peripheral provinces. The contamination of miningRare and exports earths. Illegal activities mining have been in stopped Jiangxi in large part by central government policing \citep{china_water_risk}. This measure has led to a fall in REE production in REE surface mining in China and its impacts China, which resulted in Chinese imports of some REE ores from the USA, Myanmar, and Province:Vietnam. background and costs on resources, the environment, and public health have been noted by several scientists in China Abandoned REE mine sites--in what is a mainly rural area--continue to offer challenges for centralThis and section peripheral is provinces based. The on contamination survey fieldwork of REE surface commis- mining in China andand its internationally [15–17]. impacts on resources, the environment, and public health has been noted by several scientists insioned China and by internationally the Asian \citep{ Developmentpagano2015health,huang2016protecting Bank (ADB),rim2016effects}. and which was in part managed by the author in

T2018he main inenvironmental Dignan impacts county, in the Jiangxi which mining is have located been the movement in the of REERare earths mining in Jiangxi leachates from the surface mining into surface water courses and groundwater (southTable~\ref{ oftab:risks Jiangxi}). Contamination province, originated one offrom the both mostin situ mining impor- and from tailingProvince: environmental impact ponds; in one case, the cause has been potentially the failure of one of the tailing storage dams.tant centres of REE mining in the province. The contrast between REE mining in Dingnan and The main environmental impacts in the Jiangxi other REE mining areas in northern China, Aus- mining have been the movement of REE leachates tralia and the USA are the fact that the mining from the surface mining into surface water courses in Dingnan County–now ceased after government and groundwater (Table 3). Contamination origi- intervention–was carried out in a populated area nated from both in situ mining and from tailing

Deleted: 11 102 Cambridge Journal of Science & Policy, Vol 1 (2020) Issue 2 International Perspectives on mining rare earths

Figure 6: Contribution per extraction activity to the Jiangxi provincial GDP for the mining sector Moved up [3]: The physical impacts of the surface mining of (13.5 Billion USD – 4.4 per cent of the total provincial GDP) [12]. REE mining in Ganzhou Prefecture are illustrated in Figure 11 [17], this shows the impacts on the landscape before and after the mining activities.¶

Deleted: ¶ ITEM ... [2]

Deleted: bird view Deleted: (Google satellite image) Figure 11: Comparison of the satellite photo of a rare earth mine in Ganzhou before (April Deleted: The Regional Environmental Impacts of REE Figure 7: Comparison of the satellite photo of a rare earth mine in Ganzhou before (April 2005) and 2005) and after (February 2009) pool leaching and heap leaching processes are mining in Jiangxi Province¶ after (February 2009)adopted pool (Source: leaching \citep{guo2012}). and heap leaching processes are adopted (Source: [13]). Forma5ed: English (UK) Deleted: Jiangxi \subsection*{Rare earths mining in Jiangxi Province: macro-regional impact} Deleted: P Deleted: these rivers The impacts of REE mining in Jiangxi Province and Dingnan and other Counties in Jiangxi Deleted: sources go beyond the province’s borders. The pollutants from REE mining in Jiangxi flow into the Deleted: any economic impacts A Ganjiang and Dongjiang rivers and from here intoB the Yangtze and Pearl rivers and other Chinese streams \citep{china_water_risk}. It is not clear what the impacts of these are on Deleted: was water quality, health and local economies. Forma5ed: English (UK) Deleted: the average concentration of these REEs higher than The concentration of dissolved REEs in the Ganjiang river is elevated when compared with Deleted: notably for the Chinese national average. In particular, the water concentration of europium (Eu), Deleted: with concentrations lanthanium (La), lutetium (Lu), samarium (Sm), terbium (Tb) and ytterbium (Yb) in REE Deleted: ing mining areas ranged from 0.004 (Lu) to 2.412 (La) $\mu$g/L \citep{liang2014state}. These results emphasise the need for a regional and catchment approach to the management of REE Deleted: μ and associated effluents [28]. The impact of REEs on health has been shown to be linked to Deleted: atmospheric pollution from mining and associated inhalation Deleted: [ ] \citep{liang2014state,haque2014rare}. In the case of mining area studies, the main impacts Deleted: ¶ on human health would appear to be linked to the presence of heavy metals in soils, which ¶ are often directly associated with REE mining \citep{haque2014rare}. Deleted: [ ] Deleted: Figure 8: A) Heap leaching and a tailing site in Anyuan County, Ganzhou Prefecture. B) Biore- Deleted: the mediation on abandoned REE mining areas in Jiangxi Province. Reproduced with permissionForma5ed: from English (UK) [12]. Forma5ed: English (UK) Deleted: and heavy metals in soils Forma5ed: English (UK) Forma5ed: English (UK) https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.58904 Deleted:103 [29] Deleted: China¶ 10

International Perspectives on mining rare earths

ponds; in one case, a potential cause may be the well as atmospheric pollution from mining dust failure of a tailing storage dam. Additionally, the may have been REE-mining factors related to the surface mining of REEs causes physical problems surge of health issues2. to the geography of the territory, including land slips, the loss of vegetation cover that results in soil erosion (Figure 8A), damage to crop produc- Remediation of REE mining tion (specifically rice), and loss of biodiversity. areas The impacts of REE mining in the Dingnan county and other counties in the Jiangxi Province Phytoremediation is an acknowledged approach go beyond the province’s borders. The pollutants to the remediation of mining areas [20], where from REE mining in Jiangxi flow into the Gan- vegetation is planted to extract and store heavy jiang and Dongjiang rivers and from here into metals from the soil. In China the practice of the Yangtze and Pearl rivers and other Chinese phytoremediation, biochar (a charcoal-like sub- streams [10]. It is not yet clear how this impacts stance derived from burning of biomass) [21] and water quality, human and animal health and local associated remediation approaches is nationally economies beyond the mining region. widespread [12] and the challenges of mining and The concentration of dissolved REEs in the Gan- land remediation have been recognised [22]. jiang river is elevated when compared with the Phytoremediation has been used in Dingnan and Chinese national average. In particular, the water other counties of Jiangxi province to compen- concentration of europium (Eu), lanthanium (La), sate for agricultural activities in a populated area lutetium (Lu), samarium (Sm), terbium (Tb) and where there is a predominance of heavy metals ytterbium (Yb) in REE mining areas ranged from in the soils, common in REE mining areas. This 0.004 (Lu) to 2.412 (La) µg/L [18]. These results involves planting certain species of trees, grasses emphasise the need for a regional and catchment and other flora. The plants used depend in part approach to the management of REE mining and on the geochemistry of the soils which may af- associated effluents [18]. fect the success of uptake [23, 24], for instance citrus trees have been used in Dingnan county (Figure 8B) [12]. The combined use of biochar in Health impacts of REE surface Dingnan county has been successful so far, however the success of these remediation operations mining depends on the planting of indigenous plants that are resistant to heavy metal contamination, while The impact of REEs on health has been linked being suited to the local soil and climatic condi- to indirect atmospheric pollution from mining tions. and associated inhalation [18, 19], as well as the presence of heavy metals in soils, which are often directly associated with REE mining [19]. Policy Issues and conclusions Although the mining of REEs has been halted The importance of REEs for green investments by government edict in Dingnan County, there and the demand and supply balance for REEs are still some small pockets of illegal mining and globally has raised several policy issues in coun- the health impacts of the extraction activities tries with the highest demand: these include the still persist. Village surveys in Dingnan County security of supply and the development of alter- show the views of respondents concerning health native raw materials as well as the policy issues issues; 36.03% of respondents considered that relating to the environmental, economic and so- the number of serious diseases—including vari- cial aspects of REE mining. ous cancers–increased since the commencement of REE mining [12]. Exposure to contaminated The regulation of REE and other mining varies water from surface and groundwater sources, as from country to country. In Europe, guidelines for 2The absence of historical health records for the local incidence of different diseases makes it difficult to prove causation between REE mining and different diseases.

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best practice have been produced [25], however c 2020 The Author. Published by the Cambridge the exploitation of REEs is still at the exploratory University Science & Policy Exchange under the stage; in China, the application of environmental terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License legislation is not always effective, because it is http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, unclear and depends on the monitoring of mining which permits unrestricted use, provided the original exploitation. It is also generally recognised that author and source are credited. pre-mining environmental impacts assessments (EIAs) are important before and during mining activities. References Measures need to be taken to lessen the EU and USA reliance on the current main source of sup- [1] British Geological Survey, “Rare Earth ply in China. Alternatives to REEs are also being Elements,” June 2010. [Online]. Available: used and developed in a number of research insti- http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/12583/1/ tutes. These alternatives include cerium – cobalt Rare_Earth_Elements_profile.pdf compounds (CeCO3 ) and cobalt compounds with [2] E. Alonso, A. M. Sherman, T. J. Wallington, iron germanium (Fe3Ge) for use in batteries for M. P. Everson, F. R. Field, R. Roth, and electical vehicles. There is also research on the R. E. Kirchain, “Evaluating rare earth ele- use of copper (Cu) as a potential replacement ment availability: A case with revolutionary for REEs in rotating machines and direct drive demand from clean technologies,” Environ- generators in wind turbines. A further line of mental science & technology, vol. 46, no. 6, research is the recycling of REEs. The feasibil- pp. 3406–3414, 2012. ity of alternatives will also depend on their cost [3] EuRare, “What are rare earth ele- effectiveness and the quality of performance in ments?” 2017. [Online]. Available: http: applications, as compared with the mining of //www.eurare.eu/RareEarthElements.html widely diffused REEs, such as neodymium (Nd) and Dysprosium (Dy) [1]. Green economic devel- [4] K. J. Schulz, J. H. DeYoung, R. R. Seal, and opment will also depend on the extent to which D. C. Bradley, Critical Mineral Resources countries can use alternative sources to REEs for of the United States: Economic and Envi- low-carbon applications. ronmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply. US Geological Survey, 2018. [5] S. Kalantzakos, China and the geopolitics of Acknowledgements rare earths. Oxford University Press, 2017.

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About the Author

Colin is a fellow at the University of Cam- bridge Centre for En- ergy, the Environ- ment and Natural Resource Governance. He has a background in economics, environmental economics and natural resources law and governance and international relations with most recently, degrees from the universities of Cambridge and Manchester. He has worked extensively in China, India, East and West Africa, Brazil and EU countries. His work in China has been in the regional environmental issues (Shaanxi province), the economics of water supply (Shanghai ), engineering economics (Sichuan province), environmental economics and policy (Hainan province), marine pollution (Zhejiang province) and most recently, the economics and international legal aspects of rare earth and other mining (Jiangxi province).

Conﬂict of interest The Author declares no conﬂict of interest.

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