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Home , Dehellenization, Giovanni Reale, The School of Athens

Lecture Outline

I. ’s “The School of Athens” II. What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? III. The Nature & Outline of Greek IV. This Course

1. Introduction

Renaissance Rome

• On 18 August 1503, Pope Alexander VI, the Borgia pope, died after leading a life characterized by greed, lust, & murder. • Despite his manifest vices, Pope Alexander was a generous patron of the . Among other projects, he had commissioned Pinturicchio’s paintings for the Borgia Apartments in the Vatican Palace. I. Raphael’s “The School of Athens” • Shortly after Pope Alexander’s death Giuliano della Rovere, long a rival of Alexander, was elected Pope as Julius II. • Julius refused to allow the Borgia Apartments to become the Papal residence. Instead, he decided to decorate several rooms in the floor above. • Thus it was that Cardinal Tommasso Inghirami, his librarian, programmed & Raffaello Sanzio executed the frescoes for Julius’ library, a room that has come to be known as the Stanza della Segnatura.

Pope Julius’ Library (The Stanza della Segnatura) Principles of Interpretation

• There are at least three approaches one could take to discussing these paintings: 1. The aesthetic—How did Raphael fit those figures so neatly into the space available? What use did he make of color? 2. The historical—Why does that historical figure have Leonardo’s face? Why did Raphael add in a figure that looks like late in the work? 3. The hermeneutic—What ideas does the painting express? • This lecture will offer an hermeneutic interpretation of the painting. Philosophy - There is much difference of opinion among experts on the details. Here, I rely on Poetry!! • Giovanni Reale, La Scuola di Atene di Raffaello • Christiane L. Joost-Gaugier, Raphael’s Stanza della Segnatura - The painting offers a Platonic interpretation of the history of Greek philosophy. • With this also, there is room for disagreement. “The School of Athens” Organization of the Room

• This room was intended as a library. – The four paintings reflect a librarian’s way of classifying books. • But it was not a haphazard classification. We can use it to reflect on the relation among the subjects represented.

Revealed Rational Beauty Goodness Truth Truth The Sophists Strabo & The Socratics Theology Philosophy Poetry Law “The Adoration of the “The Knowledge of Sacrament” Causes” The “Parnassus” “Jurisprudence” [Popularly [“Popularly ‘The “Disputation”] School of Athens’] Orphic Mysteries

Empedocles

The Overall Organization of The Orphic Roots of Philosophy “The School of Athens” • Philosophy itself with Plato & Aristotle at the center. • Platonic Texts – The point here is harmonization, not contrast. “I conceive that the founders of the mysteries had a real – Plato focuses on divine matters meaning and were not mere triflers when they intimated in a figure long ago that he who passes unsanctified and • though the book he carries, the , is, more than most of his others, uninitiated into the world below will live in a slough, but concerned with explaining the natural world. that he who arrives there after initiation and purification will – Aristotle explains natural matters dwell with the . For ‘many,’ as they say in the mysteries, • though the book he carries, the , ends by commending the contemplative life ‘are the thyrsus bearers, but few are the mystics.’”— (as the one centered on the most godlike of human activities). 69c • He does not carry, say, The Gaits of Animals. “And they produce a host of books written by Musaeus and • Philosophy & … according to which they perform their ritual.”— – Plato is said to have placed above the entry of his a motto, “Let no one 364e ignorant of enter here.” • The effect of Orphism on philosophy – In the painting, the mathematical arts are at the foundation of the steps leading to – Orphism offered a new anthropology (in contrast to the Homeric one), in which man philosophy: is identified, not with his body, but with his . • On the left, arithmetic (represented by Pythagoras) & its application, music – It emphasized the importance of a kind of purification which will make possible, not (harmonics). reincarnation, but an afterlife with the gods. • On the right, geometry (represented by Euclid) & its application, astronomy (& geography). • Modern collections of texts (Diels, Kirk & Raven) often begin with a section on Orphic religion.

The Importance of Pythagoras The Exclusion of the Sophists (on this Interpretation of the History of Philosophy) • Pythagoras forms a bridge between Orphism & Plato. The Sophists make no contribution to the purification of the soul. (Note the way they are depicted with books.) – Stage #1 (Orphism): “Can it be, Hippocrates, that the is really a • Purification of the human soul (person) by magical ritual. sort of merchant or dealer in provisions on which a soul is nourished? For such is the view I take of him. – Stage #2 (): “With what, , is a soul nourished? • Pythagoreanism is a kind of (community) life including ritual “With doctrines, presumably, I replied. And we must prescriptions & proscriptions. take care, my good friend, that the Sophist, in commending his wares, does not deceive us, as both • But purification comes more through arithmetico-geometric knowledge than merchant and dealer do in the case of our bodily food. through magical rituals (& through music, whose harmonies have arithmetic For among the provisions, you know, in which these men deal, not only are they themselves ignorant roots). what is good or bad for the body, since in selling they commend them all, but the people who buy from them are so too, unless one happens to be a trainer or a doctor. And in the same way, those who – Stage #3 (Socrates) take their doctrines the round of our cities, hawking them about to any odd purchaser who desires • Plato’s early dialogs show Socrates’ life as a search for . them, commend everything that they sell, and there may well be some of these too, my good sir, who – Stage #4 (Plato) are ignorant which of their wares is good or bad for the soul; and in just the same case are the people who buy from them, unless one happens to have a doctor’s knowledge here also, but of the soul. So • Plato’s later dialogs (Phaedo, Republic) show a concern with purification through then, if you are well informed as to what is good or bad among these wares, it will be safe for you to knowledge (of the Forms), &c. buy doctrines from or from anyone else you please: but if not, take care, my dear fellow, that you do not risk your greatest treasure on a toss of the dice.”—Plato, Protagoras 313 cd Portrayed here, probably (center) & Protagoras (left). Apollodorus, one of the friends of Socrates, tells them that they do not belong in the painting. The Socratics The Euclideans • Socrates • • Euclid (fl. late C3 or early C2 BC) “a flamboyant aristocrat, … – His Elements [of geometry & number theory] was a competent military leader & a taught in schools until C19. master of intrigue, [whose] per- • Ptolemy (C2 AD) & Strabo (C1) [or ?] sonal ambition & the excesses of [whose] private life aroused the – Ptolemy’s Almagest summarized & contributed to distrust of the Athenians” geocentric astronomy. It was superseded only in —Oxford Classical Dictionary C16–17. [Note his role in Plato’s .] – Both made important contributions to astronomy & • geography. Ptolemy was the first to project a sphere –“They say that Socrates met him in a narrow lane, and put his stick across it and onto a plane. prevented him from passing by, asking him where all kinds of necessary things were sold. And when he had answered him, he asked him again where men where made good and virtuous. And as he did not know, he said, ‘Follow me, then, and learn.’ And from this time forth, Xenophon became a follower of Socrates.”— Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent –He later wrote dialogues about Socrates, which are still extant. • –“a wealthy & devoted friend of Socrates” [OCD]. –He plays a major role in the trial & death dialogues.

Wisdom in Story: The Point of Studying This Painting W. Somerset Maugham’s “Appointment in Samarra”

• Cultural literacy Death speaks: • A contrast with philosophy: The painting requires reading & analysis, as does “There was a merchant in Baghdad who sent his servant to market to a philosophical text, but … buy provisions and in a little while the servant came back, white and – In the hermeneutic analysis of the painting, there is a prevalence of trembling, and said, ‘Master, just now when I was in the market-place I association over argument. was jostled by a woman in the crowd and when I turned I saw it was Death that jostled me. She looked at me and made a threatening • A kind of wisdom comes from association—suggestive juxtaposition. gesture; now, lend me your horse, and I will ride away from this city – In philosophy, the key is arguments. and avoid my fate. I will go to Samarra and there death will not find • Wisdom might also be presented in story, poem, or aphorism me.’ The merchant lent him his horse, and the servant mounted it, and (see next two slides). he dug his spurs in its flanks and as fast as the horse could gallop he • But in philosophy, the questions are: went. – to what extent do the authors rely on argument? “Then the merchant went down to the marketplace and he saw me – To what extent do they supplement or replace it with aphorism or standing in the crowd and he came to me and said, ‘Why did you make story? a threatening gesture to my servant when you saw him this morning?’ ‘That was not a threatening gesture,’ I said, ‘it was only a start of • This is not just a combination of individual portraits, but a painting unified by surprise. I was astonished to see him in Baghdad, for I had an a vision of the history of Greek philosophy. appointment with him tonight in Samarra.’” – Similarly, the course will offer a history of Greek philosophy, not just a look at some Greek philosophers.

Wisdom in Story: The “School of Athens” as an V. I. Tyutchev’s “Silentium” Interpretation of Greek Philosophy Speak not, lie hidden, and conceal • Doing the history of philosophy is a theory-laden project. the way you dream, the things you feel. Deep in your spirit let them rise – The intellectual environment is complex. There are many projects underway. akin to stars in crystal skies – Individual authors are not locked into the environment in any particular way. that set before the night is blurred: – The historian can emphasize various connections. delight in them and speak no word. – Any story must be selective, highlighting certain authors & giving less attention to How can a heart expression find? others, emphasizing certain connections & not emphasizing others. How should another know your mind? • This painting offers a neo-Platonic account of Greek philosophy, somewhat different from Will he discern what quickens you? the one which will organize the course. A thought once uttered is untrue. – The Renaissance Neo- that structured this composition had certain interests Dimmed is the fountainhead when stirred: and concerns. drink at the source and speak no word. – The C20-21 Anglo-American philosophers that write our and anthologies Live in your inner self alone have others. within your soul a world has grown, – Neither typically associates Plato & Aristotle too closely with the tragic playwrights. the magic of veiled thoughts that might However, Alasdair MacIntyre does so in After Virtue. be blinded by the outer light, – Concretely drowned in the noise of day, unheard... • Note the absence of Thales, , & from the painting take in their song and speak no word. —V. Nabokov, trans. • & the absence of the Orphics from the course. What Does Athens Have to Do with Jerusalem? Earlier & Later Connections • Renaissance (Christian) humanists were very interested in Greco-Roman culture. – The Renaissance rediscovered many authors whose works had been lost during the Middle Ages (including Plato & Cicero). – They also had a strong interest in “humanistic” texts (the tragedians & historians) not read during the Middle Ages. II. What has Athens to do with • There are earlier witnesses to the concord between ancient philosophy & : Jerusalem? – The C12 Renaissance, leading to the “Baptism of Aristotle” by St. Albert & St. Thomas. (See Richard E. Rubenstein’s Aristotle’s Children.) • & later ones – Pope Benedict XVI’s Regensburg Address (see next slide).

The Regensburg Lecture of Pope Benedict XVI

“This inner rapprochement between Biblical faith and Greek philosophical inquiry was an event of decisive importance not only from the standpoint of the history of religions, but also from that of world history—it is an event which concerns us even today.” “The thesis that the critically purified Greek heritage forms an integral part of Christian faith has been countered by the call for a dehellenization of III. The Nature & Outline History of . … Three stages can be observed in the program of dehellenization: Greek Philosophy –“Dehellenization first emerges in connection with the postulates of the in the sixteenth century. … –“The liberal theology of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries ushered in a second stage in the process of dehellenization. … –“The third stage of dehellenization, which is now in progress, [claims] … the right to return to the simple message of the prior to [the initial Hellenistic] inculturation.”

The Origins of Philosophy: A Greek View … & of the Word

“Some say that the study of philosophy originated with Some other Greek words the non-Greeks [lit., “the barbarians”] in that among the – !"#$%$&'( (< %')*, to drink), love of drinking Persians there existed the Magi, and among the Babylonians – !"#$+",'( (< +",-, honor), love of honor or Assyrians the Chaldaeans, among the Indians the – We also give ourselves to bravery, and yet with thrift; and to philosophy, and yet Gymnosophists, and among the Celts and Gauls men who without mollification of the mind.—Pericles’ Funeral Oration were called Druids …. – ."#$/(#$0,1) +2 345 ,2+’ 26+2#2'(7 /(8 !"#$&$!$0,2) 9)2: ,(#(/'(7 “But those who say this, ignorantly impute to the non- More on a new word Greeks [the barbarians] the merits of the Greeks, from whom … all philosophy … originated.” – “Pythagoras was the first person who invented the term Philosophy, and who called himself a philosopher; … for he said that no man ought to be called wise —Diogenes Laërtius, [&$!;7, sophos], but only . For formerly what is now called philosophy was Lives I.1-3 called wisdom [&$!'(, sophia], and they who professed it were called wise men [&o!$', sophoi], as being endowed with great acuteness and accuracy of mind; but now he who embraces wisdom is called a philosopher [Homer and , while praising them highly.”—Diogenes Laërtius, Lives I.1-3 – N.B. The term “sophist” was later attached to a specific movement in philosophy (as noted above) &, through Plato’s critique of them, has developed into an exclusively pejorative term in modern languages. Greek Philosophy in its Intellectual Context The Seven Sages ("#$#%)

• The “Seven Sages” of Ancient Greece • Philosophy, Logography, & Poetry • By the early C5 the Greeks had developed a (slightly variable) list of “seven • Philosophy, Mathematics & sages.” (For one list, see Plato’s Protagoras 343a.) – Of these, only two are relatively familiar to today’s non-specialist: • , a philosopher on whom more below, & • Solon of Athens, the law-giver – The others are now generally obscure

Solon Bias of Priene

• The remodeling of the Chamber of the House • “Once he was on a voyage with some impious men. When of Representatives in the US Capitol Building the vessel was overtaken by a storm, even they began to carried out in 1949–1950 put over the gallery call to the gods for help. ‘Hold your tongues,’ he said, ‘lest doors relief portraits of twenty-three men they should find out that you are on this ship.’” “noted for their work in establishing the principles that underlie American law.” • “When he was asked by an impious man what piety was, he made no reply; and when his questioner demanded the • These portraits range from Moses & reason for his silence, he said, ‘I am silent because you are Hammurabi, through Gregory IX & Innocent asking about things with which you have no concern.’” III, to Jefferson, Blackstone & Napoleon. • “It was a saying of his that it was more agreeable to decide • Included is Solon of Athens (640–561), the a dispute between enemies than between friends; for in the legal reformer sometimes credited with the latter case one is sure to turn a friend into an enemy, but in foundation of Athenian democracy. the former, one will turn an enemy into a friend.” • See Herodotus, Histories I.29–34. —Diogenes Laërtius. • For a classical biography, see Plutarch’s Lives Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans)

A Broad (Greek) Conception The Broad Intellectual Context of Philosophy

• Philosophy existed alongside other important intellectual projects • Aristotle, who begins his major works (e.g., the – The poets of the preceding centuries (Homer & Hesiod) Physics & ) with a historical survey, – The tragedians (Aeschylus & Sophocles) focuses on authors who are now on a canonical list (see below). – The logographers [“account-writers”] • But the concerns of these authors included subjects • writing on which we do not now consider to be philosophy, e.g., – mythography – (esp. cosmology & astronomy) & – geography – mathematics. – anthropology • This work was continued by major authors not – history usually studied in the history of philosophy: • pre-eminently – Mathematicians – Hecataeus of Miletus (fl. 500): • Euclid < “I write what seems to me to be true; for the Greeks have many tales which, as it appears to me, are • Appolonius (the Conics) absurd.” – Astronomers – Herodotus of Halicarnassus, the C5 historian of the • Eratosthenes (276-194), who measured the Persian Wars size of the earth – the medical writers (e.g., Hippocrates) • Ptolemy • These also could be considered as sources of wisdom. • Strabo A Narrower Conception The Narrower (Contemporary) Conception of Philosophy (cont’d.) of Philosophy Examples • C17 geology was still interested in placing earth history into a bigger context. • The distinction between “philosophy” & “science” emerged in C19. – cf. Thomas Burnet, The Sacred Theory of the Earth (1684) —< Science (in the modern sense) • C20 geology is mostly not. 1. relies on special observational & experimental techniques, & – cf. Alfred Wegener, The Origin of Continents and Oceans (1915) 2. is not concerned about knowledge “in relation to the highest • But the separation cannot be made cleanly. objects,” e.g., God or man’s place in the universe. – cf. Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (1989) —< Philosophy (in the modern sense) – The Burgess Shale formation (in British Columbia) shows fossil remains of many different phyla of organisms, only a few of which have living descendants. Gould’s thesis is that which 1. relies on common experience, accessible to all phyla survived was a matter of chance; life on earth might have looked very different from the 2. is concerned about knowledge “in relation to the highest objects.” way it does. • The early Greeks we will study (though perhaps not all early Greek thinkers) were more like Burnet & Gould than like Wegener.

The Periods of Ancient Philosophy

1. The Early Period (585–399) – from the Eclipse at the Battle on the Halys – to the Death of Socrates – A variety of “pre-Socratic” thinkers • from none of whom have entire written works survived to our own day 2. The Period of the Schools (399–129 BC) – from the death of Socrates IV. This Course – to the death of Carneades, skeptical founder of the Third Academy – Platonic, Aristotelian, Epicurean, Stoic & Skeptic schools of thought 3. The Period of Scholarship & Syncretism (129 BC–529 AD) – from the death of Carneades – to Justinian’s closure of the schools of pagan philosophy – a period of commentaries, interpretations, & synthesis

What lies under what we see? Our Focus of Study 1 Our Focus of Study 2

1. The speculative philosophical tradition 1. The speculative philosophical – beginning with Milesian philosophy of tradition nature, 2. The logical tradition – facing a crisis in Parmenides’ Challenge – beginning with Socrates’ search Man is a rational animal. to the very possibility of a philosophy of What we see Plato: Forms for definitions & nature, & Prime Matter – culminating in the concepts of All men are mortal. – culminating in the responses to that syllogism & of demonstration Socrates is a man.

challenge offered by QUARTZ (proof) in Aristotle’s Organon. So, Socrates is mortal. • Plato, 3. The humanistic or practical tradition Form of Quartz: • Aristotle, & Piezoelectric, • Democritus, Translucent, &c. (and in the distinction between Aristotle: Hylomorphs the philosophy of nature & O metaphysics). Si 2. The logical tradition 3. The humanistic or practical tradition

Democritus: Atoms Our Focus of Study 3 Course Objectives 1. The speculative philosophical tradition 2. The logical tradition To develop an understanding of their central concepts, theses, and arguments. 3. The humanistic or practical tradition 1. – receiving its first major articulation in the teaching of Socrates In other words, we will try to see the world as they saw it, to understand why < “Numbers and motions, and the beginning and end of all things, they thought that the world must be understood in this way, and to see how were the subjects of the ancient philosophy down to Socrates …. their approaches might solve important philosophical problems. [Earlier philosophers] made diligent inquiry into the magnitude of the stars, their distances, courses, and all that relates to the heavens. 2. To cultivate the skill of reading Ancient Greek philosophical texts. But Socrates was the first who brought down philosophy from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged 3. To place each philosopher in his historical context. it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil.” 2. Aristotle (the ) 4. To look at the major philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Democritus) —Cicero, Tusculan Disputations V.4.10–11 as founders of intellectual traditions. We will take particular note of how - culminating in four schools of later Greek philosophy some of these traditions, in particular the Aristotelian tradition, has laid foundations for the Catholic Intellectual Tradition.

1. Plato (the Academy) 3. the Stoics (the Porch) 4. the Epicureans (the Garden)

The Greek Alphabet

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F G H I J " K / L # M , Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu

N ) O P Q $ R % S 5 T & 7 Nu Ksi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma

U + V : . ! W X Y Z [ * Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega