NON-CONVENTIONAL FEED RESOURCES and FIBROUS AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES Strategies for Expanded Utilization

NON-CONVENTIONAL FEED RESOURCES AND FIBROUS AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES Strategies for Expanded Utilization

Edited by C Devendra Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues Strategies for Expanded Utilization

Proceedings of a Consultation held in Hisar, India, 21-29 March 1988.

Edited by C DEVENDRA

International Development Research Centre Indian Council of Agricultural Research © International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1988 ISBN 981-00-0769-8

The International Development Research Centre is a public corporation created by the Parliament of Canada in 1970 to support research designed to adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. The Centre's activity is concentrated in six sectors; agriculture, food and nutrition sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; earth and engineering sciences; and communications. IDRC is financed solely by the Parliament of Canada; its policies, however, are set by an International Board of Governors. The Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. Abstract

This publication presents the results of a consultation held in Hisar, India, between 21 - 25 March 1988. It focused specifically on expanding the utilization of non- conventional feeds and fibrous agricultural residues in South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka). It noted the continuing problems related to chronic feed deficits throughout this region, and the inadequate efforts to reduce their magnitude. The current availability of the total feed resources and present patterns of utilization by ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) and non-ruminants (pigs, poultry and ducks) were discussed in the context of the opportunities for expanding development efforts, especially at the farm level in the future. The assessment of current status and need for extending the available information led to the formulation of development strategies to enhance large- scale on-farm utilization of the available feeds with the participation of farmers, consistent with maximizing productivity (meat, milk, eggs, fibre and skins) from the animal genetic resources. Contents

Page No. Acknowledgements v

Foreword vi

Keynote Address (R M Acharya) vii

Session I: Resource Papers

Strategies for the intensive utilization of the feed 1 resources in the Asian Region (C Devendra)

Availability and intensive utilization of cereal straws 21 and fibrous agricultural residues in South Asia (M L Verma)

The significance of nutrient balance in diets for farm 33 animals (C R Krishnamurti and A J Vera) Availability and utilization of non-conventional feed 50 resources and their utilization by ruminants in South Asia (M L Pun))

Availability and utilization of non-conventional feed 62 resources and their utilization by non-ruminants in South Asia (B S Gupta)

Availability and intensive utilization of sugar cane by- 76 products (D V Rangnekar)

Complete rations based on fibrous agricultural residues 94 for ruminants (M Raj Reddy)

Discussion 112 Page No. Session II: Country Case Studies - Issues and Problems

Feed availability, requirements for animals and current 116 patterns of utilization in Bangladesh (A M M Tareque and M Saadullah)

Feed availability, requirements for animals and current 131 patterns of utilization in Bhutan (D B Tamang) Animal feed resources and current patterns of 139 utilization in India (V D Mudgal and K Pradhan) Feed availability, requirements for animals and current 147 patterns of utilization in Nepal (N P joshi) Feed availability, requirements for animals and current 158 patterns of utilization in Pakistan (M Y Malik)

Feed availability, requirements for animals and current 171 patterns of utilization in Sri Lanka (V Raaindran)

Discussion 181

Session III: Conclusions and Recommendations 183

List of Participants 188

Index 192 Foreword

Chronic feed deficits represent a major constraint to animal production in many developing countries. The situation manifests itself in poor animal performance, low growth rates, reduced reproductive efficiency, high mortality rates, etc. The genetic potential of many farm animals is inadequately exploited and the outputs of animal production, such as meat, milk, eggs, fibre and skins, often fall far short of national requirements. The problem is especially acute in the countries of South Asia such as Pakistan, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. Here the lack of sufficient feed is widespread, resulting in low availability of good quality feed from all available sources, including non-conventional ones. For these reasons, the Consultation on Expanding the Utilization of Non- conventional Feeds and Fibrous Agricultural Residues was a very appropriate and important meeting. Insufficient attention has been given to these feed resources in the past and it is considered opportune to focus more attention on them now. The topic is one of the priority research areas of the Crop and Animal Produc- tion Systems Program with the Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences Divi- sion of IDRC. The program is very pleased to have been able to help support, and participate in, this meeting. The main objectives of the Consultation were to identify current limitations to the wider use of non-conventional feeds. The seven resource and six country papers clearly emphasized the need for expanding the use of non-conventional feeds and identified a number of opportunities for achieving this. Areas requir- ing further research were highlighted, and attention was given to the need for involving the target farming populations in the research, and for ensuring rapid and effective dissemination of the research results. It is hoped that the conclusions and recommendations of this meeting will be of interest to readers not only in South Asia but also elsewhere in Asia and beyond. If these proceedings serve to stimulate further research and development in this important area, leading to an increased availability of animal feeds, they will have amply served their purpose.

G C Hawtin Associate Director Crops and Animal Production Systems Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences Division Acknowledgements

The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) wish to thank Dr Ram Swarup Singh, Vice Chancellor, Haryana Agricultural University (HAU), Dr V D Mudgal, Director of the Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) and Prof K Pradhan, Department of Animal Science, HAU. Special thanks are extended to several scientists and institutions who participated in the Consultation and contributed to this publication. Field visits were made to HAU, CIRB, National Research Centre on Equines, Camel, Yak and Mithun, G B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology and the National Dairy Development Board. Summaries of the individual sessions were made by Prof C R Krishnamurti, Prof Y M Malik and Dr D V Rangnekar. Keynote Address

R M Acharya Deputy Director General (AS) Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi, India

I wish to convey, at the outset, my sincerest gratitude to the Vice Chancellor, Haryana Agricultural University; Dean, College of Animal Sciences; Dr K Pradhan, Professor of Animal Nutrition; and other colleagues for having provided us with the facilities and for hosting the Consultation. Dr V D Mudgal, Director, CIRB, and Dr K Pradhan were primarily responsible for the organization of the Consultation. Dr C Devendra, Senior Program Officer, IDRC, proposed the organization of this Consultation instead of a training programme on the subject, which had been under consideration. This subject had earlier been identified during the meeting of experts from South and South-east Asia for promoting the training needs and facilities in the region. The Consultation is on a very topical subject and I am happy to note the participation of all the countries in the region that are also, fortunately, members of the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Their participation will help in focusing on the availability of animal feed resources, current utilization, major limitations to utilization, and formulation of strategies to alleviate the limitations to maximum livestock production. The region is endowed with a very large number of livestock with diversity in terms of species and breeds within the species. The world's best dairy buffaloes, draught cattle, carpet wool sheep and highly prolific goat breeds are found in this region. The large livestock numbers are both an asset and a liability. Most of the low productive animals are owned by poor people who, because they do not have any alternative sources of livelihood, cannot reduce their numbers. Steps must therefore be taken to improve production through better utilization of the available feed resources, reducing losses from mortality and morbidity due to infectious diseases and parasitic problems, more appropriate management and genetic improvement. It is essential that we should simultaneously think of specialized livestock production systems which can be competitive with other agro- business enterprises based on irrigated cultivated land involving a large number of poor producing animals. Feed resources are a major limiting factor in exploiting the genetic potential in livestock. We cannot seriously think of meeting the nutritional requirement of improved livestock from the kind of feed resources that are conventionally available. These are primarily crop residues and other poor-quality roughage and forag- ing materials. The largest proportion of these feed resources are crop residues, rice and wheat straws, stovers of sorghum, millets and maize and sugar cane bagasse from sugar cane processing. Most of these materials are low in protein and are highly fibrous. Furthermore, the available energy is in a highly lignified form. Methods for breaking down lignocellulosic combinations in these feeds through chemical and microbial treatments have been developed with variable success, and such treatments have led to improvement in their intake and utilization. The most successful of these methods is ammoniation of straws, using urea and steam treatment of sugar cane bagasse with or without the addition of urea and molasses. In India, we have been working since the late 1960s on improving the nutritive value of feed resources and agro-industrial by-products. A number of non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) have also been identified and are now being utilized in the compound feed industry. Identification of these feeds and their availability and an assessment of their nutritive value have been related to long-term performance trials. There are inadequate studies on the incriminating agents limiting the utilization of nutrients and methods for removing them. More recently, under an Indo- Netherlands bilateral cooperative project, work has been started on microbial degradation of lignocellulosic materials using the Cobrinus fungus. The treatment suggests a sizeable loss of dry matter, but is associated with an increase in the microbial protein content of feeds. The time needed for the treatment is now being reduced and methods are being found to reduce dry matter loss. Similarly, under another Indo-USA cooperative project, work has been initiated on microbial degradation of organic animal farm waste, slaughter and marine by-products and their utilization as animal feeds. The major problem with the crop residues is their bulk. Treatments are necessary for improving their utilization and for reducing the bulk so that the cost of transportation and storage can be minimized. More accurate information is needed on the availability of feed resources, since these are based on indirect estimates utilizing information on areas under different crops and the ratio of grain to residues. A sizeable quantity of the straws, stovers and other by-products are not utilized for animals. More accurate calculations of available feed resources and their utilization by the farmers are necessary. It will also be necessary to identify regions with surpluses and chronic shortages, so that systems of animal feed security and establishment of feed and fodder banks can be developed. It is unfortunate that much of the knowledge on feed utilization has not reached farmers for extensive adoption. It is necessary to ensure that treatments which can be adopted by the farmers are tested on their farms. It may also be necessary to develop large-scale commercial units which can make treated feeds available to small farmers. Such feeds could also be used in developing animal feed security systems. Long-term feeding trials should also study the negative effects of the presence of incriminating or toxic agents. In this connection, the ICAR is establishing a Central Laboratory to look into the toxicological and incriminating agents present in non-conventional feed resources. I am very happy to see that there is full participation by all the countries in the region and by all the specialists invited to share their knowledge with the participants. Dr Devendra himself has very vast knowledge about the subject and his presentation would help in providing a thorough background of the present store of knowledge, as well as in providing direction for future research and development on the subject. I am also happy to see Dr V Krishnamurti, Professor of Animal Nutrition from the University of British Columbia in Canada. I wish to convey my very best wishes for the success of the Consultation and assure you that the Indian Council of Agricultural Research will take the recommendations arising from this Consultation with utmost seriousness. I have great pleasure in inaugurating the Consultation. Strategies for the Intensive Utilization of the Feed Resources in the Asian Region

C Devendra Division of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences International Development Research Centre Tanglin P 0 Box 101 Singapore 9124

Abstract

Strategies for the intensive utilization of the feed resources in the Asian region are discussed in the context of continuing inefficiencies, inadequate application of available knowledge, and potential possibilities of improving per animal performance. Effective utilization of the crop residues, agro-industrial by-products, and non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) are reviewed in terms of priorities for use by animals. Improved efficiencies are justified by chronic feed deficit situations and need for economic animal production in South Asia. Attention is drawn to the annual availability of approximately 238 million tonnes of NCFR or 46 per cent out of an estimated production of 513 million tonnes of feeds from field, plantation and tree crops in Asia; 80-93 per cent of these feeds are suitable for ruminants. Optimum levels for the use of 16 NCFR as a guide to diet formulation are identified. Innovative feeding systems are needed that can demonstrate more economic animal performance, examples of which concern the use of various proteinaceous forages and urea-molasses block licks. Coupled with these, development strategies are urgently required that can stimulate large-scale on farm testing of primary feedstuffs, backed by strong institutional support and wider resource use. The importance of large-scale on farm feed utilization merits the highest priority, and far outweighs the need forfurther documentation on pre-treatments of dry roughages and the beneficial effects of supplementation. These initiatives can significantly influence higher levels of productivity from animals, and also alleviate the search for efficiency in the intensive utilization of the total feed resources in Asia.

I. Introduction

The subject of feed resources and their utilization represents possibly the most compelling task facing planners and animal scientists in all countries in the Asian region. The situation is particularly acute in South Asia where chronic annual

1 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues feed deficits and increasing growths of the animal populations are common, thus making the problem a continuing saga. Efficient utilization of the available feed resources is an extremely compelling task and the search for urgent solutions is justified by two interrelated reasons: 1) the concept of self-reliance which strives to achieve targets of food production based on the use of indigenous resources; and 2) the fact that feeding and nutrition are possibly the most important factors influencing production. Additionally, and even more pertinent, the dissemination and application of development-oriented research is weak, relative to the vast reservoir of information that is available in experiment stations and universities. The situation is such that the output of research results in these situations is far greater than the rate of application of the results. Indeed, in many instances, the importance of application of the knowledge already available far outweighs the need for further documentation. A good example concerns the utilization of cereal straw which has attracted the attention of most animal nutritionists and institutions, with very few exceptions. Equally unfortunate is the fact that a good deal of research undertaken was broadly similar, uncoordinated and often inadequately understood by weak delivery systems. It is appropriate therefore to enquire into the lethargy concerning application of research results that can stimulate more intensive use of the feed resources. This is especially justified in view of continuing low per animal performance within species, without exception, in which the production of animal products (meat, milk, eggs, skins and fibre) is unable to meet national targets. This has in turn raised doubts about the efficiency of existing animal production systems and the utilization of feed resources (Devendra, 1983). This paper focuses on the available feed materials and examines strategies that can accelerate the more efficient utilization of these in the context of the major limitations related to large-scale and more intensive utilization of feed resources in Asia. These aspects have recently been reviewed (Devendra, 1987a), but are reiterated with specific reference to countries in South Asia, where the problems are particularly acute and the need for efficiency in the use of the available is greatest.

11. The Animal Resources

Table 1 summarizes the types and magnitude of the animal resources in South Asia and the annual growth rate specific to each species. Among herbivores, the size of the domestic ruminant population is considerable, especially that of buffaloes, cattle and goats. Camels, donkeys and sheep are also prominent. It is pertinent to point out that the data may not be altogether accurate, especially with reference to asses, camels, horses and mules. The available data for many of these species are estimates and for some like donkeys, yaks and chauri, no precise figures are available. Thus in terms of total animal resources, the magnitude is likely to be very much higher than these figures suggest and emphasize the brevity of problems related to balance feed availability and requirements.

2 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia

Table 1 Animal Resources in South Asia (FAO, 1985)

Species Population As % of total Annual rate (106) world population of growth (%1 (1975-1965, %)

1. Herbivores Buffaloes 84.8 65.6 1.7 Cattle 244.6 19.3 0.9 Goats 125.4 27.3 2.1 Sheep 70.0 6.2 1.0 Asses 3.8 9.4 0.3 Camels 2.0 11.5 0.1 Horses 1.4 2.2 0.0 Mules 0.2 1.3 0.0 ll. Non-Ruminants Chicken' 358.0 4.3 5.0 Ducks+ 22.0 13.0 21.4 Pigs 8.9 1.1 -ve

+ Million heads

Among non-ruminants, the duck population was significant in Asia. However, it is likely that since these are mainly reared in extensive and semi-extensive systems, they do not compete for the same feeds that are utilized by poultry and pigs. Concerning growth rates of individual populations, the highest increases were noted for goats and buffaloes among domestic ruminants. The growth rate of the asses, camels, horses and mule populations were generally static. Among non- ruminants, the duck population grew at a very rapid rate, followed by chickens.

III. The Feed Resources

Three main categories of feeds are identifiable: crop residues, agro-industrial by- products (AIBP) and non-conventional feed resources (NCFR). It is appropriate to briefly discuss each of these categories.

1) Crop residues

Crop residues are mainly fibrous materials that are by-products of crop cultivation. Due to the intensity of and emphasis on crop production in Asia, these form a high percentage of the total volume of the feeds produced annually. Crop residues have a generally low crude protein content, in the range 3.3-13.3 per cent on a dry matter basis. This suggests a basic limitation in the value of some of the residues (e. g. bagasse and rice straw) around the border line of the 6-7 per cent dietary crude protein level required for promoting voluntary matter intake (VFI). Most of the residues are deficient in fermentable energy, reflected by the relatively low organic matter digestibility, and also the availability of minerals.

3 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

2) Agro-industrial by-products Agro-industrial by-products refer to the by-products derived in the industry due to processing of the main products. They are, in comparison to crop residues, less fibrous and more concentrated, and have a higher nutrient content. Good examples of AIBP are molasses, rice bran, pineapple waste, palm oil mill effluent (POME) produced from refining the palm oil and coconut cake. In this paper, and for reasons of brevity, AIBP is used in general to include crop residues.

3) Non-conventional feed resources Non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) are identified separately although they can be components of both crop residues and AIBP. The main reason for this is to focus on their under utilization especially in the context of their vast potential in Asia. NCFR refer to all those feeds that have not been traditionally used in animal feeding and/or are not normally used in commercially produced rations for livestock. Whereas the traditional feeds of crop origin tend to be mainly from annual crops, the NCFR include commonly, a variety of feeds from perennial crops and feeds of animals and industrial origin. In this sense, the NCFR could really be more appropriately termed "new feeds", and this term is in fact being increasingly used. Examples of these new feed sources are oil palm by-products, single-cell proteins, feed materials of plant and animal origin (e.g. poultry excreta), and poor- quality cellulosic roughages from farm residues such as stubbles, haulms and vines. Other agro-industrial by-products also exist such as slaughter-house by-products (e.g. feather meal) and those from the processing of sugar, cereal grains, citrus fruits and vegetables for human consumption. The distinction between traditional feeds and NCFR varies from country to country. In India and Pakistan, what may be classified as NCFR elsewhere may in fact be traditional, and a case in point concerns wheat straw which is very widely used. In the long term, wider use of NCFR would designate many of these as traditional feeds. Table 2 summarizes the availability of NCFR in Asia and the Pacific. From field, plantation and tree crops alone, the total availability is approximately 513 million tonnes. Of this, about 238 x 106 tonnes or 46 per cent are considered to be NCFR. It is stressed that this total availability is thus higher than the figure suggests, as it has not been possible to include calculations of feeds derived especially from animal slaughter and the food processing industries.

Table 2 The Availability of Non-Conventional Feed Resources in Asia and the Pacific (Devendra, 1988)

Category Availability (106 tl

Field Crops 230.3 Tree Crops 7.4

Total 237.7 +

+ Represents 46.3% of the total availability from field and plantation crops

4 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia

Many of the NCFR are currently designated as wastes, which is an inaccurate description. They are wastes to the extent that they have not been shown to have an economic value through utilization and conversion by animals into valuable products for human benefit. Recycling, reprocessing and utilization of all or a portion of the wastes offer the possibility of alleviating the existing limited feed resources. The AIBP and NCFR are of three categories:

(i) Energy-rich feeds from bananas, citrus fruits, pineapples, sugar cane and root crops (e.g. banana waste and molasses). (ii) Protein supplements such as oilseed cakes and meals, animal by-products, by-products from the food industries and fish meals (e.g. coconut cake and feather meal). (iii) By-products from cereal milling and palm oil refining (e.g. rice bran and POME).

IV. Priorities for Use

Table 3 summarizes the priorities for using AIBP and NCFR in Asia according to their potential value and importance especially to individual species of animals. It categorizes the broad types of feeds, their essential characteristics and the main species which currently utilize them. In general, energy and protein concentrates are used mainly by non-ruminants and lactating ruminants. Crop residues are of three categories, the lowest quality of which are converted into useful animal products (meat, draught, skins and fibre) by the ruminants.

Table 3 Priorities for the Utilization by Animals of Agro-Industrial By-Products (AIBP) and Non-Conventional Feed Resources (NCFR) in Asia (Devendra, 1987a)

Feed source Characteristics Species

1. Energy and protein High energy Pigs, poultry, concentrates (e.g. rice bran, High protein ducks, lactating coconut cake, soyabean ruminants meal, and poultry litter) 2. Good-quality crop residues High protein Pigs, ducks, (e.g. cassava leaves) High energy lactating ruminants and used as supplements by meat animals 3. Medium-quality crop residues Medium protein Pigs, ruminants (meat (eg. sweet potato vines) and milk), camels and donkeys 4. Low-quality crop residues Low protein Ruminants (meat and (e.g. cereal straws and Very fibrous draught), camels and bagasse) donkeys

Notes: 1) The reference to AIBP includes crop residues. 2) Ruminants refer to buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep.

5 bon-tonrentional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

V. Feed Balance Sheets

Feed balance sheets provide an important means to assess adequacy or the extent of inadequacy concerning the nutrition of the animal resources. Associated with this assessment, they enable the development of two alternative strategies. One concerns measures to increase feed production, and more intensive and efficient use of the available feed resources. The alternative strategy is to expand animal production commensurate with excess, under-utilized feeds, and issues of conservation and feed security. These contrasting situations are exemplified by India and Pakistan in the first category, and Sri Lanka in the alternative situation. It is therefore appropriate to briefly discuss these country comparisons. Table 4 summarizes the situation in India in 1984. The feed deficits in terms of metabolisable energy (ME) and digestible crude protein (DCP) for the animal resources were about 32 per cent and 54 per cent respectively. Table 5 provides a trend in the feed balance situation in India, between 1970 and 1984. Two major conclusions are apparent. Firstly, feed deficits and the malady of under-nutrition was a continuing problem. Secondly, there has been a trend towards a reduced feed deficit despite increased animal population over the 14 years. The trend towards reduced deficits is probably reflective of improved feeding systems, more efficient use of the available feeds and increasingly intensive systems of production. Whether in terms of scale and magnitude these approaches are adequate and can be further improved is a matter of debate. Raj Reddy (1987) recently pointed out that many NCFR remain to be more widely used in India, implying that there is still scope for reducing the feed deficits. Table 6 illustrates a parallel situation in Pakistan also for the year 1984. The deficits in terms of total digestible nutrients (TDN) and DCP are about 25 per cent and 41 per cent respectively.

Table 4 Feed Availability and Requirements in India in 1984 (Adapted from Reddy, 1987)

Principal feed source A vailability I Total requirements' ' Energy DCP (t) Energy DCP (t) (107 Mcal ME) (107 Mcal ME)

Crop residues and agro- 5022.3 7437 industrial by-products Fodder crops 1228.0 3411 Grasses... 1149.0 2660 TOTAL 7399.3 13508 10933.5 33396 % Deficit - - 32.3 54.0 + ME - metabolisable energy; DCP - digestible crude protein ++ Of herbivores (buffaloes, cattle, goats, sheep, asses, mules, yaks, and chauri) and non-ruminants (poultry and pigs) ... From wayside grazing, orchards and rangelands

6 Table 5

Trends in Feed Balances in India (adapted from Reddy, 1978)

Nutrient 1970 1984 + V Availability+ Requirement+ % Deficit Availability Requirement % Deficit

Energy (107 Mcal ME)* 6162.8 9877.9 37.6 7399.4 10933.5 32.3 DCP (104 t)* 113.2 297.8 1.9 135.1 344.0 54.0

+ From the same sources as in Table 4 Of herbivores (buffaloes, cattle, goats, sheep, asses, yaks, and chauri) and non-ruminants (poultry and pigs) * ME - Metabolisable energy; DCP - Digestible crude protein

a O' Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

By comparison, Table 7 presents an alternative situation in Sri Lanka where there also exists a deficiency of 26 per cent TDN and 43 per cent DCP. However, the feed balance sheet did not take into consideration the total availability of feeds from other sources such as fodders, wayside grazing and many NCFR. It has been acknowledged that if full use can be made of these and the total feed resources available in the country, the availability of nutrients would be adequate to support the envisaged development of increased animal production (Ranjhan and Chadhokar, 1984).

Table 6 Feed Availability and Requirements in Pakistan in 1984 (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 1985; Akram, 1987)

Total Principle feed source Availability (10? t)' Requirements" (103 t) TON DCP TDN DCP

Crop residues and agro- industrial by-products 8359.9 947.5 Fodder crops 18059.5 692.8 Grasses' ++ 11200.0 700.0

TOTAL 37619.4 2340.3 50096 3951

% Deficit 24.9 40.7

+ TDN - Total digestible nutrients; DCP - Digestible crude protein ++ Of ruminants - buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep +++ From canals, banks, roadsides, orchards, flood plains and rangelands

Table 7 Feed Availability and Total Feed Requirements of Animals in Sri Lanka (103 mt) (adapted from Ranjhan and Chadhokar, 1984)

Total Feed Total digestible Digestible Availability dry matter nutrients protein

Grasses' 700 385 52.5 Crop residues 1877 835 37.5 Concentrates' + 141 96 21

Total 2718 1316 111

Requirements 3708 1898 195

% Deficit 26 30 43

0.7 million ha producing on average 1 mt of DM per year + + Conventional sources

8 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia

VI. Inclusion in Feed Formulations

An important approach to wider and more intensive use of AIBP and NCFR in South Asian countries concerns the application of knowledge already available. This is especially the case in feed deficit situations such as in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh where maximizing animal performance necessitates that all available feeds are used completely and as efficiently as feasible. The attendant benefits are increased availability of animal products and also farm income. In this context, optimum levels of utilization of individual feeds provide an important guide to their inclusion in practical diets for individual farm animals. These levels are the technically optimum levels of individual feeds which can be used to advantage, based on several studies on the nutritive value and practical feeding trials. Table 8 brings together information on optimum levels based on a review of practical feeding trials where graded levels of 16 non-conventional feedstuffs were used. The table suggests for example, that a 30 per cent level of poultry excreta would appear to be optimal for ruminants and 5-10 per cent for poultry. With oil palm by-products, the optimum level of inclusion in ruminant diets is 30-40 per cent. With rubber seed meal, the corresponding level for all species of livestock in India, Malaysia and Sri Lanka appears to be 20 per cent. In India, cows and bulls appear to tolerate an optimum level of 40 per cent sal seed meal. These optimal levels of inclusion represent an approximation of the amounts that are likely to promote good response in the animals. The levels will obviously be influenced by other ingredients in the diet, the ability of individual species to utilize these materials and also the presence of toxic or deleterious components in the feeds.

VII. Demonstration of Economic Benefits

The final value of including indigenous AIBP and NCFR in feed formulation is demonstration that high performance is compatible with economic advantage. The total cost of the inputs, including that of any pre-treatments needs to be weighed against the monetary value of the response. Beneficial results will have the effect of stimulating and expanding the potential value of the feeds used. An example of this demonstration concerns the utilization of leucaena leaf meal (LLM) and dried poultry litter (DPL) and rice straw-based diets in the Philippines. The life-time performance of 20 crossbred dairy cattle was studied over a four-year period. The results of this study are summarized in Table 9 adapted from Trung et al. (1987). The results indicated that although there were no treatment effects, except for total solids (per cent), inclusion of LLM and DPL gave satisfactory growth rates (0.40 - 0.46 kg/day) and total milk yields. In particular, the study showed that there were definite economic advantages due to the inclusion of LLM and DPL during both the growth and lactation phases (Table 9). It has been suggested that the combined inclusion of 23 per cent of LLM and 23 per cent of DPL was

9 Table 8 Optimum Level of Utilization of some Important By-products in Diets for Farm Animals in Asia

Non-conventional Optimum level feedstuffs Species Location of inclusion Reference in the diet(%)

L Animals 1. Blood meal Pigs Malaysia 3 Hew and Devendra (1977) 2. Poultry excreta Poultry Malaysia 5-10 Ng and Hutagalung (1974) Poultry India 15 Ann. Rpt. I.C.A.R. (1983) Sheep Malaysia 20-30 Devendra (1976) Cows Thailand 30 Tinnimit (1978) Cattle Pakistan 30 Igbal Shah and Muller (1983) Sheep ll. Plants 3. Castor Buffaloes India 30 Reddy, Reddy and Reddy (1986) - Castor bean meal Sheep India 10 Sugunakar Rao et al. (1986) 4. Cocoa - Cocoa pods husk Sheep Malaysia 30 Devendra (1977b) Buffaloes Malaysia 35 Bacon and Anselmi (1986) Cattle J 5. Mango - Mango seed kernel Calves India 20 Patel and Patel (1971) Bullocks India 40 Patel, Patel and Talapada (1972) Cows India 10 Ann. Rpt. I.C.A.R. (1983) 6. Oil palm - Palm oil mill effluent Sheep Malaysia 40 Devendra and Muthurajah (1976) - Palm press fibre Sheep Malaysia 30 Devendra and Muthurajah (1976) - Palm oil solids Poultry and pigs Malaysia 10-15 Devendra, Yeong and Ong (1982) 7. Pineapple - Pineapple bran Poultry Malaysia 15 Ng and Hutagalung (1974) 8. Rice - Rice husk Sheep Malaysia 5 Devendra (1977a) 9. Rubber - Rubber seed meal Pigs Malaysia 20 Ong and Yeong (1977) Poultry Sri Lanka 20 Buvanendran and Siriwardene (1970) Poultry Sri Lanka 20 Rajaguru (1973) Calves and cow India 20 Ann. Rpt. (1975-76) Calves India 30 Ann. Rpt. I.C.A.R. (1983) Cows India 25 Ann. Rpt. I.C.A.R. (1983) Pigs India 40 Pathak and Ranjhan (1973) 10. Sal - Sal seed meal (untreated) Poultry India 5 Verma (1970) - Sal seed meal (treated) Poultry India 20 Sharma, Wah and Jackson (1977) Cows India 30 Sonwane and Mudgal (1974) Bulls India 40 Shukala and Ta(apada (1973) 11. Spent tea leaf Calves Sri Lanka 17 Jayasuriya, Panditharetne and Roberts (1978) Calves India 20 Ann. Rpt. I.C.A.R. (1983) 12. Sugar cane - Bagasse (untreated) Bullocks Pakistan 10 Khan, Qazi and Schnedier (1962) - Bagasse (treated) Sheep Malaysia 20-30 Devendra (1979) 13. Sunflower head meal Sheep India 48 Reddy, Reddy and Reddy (1986) 14. Sun hemp - Sun hemp leaves Poultry India 8 Reddy, Rao and Subhan (1970) 15. Tamarind - Tamarind seed hulls Calves India 10-15 Reddy, Reddy and Reddy (1979a) Calves India 25 Ann. Rpt. I.C.A.R. (1983) 16. Water hyacinth - Water hyacinth meal Calves India 10-20 Reddy, Reddy and Reddy (1979) 17. Water melon - Water melon cake Calves India 20 Sastry, Singh and Dutt (1973) Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 9 Lifetime Performance of Dairy Cattle Fed Leucaena Leaf Meal and Dried Poultry Litter in Rice Straw-Based Diets in the Philippines (Adapted from Trung et al., 1987)

Treatments Parameter

1 2 3 4

Initial live weight (kg) 198.1 165.5 168.1 184.3 Wt before calving (kg) 415.6 391.0 407.8 390.1 Average daily gain (kg) - Yearling to breeding 0.61 0.64 0.51 0.52 - Breeding to calving 0.40 0.46 0.41 0.42 Lactation length (days) 270.3 206.5 273.0 208.3 Total FCM yield (kg) 2093.5 1410.5 2140.9 1712.2 Persistency (%) 84.9 89.29 92.9 88.0 Butterfat (%) 4.01 3.87 3.26 3.72 Protein 1%) 2.75 2.76 2.81 2.77 Total solids (%) 11.70ab* 11.28ab 11.99a 10.77b Cost/kg gain (Pesos)' 33.1 23.5 22.1 27.9 Income from milk production (Pesos)` 4668.6 2960.6 6217.8 5300.3

Treatments 1 - 35% RS + 45% L and 20% concentrates 2 - 35% RS + 30% L + 15% DPL and 20% concentrates 3 - 35% RS + 22.5% 1 + 22.5% DPL and 20% concentrates 4 - 35% RS + 65% concentrates * Row means without a common superscript are statistically significant (P < 0.05) 'Based on a commercial scale (1 peso = US $0.05) beneficial. Likewise in Pakistan, Hasnain (1983) has shown how the inclusion of poultry litter decreased feed costs in lactating animals.

VIII. Deleterious Principals in Feedstuffs

Little is known about the deleterious effects, in animals, of feeding many AIBP and NCFR in the short and long term. Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) or prussic acid for example, is present in the "bitter" varieties of cassava leaves and stems and in rubber seeds. If these feedstuffs are used without treatment, death may occur in extreme cases. Fortunately, methods are now available to detoxify the HCN. The second example concerns tannins which are widespread in such feedstuffs as sal seed cake, tamarind seed hulls and sorghum. Ruminants can tolerate a much higher concentration of tannins than rats or chicks. Tannins can inhibit the activity of micro-organisms in the rumen and depress the digestion of protein and fibre (McLeod, 1974). On the other hand, tannins have been used to protect proteins from breakdown in the rumen (Driedger and Hartfield, 1977). Methods

12 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia of detannification have recently been reviewed (Gupta, 1986; Anjaneya Prasad, 1986). With leucaena forage, there exists the toxic non-amino acid mimosine, which is degraded to another toxic compound, 3-hydroxy-4(l H)pyridone (DHP). The latter is goitrogenic. Other examples include the presence of theobromine caused by fermentation of cocoa pod husks and also a trypsin inhibitor in guar meal. Table 10 provides a summary of various types of toxic principals found in the main AIBP and NCFR. This list is not exhaustive but provides limited information on the approximate contents of the toxic principals. More information is required on the type and extent of these toxic principals and especially their effects on animals.

Table 10 Examples of Toxic Principals in the More Common Agro-Industrial By-Products and Non-Conventional Feed Resources

Type of feed Toxic principal

Banana waste, stems and leaves Tannins Cassava leaves, peeling and pomace HCN (17.5 mg/100g in leaves) Castor seed meal Ricinoleic acid (0.2%) Cocoa seed husks Theobromine (Trace) Coffee seed hulls, pulp Caffeine and tannins (2.8% DM) Cottonseed cake Gossypol (0.05 - 0.20%) Cowpea seed meal Trypsin inhibitor Guar meal Trypsin inhibitor and gum Kapok Cycloponopenoid acid Mango seed kernel Tannins (5-10%) Neem seed cake Tannins Palm oil mill effluent High ash (12-26% DM) Rubber seed meal HCN (9 mg/100g) Sal seed meal Tannins (6.2-13.7%) Spent tea leaves Tannins (12% DM) Water hyacinth Oxalic acid (2.4% DM)

IX. Strategy for Action

Cognisant of the prevailing situation and with the primary objective of expanding more intensive use of AIBP and NCFR, realistic development strategies are urgently required that can identify application of the available information to increase productivity from animals. A three-pronged strategy is suggested as follows:

1) Priorities in feed resource utilization

One important prerequisite concerns priorities in feed resource utilization. Feed resource inventories need to be completed if this has not been done. Arising from

13 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues this, feeds (especially AIBP and NCFR) need to be identified in terms of primary and secondary importance. These are defined as follows: Primary feedstuffs ingredients that form the main base in a feeding system. These constitute about 70-80 per cent in the diet.

Secondary feedstuffs : minor ingredients that form supplements in the diet. These constitute up to 20-30 per cent in the diet. In this context, it is appropriate to identify potential examples of AIBP and NCFR which merit particular focus and which can, through interventions, make a significant contribution to improved performance and productivity from the animal resources. Table 11 presents a list of some examples of primary feeds appropriate to individual species by location. Both ruminants and non-ruminants are identified. In the former case, mainly meat animals including the use of the swamp buffaloes for draught and meat production are the species of choice. Potential nutritional strategies have been discussed previously (Devendra, 1986) and are reiterated below: (i) More intensive use of AIBP and NCFR especially in stall-feeding systems. (ii) Increased use of proteinaceous forages (e.g. cassava leaves, leucaena forage). (iii) Increased use of dietary nitrogen sources. (iv) Strategic use of supplementary protein sources. (v) Use of urea-molasses block licks. Of these strategies, the use of appropriate combinations of AIBP and NCFR for individual species and for a specific function will need attention to nutrient balance and palatability. Processing is only important if this is deemed essential and can be demonstrated to be cost effective. Extensive examples of processing of crop residues for formulating complete feeds have recently being reported (Reddy, 1986). Particular attention is drawn to the enormous potential, including economic benefits, concerning the use of various proteinaceous forages. The value of these forages in the diet has been demonstrated in several studies and, with reference to buffaloes, the beneficial effects have recently been reviewed (Devendra, 1987c).

2) Large-scale on farm testing Beyond the demonstration that feeds have economic benefits at the station level, the next step is to implement large-scale application of the results on-farm. Such trials have been far too few in the past and wider use of the available feeds in the future will be significantly affected by such on-farm work. There is therefore a great need for widespread evaluation of new technologies through on-farm testing and demonstrations. On-farm animal research (OFAR) is probably the only accurate assessment of whether new technology packages are acceptable both economically and socially to the farmers as they take into account all of the interacting components unique to small farm systems. They are a means of identifying and addressing the constraints to adoption of new feeding systems and, in many instances in Asia, the importance of such trials merits the highest priority in comparison to documentation of the effects of supplementation or pretreatments. This situation is exemplified with reference to the recent review on rice straw as a feed for ruminants (Doyle, Devendra and Pearce, 1986)

14 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia

Concerning the utilization of feed resources, the most urgent development need is for more concerted efforts to apply available knowledge to large-scale on- farm testing. Presently, there is an imbalance in the proportion of research programmes in the station relative to on-farm participatory research with farmers. Major shifts in approaches are necessary from the more fundamentally-oriented research at the station or university farm level, to real farm situations. These efforts will require initiative, more innovating efforts, more commitment and a will to work with farmers. In view of logistical difficulties, increased resource use and costs are likely to be involved, but these can be justified on grounds of the value of transfer of technology and the potential impact it will have in the long-term on increasing productivity from farm animals. Presently, research programmes in most countries have tended to ignore this aspect, partly because of convenience, and partly because of the inability to consider the long-term relevance of research results in the wider context of ensuring utilization at farm level for which they were intended. With particular reference to feed resources, development and utilization merit special consideration, and it is suggested that more efforts are necessary in the future to shift the emphasis of the work to on-farm testing. The need for such efforts is illustrated in Figure 1 again with reference to the utilization of rice straw.

Table 11 Some Examples of Primary Feeds for Intensive Utilization by Location (Devendra, 1987a)

Type of primary feed Location Species

Bananas Philippines Beef cattle, ducks Cassava - Leaves Thailand, Indonesia, Beef cattle, goats, swamp Philippines buffaloes - Pomace Thailand, Indonesia, Pigs, ducks, lactating Philippines cattle and goats Maize stover Philippines, Beef cattle, swamp Indonesia buffaloes, goats and sheep Oil Palm - POME, palm press Malaysia Beef cattle, swamp and fibre, palm kernel cake buffaloes Rice - Bran Thailand, Indonesia Pigs, poultry, and Philippines lactating ruminants - Straw Thailand, Sri Lanka, Beef cattle and swamp Philippines, Indonesia buffaloes Sugar cane - Tops, bagasse India, Pakistan, Beef cattle and swamp Thailand buffaloes Wheat - Bran India, Pakistan Pigs, poultry, lactating ruminants - Straw India, Pakistan Beef cattle and swamp buffaloes

15 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

STATION LEVEL ON-FARM ANIMAL RESEARCH RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

1. Characterisation 2. Nutritive value 3. Optimum dietary level 4. Pre-treatments Physical - Ammonia Chemical - Commerical - Urea ,-' - Biological - - production 5. Supplementation - with concentrates - with N -----Dietary N Increased forage - with green forages----Green legumes --__-y production - minerals ------.

- INCREASED PER ANIMAL PRODUCTION - EFFICIENT UTILIZATION \- REDUCED POLLUTION - INCREASED FARM INCOME /

Figure 1. A strategy for station level research, on-farm animal research and development exemplified by the utilization of rice straw in Asia (Devendra 1987b).

16 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia

Irrespective of the choice of feed(s) and location for successful application, acceptable feeding systems are those that are simple, practical, within the limits of the farmer's capacity and resource availability, convincing and consistently reproduceable. Moderate to low levels of animal performance may be biologic- ally inefficient, but could be more economically viable than high levels of performance especially within the limitations of small farm systems. It is equally essential that in order to ensure both success and the impact of new technology, on-farm work with the participation of farmers should be undertaken in the context of farming systems research.

3) Institutional requirements

Institutional support is essential for expanded and more intensive utilization of AIBP and NCFR in small farm systems. There are two aspects to this. One concerns the priority for this work seen in the context of abundant quantity produced, under-utilization, reduced cost of production, reduced dependence on imports and therefore greater foreign exchange savings, reduced pollution problems and further expansion in components of the animal industries. Unless high priority is given to this effort, the real benefits of this to the industries are unlikely to be realized. Once the priority has been established, the next most pressing institutional task is commitment to the programme and the mode of its execution. This calls for the allocation of adequate resources (funds and manpower) and, even more importantly, the strategy that can place much more emphasis on on-farm research and development (Devendra, 1987b). With respect to AIBP and NCFR, inadequate OFAR represents an additional constraint to current under-utilization and needs to be corrected in future efforts. Associated with large-scale on-farm testing is the need for strong and efficient systems that can extend the benefits of the results in rural areas. These strategies together call for a fresh impetus to more intensive utilization of the available feed resources, compatible with improved animal performance and increased benefits to the farming families. In particular, priorities for feed resource use, strong institutional support and wider application can make a significant impact on efficiency in the use of both the animal and feed resources in Asia.

References

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17 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

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18 Strategies for Intensive Feed Utilization in Asia

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19 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

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20 Availability and Intensive Utilization of Cereal Straws and Fibrous Agricultural Residues in South Asia

M. L. Verma Department of Animal Sciences College of Agriculture G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar, 263145 India

Abstract

An analysis offeed resources in South Asian countries in terms of pasture and cultivated fodder per unit grazing livestock, quantities of indigenously produced feed grains, oil cakes and bran reveals that the situation is quite alarming. The only satisfactory aspect is the daily availability of cereal straws and otherfibrous residues of 4.66 kg air dried matter/grazing livestock unit (GL U). It is suggested that the participating countries should take up a production and utilization survey for crop residues before developing any meaningful strategy for their more efficient and complete utilization. The quantities of nutrients available per average livestock unit (45.3 Mf ME and 401 g CP), assuming 100 per cent utilization of crop residues and concentrates, are just sufficient for the maintenance of an adult bovine. This assumes ameliorative measures to improve the utilization of existing feed resources. Among the measures suggested are increased leguminousfodder production on any available land, rehabilitation of barren and waste land through reafforestation using fodder trees, chopping of crop residues beforefeeding, ammonia (urea) treatment of fibrous residues and their strategic supplementation. Feeding of crop residues after treatment with ammonia alone holds promise of increasing milk production in India by about 40 per cent.

1. Introduction

South Asia possesses 64.1 and 19.5 per cent of the cattle population of Asia and the world respectively. However, the cow's milk produced in this region accounts for only 53.7 and 5.1 per cent of that in Asia and the world, respectively. Low genetic potential and inadequate feed resources are generally considered to be the two major factors responsible for the low productivity. The feed resources are off-farm sources like grazing land, tree leaves and forest by-products, or

21 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues on-farm such as cultivated fodders, crop residues, feed grains, and by-products. Availability of pasture land per unit grazing stock, arable land per unit human population, cereal production per cabut, percentage of land area used for agriculture, arable land per unit livestock and foreign exchange reserves are some of the statistical indicators used for assessing the adequacy of feed resources. This paper examines the availability of feed resources, in particular cereal straws and fibrous agricultural residues.

II. Adequacy of Feed Resources

Table 1 reveals that the pasture area per unit grazing stock in South Asian countries is considerably lower in comparison to the average for Asia and the world. The human population pressure per unit arable land in this region is almost one and a half times that of the world average. Some of the countries, particularly Bangladesh, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, have three to four times more human pressure compared to the world average. Grazing animals have limited land for grazing and fodder cultivation is also limited by inadequate land. The average fodder availability for the South Asian region is only 2.05 kg air-dried feed/head/day. The situation in terms of grazing area, cultivated fodders and feed grains is therefore quite alarming. The only satisfactory aspect is arable land area per unit grazing stock which averages 0.67 ha against the world average of 0.99 ha and Asian average of 0.86 ha per grazing livestock unit (GLU).

III. Present Production and Utilization of Fibrous Residues

Statistics on production and utilization of fibrous residues in South Asian countries are inadequate. The production of roughages can, however, be estimated fairly accurately from crop production estimates if reliable data are available for the ratios of fibrous residues and crop production (Table 2); the values have been suggested by Jackson, (1978, personal communication) and Kossila (1984). While crop residues have been used for feeding livestock in India and Pakistan since time immemorial, they are also used as bedding for livestock, mulch for vegetable production, substrate for mushroom growth, fibre for paper manufacture, and fuel to provide heat or simply for burning. The amount of fibrous residues used for livestock feeding can, however, be estimated by a sample survey of feeding practices in which the feeds offered to animals are weighed. One such survey was conducted in India by Amble et al. (1965) using a standard farm management investigation technique in which a representative sample of farmers is inter- viewed periodically, actual quantities of feed offered is weighed, and the amount of stubbles left over after collection of straw and again after grazing by animals is estimated by sample cutting to determine the consumption by the animals. The other important aspect of crop residue utilization relates to trade in crop residues, that is how much is bought and sold, by whom, for what price and what purposes? How is the trade organized? How much is stored, aside from that stored on farms,

22 Table 1 Comparison of Percentage Dependance on Agriculture, Arable Land as percent of total, Human Population Per Unit Arable Land, Cereal Production Per Caput, Pasture and Arable Land Per Unit Grazing Stock in Different Countries of South Asia (F.A.O., 1986)

Region/ Human population Arable land Human/ha Cereal production Pasture/ Arable land/ Country in agriculture as % of total arable land per caput grazing grazing unit ( % 1 (%1 (kg/yr) unit (ha) Mal w World 48.7 10.5 3.5 386 2.28 0.99 Asia 62.9 15.8 6.6 277 1.31 0.86 South Asia 67.4 47.9 5.0 220 0.07 0.67 Bangladesh 71.8 66.2 11.4 250 0.03 0.45 Bhutan 91.6 2.0 14.9 128 0.74 0.32 India 68.1 55.6 4.6 218 0.05 0.72 Nepal 92.4 16.7 7.2 242 0.20 0.23 Pakistan 52.1 26.1 5.0 208 0.15 0.61 Sri Lanka 52.5 16.7 15.0 164 0.22 0.54 Australia 5.8 6.4 0.3 1590 12.07 1.33 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 2

The Multipliers Used in Converting Cereal Grain Yields in Different Countries into Quantities of Fibrous Residues

Crop Asia Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Rice 1.5 2.0* 2.5 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.8 Wheat 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.5 2.0 1.5 - Sorghum 4.0 - - 4.0 - 4.0 4.0 Maize 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Rye 2.0 ------Oats 1.5 ------Millets 4.0 - 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 Barley 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 - Pulses 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 Groundnuts 2.0 2.0 - 2.0 - 2.0 2.0 Rapeseed 4.0 4.0 - 4.0 - 4.0 - Sunflower 4.0 - - 4.0 - 4.0 - Sesame 4.0 4.0 - 4.0 - 4.0 4.0 Linseed 2.5 - - 2.5 - 2.5 - Saff lower 4.0 - - 4.0 - 4.0 - Roots £t Tubers 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Potatoes 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Sweet Potatoes 0.1 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 0.1 Sugar cane 0.1 0.1 - 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Sugarbeet 0.1 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 -

* The straw from "aus" harvest is excluded from the total availability and by whom? Accurate information is essential for effective intensive utilization of fibrous residues. It is suggested that the participating countries must have programmes on production and utilization surveys as part of the programme on improved utilization of crop residues. Estimates of cereal straws and other fibrous agricultural residues and concentrates based on crop production data (FAO, 1986) are presented in Table 3. The estimates reveal that in view of very high livestock population density in South Asia, the availability of fibrous residues/LGR is about half of that for the whole of Asia. The availability of concentrate per unit grazing stock is somewhat better. The situation seems to be particularly serious in Nepal. Table 4 presents quantities of nutrients available per LGR from different sources, assuming 100 per cent utilization. The table indicates that fibrous residues contribute a larger proportion of the potential energy and protein (about 60 and 50 per cent, respectively) available to the animal. The present average availability of 45.3 MJ ME and 401 g CP is just sufficient for the maintenance of an adult bovine of 400 kg body weight which requires 44.8 MJ ME and 373 g CP daily. In such situations, the size of the animal becomes stunted and unproductive animals do not get sufficient feed even to maintain themselves. There is preferen- tial use of available feed resources for production animals and the overall situation calls for immediate steps to be taken to improve the utilization of existing feed resources.

24 Table 3 Estimated Availability of Cereal Straws and other Fibrous Agricultural Residues and Concentrates in South Asian Countries (FAO, 1986)

Region/ Fibrous Concentrate No. of grass No. of grain Availability of Countries residues t. 106 1annum eaters eaters Fibrous Concentrate t. 1061annum 106 LU 106 LU residues rate (kg/GLU/d) (g/GLU/d)

World 3969.8 294.86 1393.2 324.05 7.81 140 Asia 1659.1 125.80 491.4 114.96 9.25 236 South Asia 502.9 41.67 295.6 6.67 4.66 314 Bangladesh 37.0 2.95 19.6 1.09 5.18 316 Bhutan 0.6 0.02 0.3 0.01 5.18 87 India 409.7 32.64 230.8 3.73 4.86 332 Nepal 10.2 0.39 10.0 0.20 2.81 55 Pakistan 41.6 4.97 33.0 1.54 3.45 267 Sri Lanka 3.8 0.71 2.0 0.10 5.19 329 Australia 39.4 4.19 36.3 1.24 2.97 161 Table 4 Quantities of Nutrients Available per Average Grazing Livestock Unit from Different Feed Sources'

Countries Pasture/ Quantity per grazing livestock unit/day GL U (ha) Fibrous Concentrate Green grass Without any After chemical residues (g) Air-dried treatment Treatment of (kg) matter (kg) fibrous feeds ME CP (g) ME CP (g)

Bangladesh 0.03 5.18 316 1.00 40.5 335 47.1 555 Bhutan 0.74 5.18 87 4.00 60.6 519 67.2 739 India 0.05 4.86 332 3.00 53.8 481 60.0 687 Nepal 0.20 2.81 55 2.50 35.4 307 39.0 426 Pakistan 0.15 3.45 267 3.00 44.9 418 49.3 565 Sri Lanka 0.22 5.19 329 3.00 55.6 514 62.2 734 South Asia 0.07 4.66 314 2.05 45.3 401 51.3 599

NB. See text for the method of calculation. * Based on FAO (1978) Utilization of Cereal Straws and FAR

IV. Possibilities of Intensive Utilization of Fibrous Residues

1) Using large quantities of crop residues for feeding The extent of utilization of crop residues for feeding livestock varies considerably between countries and locations. For example, during the dry season rice straw forms the major component of the diet in parts of Thailand (Yano, 1985; Khajarern and Khajarern, 1985). In India, wheat bhusa is utilized more intensively in the northern states of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh (U.P.); rice in eastern states of west Bengal, Orrisa, eastern U.P. and Kerala; and sorghum stover in the central states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Rice straw forms the staple diet of bovines in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. However, very little rice straw is used in Bhutan (Verma, 1982) because most of the animals depend on grazing for a major part of the year. It is only in winter when particularly stall-fed milch cows and the working bullocks cannot gather enough feed through grazing or by consuming cut tree leaves that they are offered dried forest grasses or crop residues. The presence of infective organisms and toxic elements could be one of the reasons for not utilizing some. of the crop residues. Take, for example, the presence of infective cercaria on rice straw in Bhutan and the incidence of fungus or selenium toxicity associated with "Daignala" disease due to consumption of rice straw in the Indian states of Haryana and the Punjab. The age-old tradition of preferring one type of crop residue over the other (e.g. farmers in northern states of India feed wheat bhusa and burn rice straw, while those in eastern states and Bangladesh use rice straw and burn wheat straw) may be another reason for insufficient utilization of some of the crop residues. Incomplete utilization of available crop residues is partly due to the fact that they are fed in the long form. From the amount offered, about 20-30 per cent is dispersed on the ground and trampled on. This can be avoided by chaffing the crop residues before feeding and using properly designed stalls. The extra cost involved could probably be recovered by the saving of crop residue and improvement in their utilization which, according to Ranjhan (1983), may be 5 per cent units in terms of digestibility and about 15 per cent in terms of intake. If these crop residues are to be pre-treated, with most methods, chaffing improves their effectiveness. Thus pre-treatment would also improve their utilization. Still another reason for incomplete utilization of crop residues may be that some areas are relatively under-populated with livestock in relation to cropped area (e.g. Tarai region of U. P. and Punjab in India; Paro, S. Jongkhar, Thimphu and Tashigang districts of Bhutan). In view of supply exceeding demand, the surplus crop residues are either converted into manure by using them as bedding (e.g. sugar cane trash is used as bedding for livestock in Haryana and western U.P. in India before converting it into manure) or they are bartered for dung, or ploughed under or burnt. A careful investigation of these and other possible constraints is a prerequisite to the development of any strategy for more complete utilization of available fibrous residues as livestock feed.

2) Improving the feeding value of crop residues

It is clear that the quantity of feeds is inadequate and availability is restricted to certain periods of the year. For the remaining period of about five months,

27 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues livestock depend primarily on crop residues, the availability of which is inadequate. Since the availability of crop residues is seasonal, these must be collected and stored for use in the lean periods. These are generally available in the long form with variable moisture content. Drying of straw in the field may therefore have to be carried out before storage. Their collection, handling and storage presents problems in their effective utilization. The other problems in efficient utilization of fibrous residues include low crude protein and soluble minerals, high cell wall content, lignin and insoluble minerals. Making up for the deficiency of Nitrogen, soluble minerals and vitamins by supplementing them with either conventional protein supplements such as oil cakes and leguminous forages (Devendra, 1985), or non-conventional nitrogen supplements like urea, biuret and mineral mixture should improve their utilization. Unfortunately, very little green fodder is available and the strategy therefore should be to grow leguminous fodder crops in the limited area available for raising cultivated fodders and to rehabilitate barren and waste land through reaffore station. Large-scale use of other conventional feeds, viz. oil cakes or concentrates, for balancing the fibrous residue-based diets is also not possible because of their limited availability in this region. Impregnation of crop residues with 1-2 per cent urea with or without molasses and giving them to the animals with limited quantities of green forage and mineral salts is known to improve their voluntary intake and nutritive value, thus making them suitable as a maintenance diet (Gupta et al., 1971; Jaiswal et al., 1983). The practicability of urea supplementation of fibrous residue-based diets is difficult because even after 20 years of effort, hardly any farmer has adopted this practice. The author demonstrated this procedure to more than a dozen farmers for three years, and convinced them of its utility under farm conditions, but none of them has adopted this in a regular way. Of the physical treatments, only chopping and soaking are feasible under village conditions..Castillo et al. (1982) found that chopping of rice straw or maize stover improved the voluntary intake of these roughages. Soaking of chopped roughage however did not further increase the feed intake. Wetting of crop residues may not be useful in general, but definitely improves the intake of mechanically threshed whet bhusa (Chaturvedi el al., 1973) probably because the wetting removes the dustiness of bhusa. In spite of the dramatic increase in potential fermentability of crop residues, as a result of grinding, pelleting, steam processing, irradiation, etc., the cost of the equipment and the increasing cost of energy for running the equipment and for the transportation of crop residues from farm to plant and back, make these processes not feasible at farm level (Donefer, 1977). Pre-treatment of crop residues has been reviewed by Sundstol and Owen (1984). It is generally believed that using Sodium Hydroxide is the most effective way of improving the potential degradability and intake of fibrous residues. However, in view of the exorbitant increase in the cost of the chemical, the treatment is not economical. Treatment of fibrous residues with ammonia is preferred because in addition to its alkali effect, it increases the nitrogen content of treated roughages. Moreover, there is little problem of mixing. For South Asian countries, the use of urea as a source of ammonia is being advocated, so as to overcome the problem of handling, transportation and application of anhydrous or aqueous

28 Utilization of Cereal Straws and FAR ammonia. For this purpose, 40-50 g of fertilizer grade urea dissolved in water is sprinkled on each kg of roughage which would raise its moisture content to 45 per cent in the case of chopped straw or 35 per cent in the case of unchopped straw (Verma, 1985). The treated straw is stacked by any of the traditional methods for 3-4 weeks. The wet straw is trampled during stacking to exclude as much air as possible, to obtain a final bulk density of about 0.2 tonnes per cubic metre. The treated straw, once prepared, keeps well for more than six months. A large number of feeding experiments conducted in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand, using ammonia (urea) treated roughages, have shown increases in digestibility of roughage dry matter/organic matter and voluntary intake. The growth rate in cattle fed treated roughages and 500 g green forage/head/day without any concentrate ranged from 75-273 g/day. The increase was a little more when water hyacinth/berseem replaced the green grass. The increase in growth rate became substantial when the concentrate supplement accounted for 10 per cent of total dry matter intake. A dramatic increase in growth rate (up to 450 g/day) was observed when treated roughage was fed with a small supplement of by-pass protein such as fish meal (100-150 g/head/day) or cotton seed cake (300-500 g/head/day). In the case of high yielding crossbred cows, replacing up to 50 per cent of the dry matter of an all-berseem diet with ammonia (urea) treated rice straw did not have any adverse effect on milk yield. In yet another experiment, crossbred milch cows given an ammonia (urea) treated wheat straw and berseem mixture of 90:10 (on dry matter basis) ad lib. were able to support a milk production level of 6 kg/head/day without any concentrates (Agrawal et al., 1988). Verma et al. (1987) reported an on-farm study in which a private organized dairy farm having about 80 heads of crossbred cattle has been using about 80 tonnes of ammonia (urea) treated rice/wheat straw annually for the last three years. The farm reduced the area under forage crops from 9.4 to 6.5 ha, and slashed the amount of concentrate offered by about 0.5 kg/head/day, yet the average daily milk yield went up from 11.0 to 13.2 kg/head/day (Table 5). An improvement in growth rate of heifers was also evident from the reduction in age at first calving from 36 to 34 months. The economic analysis of the treatment activity showed a net gain of about Rs. 60,000 (US $5,000) per annum. The treatment of crop residues with ammonia might overcome the constraints of not using some of the crop residues mentioned earlier. For example, the rise in temperature of the ammonia (urea) treated stack up to 60-70°C, presence of ammonia and the increase of pH of the treated straw to 8.5-9.0 may destroy the metacercaria present in rice straw in Bhutan, making it suitable for feeding to livestock. Improved utilization of crop residues as a result of pre-treatment might change the opinion of cattle owners about the usefulness or otherwise of some of the crop residues. For example, the organized private farm which has now been using about 80 tonnes of rice straw after treatment with ammonia belongs to the community which would have never thought of using rice straw for feeding to high-yielding milch cattle. This farm had mainly been using wheat bhusa for years, but hardly used any rice straw which, in the absence of buyers, was in fact burnt. The improvement in the nutrient availability estimated in Table 4 when converted

29 Table 5 Effect of Feeding Ammonia (Urea) Treated Straw on Area under Forage Crops, Milk Yield and Age at First Calving in Calving

Period Livestock Quantity of Area under Milk average Average age at population treated straw forage crops yield (kg/d) first calving used (acres/annum) (month)

Adult Adult Quintal* kg/h/d . Total Per units (A U) cow annum AU

Sept 1979 to 57.6 29.3 Nil Nil 23.2 0.40 11.0 36.0 Aug 1981 (29)+ (Pre-trial period) Sept 1981 to 50.8 28.0 217 1.2 18.6 0.36 10.9 32.7 Aug 1984 (40)

(Phase 1) Sept 1984 to 56.8 34.8 792 3.8 16.0 0.28 13.2 34.0 Aug 1987 (26)

(Phase 11)

+ Figures in parentheses denote number of calvings

* 1 Quintal = 100 kg Utilization of Cereal Straws and FAR to milk may result in an additional milk production of 1 kg/cow/day. Assuming that 50 million milch cows and buffaloes are present in India, the total annual milk production would increase by about 18 million tonnes (about 40 per cent increase).

References

Agrawal, I.S., Verma, M.L., Singh, A.K. and Pandey, Y.C. (1988). Studies on the effect of urea treated straw on milk production and feeding cost. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. (In press). Amble, V.N., Murthy, V.V.R., Sathe, K.V. and Goel, B.B.P.S. (1965). Milk production of bovines in India and their feed availability. Indian,J. Vet. Sci.

Anim. Husb., 35 : 221-238. Castillo, L.S., Roxas, D.B., Chavez, M.A., Momogan, V.G. and Ranjhan, S.K. (1982). The effects of a concentrate supplement and of chopping and soaking rice straw on its voluntary intake by carabaos. In The Utilization of Fibrous Agricultural Residues as Animal Feeds (Ed. Doyle, P.T.). The University of Melbourne Printing Service, Parkville, Australia, pp. 74-80. Chaturvedi, M.L., Singh, U.B. and Ranjhan, S.K. (1973). Effect of feeding water soaked and dry wheat straw on feed intake, digestibility of nutrients and VFA production in growing zebu cattle and buffalo calves. J. agric. Sci. Camb.,

80 : 393-397.

Devendra, C. (1985). Forage supplements : potential value in feeding systems based on crop residues and agro-industrial by-products in South East Asia. In Relevance of Crop Residues as Animal Feeds in Developing Countries, (Eds. Wanapat, M. and Devendra, C.), Funny Press, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 221-248. Donefer, E. (1977). Physical treatment of poor quality roughages at commercial and farm levels. In New Feed Resources. F.A.O. Anim. Prod. Hlth. Paper No. 4, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, pp. 17-23. F.A.O. (1978). FAO Production Yearbook, Vol. 32, Food Organiza- tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. F.A.O. (1986). FAO Production Yearbook, Vol. 40, Food and Agriculture Organiza- tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 306 pp. Gupta, B.S., Satepathy, N., Chhabara, S.S. and Ranjhan, S.K. (1971). Urea as a sole source of nitrogen in growing buffalo calves fed on a basal roughage of wheat straw, its effect on palatability, growth rate and TVFA production

in the rumen. Indian ,J. Dairy Sci., 24 : 7-15. jaiswal, R.S., Verma, M.L. and Agrawal I.S. (1983). Effect of urea and protein supplements added to untreated and ammonia treated rice straw on digestibility, intake and growth in crossbred heifers. Proc. IV Seminar on Maximum livestock production from minimum land (Eds. Davis, C. A., Preston, T. R., Haque, M. and Saadullah, M.), Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, pp. 26-31.

31 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Khajarern, S. and Khajarern, J. (1985). The utilization of crop by-products as animal feeds in Thailand. In The Utilization of Fibrous Agriculture Residues as Animal Feeds, (Ed. Doyle, P.T.), International Development Program of Australian Universities and Colleges Ltd (IDP), Canberra, Australia, pp. 3-17. Kossila, V. L. (1984). Location and potential feed use. In Straw and Other Fibrous By-products as Feeds, (Eds. Sundstol, F. and Owen, E.), Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, Tokyo, pp. 4-24. Ranjhan, S.K. (1983). Economic evaluation of various processing methods for improving the nutritive value of fibrous agricultural residues for backy and ruminant production systems in South-East Asian Countries. In The Utiliza- tion of Fibrous Agricultural Residues, (Ed. Pearce, G.R.), Australian Govern- ment Printing Service, Canberra, Australia, pp. 157-165. Sundstol, F. and Owen, E. (1984). Straw and otherfibrous by-products as feed. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, xxvi + 604 pp. Verma, M. L. (1982). Treatment of crop residues for animal feeding. Consultancy Report for the Royal Government of Bhutan. FAO/APHCA Rpt, Bangkok, Thailand (Mimeograph), 17 pp. Verma, M.L. (1985). Agricultural by-products for animal feeding in Asia and the Pacific - an overview, Asian Livestock, Vol. 10 : 143-147. Verma, M.L., Agrawal, I.S. andJaiswal, R.S., (1987). On-farm testing of treated straws for enhancement of livestock production. Workshop on improving straw utilization at H.A. U., Hisar, India (In press), (Mimeograph). Yano, H. (1985). Some aspects of buffalo and cattle production in a village of north-east Thailand. In Relevance of Crop Residues as Animal Feeds in Developing Countries, (Eds. Wanapat, M. and Devendra, C.), Funny Press, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 13-24.

32 The Significance of Nutrient Balance in Diets for Farm Animals

C R Krishnamurti and A J Vera Department of Animal Science University of British Columbia Vancouver B.C. V6T 2A2 Canada

Abstract

Although physical, chemical and microbiological methods have been studied to improve the nutritional quality of crop residues, the majority of studies involved only in vitro and in vivo digestibility to test the efficacy of these procedures. Inadequate work has been done on nutrient balance and utilization when crop residues are the major sources of nutrients. Since the overall minimal productivity is the ultimate criterion, it is important that future studies should be directed at measuring utilization of nutrients. The tracer kinetic modelling approach has recently been found to provide a valuable tool to measure nutrient utilization, especially that of minerals. The principles of this method are outlined. There is a gap between the generation of research findings in the laboratory and the transfer of the technology to the field, particularly with reference to processing of crop residues. The reasons for this discrepancy should be investigated and technology modified to make it practical. The infrastructure to promote forage production and processing offibrous crop residues in particular should be established.

1. Introduction

For over 40 years efforts have been made to find ways and means of improving the feeding value of lignocellulosic materials to ruminants. In several regions of Asia and Africa, fibrous crop residues (FCR) have been used as the major source of roughages for livestock. Lactating animals receive supplementation of green feeds and concentrates depending upon availability. Poor management and lack of rainfall have resulted in the deterioration of pastures and grazing areas adjoin- ing forests. With the tremendous increase in human population and the conse- quent demand on the limited land resources and on available cereal grains, research efforts have been intensified to exploit the potential of straw and other crop

33 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues by-products for feeding animals (Devendra, 1982, 1985; Sundstol and Owen, 1984; Preston et al., 1985; Males, 1987). Even in developed countries, where the reliance on crop residues as the source of roughages is relatively less important, the incentive to pursue research in this field came from periodical scarcity of good quality forages due to drought and of fossil fuels due to international tensions. Alternative sources of energy and protein have therefore always been sought. Strict government regulations for the disposal of industrial and agricultural wastes to minimize environmental pollution have also resulted in measures to convert lignocellulosic materials into commercially valuable products. The result is the emergence of a dedicated group of research workers from various disciplines with the common goal of improving the utilization of lignocellulosic materials for producing feed or fuel. Several excellent reviews and monographs have appeared on the subject from time to time (Stapleton, 1981; FAO, 1982; Leng and Preston, 1983; Preston and Parra, 1983; and Jayasuriya, 1985). Despite the voluminous literature on the subject of improving the nutritional value of low-quality roughages, the major emphasis in most studies has been placed on developing processing techniques which are economical and suitable for on-farm applications. The criteria commonly employed for the evaluation of the efficacy of processing methods include in vitro and in vivo digestibility of various feed components, energy and nitrogen balance and, to a smaller extent, animal production performance (Kehar, 1954; Klopfenstein, 1978; Klopfenstein et al., 1979, 1987; Joshi et al., 1984; Reddy and Reddy, 1985). Though tremendous progress has been made in developing suitable technology for improving the nutritional quality of FCR, it appears appropriate to discuss the future direction of research in assessing animal response. For example, it appears inevitable that, at least for the foreseeable future, animals in developing countries will continue to depend upon FCR for their nutrients at different stages of growth, reproduction and at different levels of production. Under these circumstances, it would be prudent not to rely only on improvement in the digestibility as the indicator of nutritive value of treated roughages. By itself, this is inadequate to determine the nutrient balance and bioavailability especially when FCR are fed over a prolonged period of time. It is equally necessary to examine how nutrient utilization and animal performance are influenced by interactions among nutrients due to the treatments imposed. This paper reviews the current technology for improving the quality of roughages. Since the bioavailability of nutrients is dependent upon nutrient balance and interactions, the methodology for the assessment of nutrient utilization by animals consuming FCR is discussed with particular reference to macro and micro minerals.

H. Overview of FCR Processing Techniques

The concept that alkalis can be used for improving the nutritional quality of straw came from the early studies of Beckman (1921) whose report as stated by

34 Significance of Nutrient Balance in Diet

Greenhalgh (1983) is "often quoted but rarely consulted". Subsequent research efforts were directed at comparing the efficacy of different chemicals applied at different concentrations and in different physical forms. The details of these treatments have been reviewed extensively (Jackson, 1977, 1978; Wilson and Brigstocke, 1977; Klopfenstein, 1978; Huber, 1981; Sinha, 1982; Nikolic, 1982; Ledward et al., 1983; Levy et al., 1983). Chemicals other than alkali such as ozone (Joseleau and Martin, 1981), pH-adjusted peroxides (Gould, 1985; Kerley et al., 1987) and organic solvents (Ladisch, 1979) were also treated as delignifying agents. Recognizing the health hazards of the use of chemicals on a large scale under field conditions, several physical and microbiofogical (Han, 1978) procedures were also evaluated for their ability to enhance the nutritional quality of FCR. In the meantime, advances were made in changing the physico-chemical structure of the lignocellulosic matrix and in our understanding of the enzymatic mechanisms involved in its breakdown. Intensive efforts were also made to screen non-conventional sources of energy and nitrogen, and their inclusion in animal feeds was investigated. In countries where forest and lumber mill by-products such as sawdust were abundant, attempts were also made to convert them into feedstuffs (Krishnamurti and Kitts, 1983). A technique for conversion of foliage into feed has been reported in the Russian literature (Keays and Barton, 1975). Statistics on the amount of non-conventional resources available in different countries were gathered and the economics of collecting them in a central location for processing was studied. The desperate need for cheaper feeds especially in the developing countries and public awareness of environmental pollution in industrialized countries led to the exploitation of recycling animal wastes for animal feeding (Gillies, 1978; Muller, 1980; Ledward et al., 1983). In the late sixties, the shortage of fossil fuels stimulated research into the production of fuel and chemical feedstocks from FCR (Ladisch, 1979; Pimentel et al., 1981; Lipinski, 1981; Klass and Emert, 1981). Unlike the technology for producing animal feeds, the manufacture of fuel and chemicals was an economically viable proposition for profitable commercial undertaking. The use of FCR for particle board manufacturing also falls under this category. Thus, the ruminant animals face competition even for a source of roughage for which, so far, they have had exclusive enjoyment of! Recent advances in biotechnology and bioengineering have opened up novel avenues for the commercial production of single-cell proteins from a variety of raw materials (Chahal et al., 1979; Ramaswamy et al., 1979; Garg and Neelakan- tan, 1982). The kinetics of large-scale fermentation processes are now well understood and, with the use of appropriate computer programmes, the chemical reactions can be accurately monitored and manipulated (Hobson, 1983). In recognition of these industrial developments, animal feed technologists are reinves- tigating the potential of ensiling FCR with biological activities and allowing natural fermentation processes to enhance their feeding value (Pathak and Neog, 1977; Lee et al., 1982). The technique would thus be less expensive and more applicable to on-farm conditions.

35 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

III. Nutritional Implications of Processing Techniques

1) Assessment of nutrient balance and bioavailability Improvement in the nutritional quality of FCR due to various processing techniques has been assessed mainly in terms of the physico-chemical changes in the fibrous matrix (solubilization) and in vitro and in vivo digestibility of DM, ADF, ADL, cellulose and nitrogen (Ibrahim and Pearce, 1981; Miron and Ben Ghedalia, 1987). In addition, animal performance in terms of growth rates, lactation and draught power have also been used as additional criteria. The effects on the bioavailability and utilization of nutrients either due to compounds which are normally present in the untreated roughage or which are destroyed or generated during the course of processing have also received attention (Price and Butler, 1980). Finally, efforts have also been made to provide supplements of nitrogen, minerals and vitamins to meet the nutritional requirements of animals. The changes in the physico-chemical characteristics and digestibility have been the subjects of exhaustive reviews which may be consulted for details (Cowling, 1975). On the other hand, progress in our understanding of the metabolism and utilization of nutrients when animals consume processed roughages is relatively limited. This may probably be ascribed to the complexity of the experimental techniques required for this purpose. Despite these difficulties, the kinetics of glucose metabolism in sheep fed chemically treated bagasse has been reported (Ravelo et al., 1978; Ferreiro et al., 1979). Quantitative methods for determining the flow of liquid and particulate digesta have been developed so that the site and extent of digestion in the various sections of the gastrointestinal tract may be studied (Redman et al., 1980; Dixon et al., 1983; Faichney, 1986; Weyreter et al., 1987). Similarly, techniques are available for measuring the production and utilization of ruminal volatile fatty acid and ammonia production as well as microbial protein synthesis (Bergman, 1975; Singh and Gupta, 1984; Owens, 1987). Elegant isotopic techniques have been described by Nolan and Stachiw (1979) and Nolan and Leng (1983) to elucidate the dynamics of nitrogen within the rumen and in the whole animal when FCR are fed. The importance of by-pass proteins in enhancing the overall rumen fermentation and utilization of fibrous feeds has been stressed by Leng et al. (1983). 2) Mineral nutrition of animals fed fibrous feeds Of all the nutrients investigated, the nutritive value of minerals for animals fed processed FCR has received limited attention. Changes in the apparent retention and concentration of macro and micro minerals following processing of FCR have been reported (Table 1). In a series of excellent publications by the International Development Program of Australian Universities and Colleges (Doyle, 1985; Dixon, 1986; Doyle et al., 1986), the literature on the utilization of minerals by animals fed untreated and treated FCR under tropical conditions has been thoroughly reviewed (Djajanegara et al., 1985; Little, 1985, 1986). The mineral composition and balance of different varieties of rice straw have been reported by Devasia et al. (1976) and Reddy and Das (1982).

36 Table 1 Mineral Status in Animals Fed Untreated /Treated Fibrous Crop Residues

Ca P Mg Na K Cl Fe Cu Material Treatment Sp. ------Retained % of intake ...... Source

Barley straw NaOH C 10/17 34/28 10/0 10/3 7/6 -13/ -11 Wamberg et al. (1984) Wheat straw NaOH C 53/75 45/41 Singh and Jackson (1984) Oat straw NaOH S -13/ -33 7/ -1 Coobe et al. (1985) Wheat straw Ca(OH)2 S -76/ -2 -12/5 Djajanegara et al. (1984) Cotton plant NaOH S 19/20 -.9/-.8 44/16 15/42 62/43 41 /18 Arndt et al. (1984) ------mg/dl Plasma------Wheat straw NH3 C 8.6/8.8 5.2/5.5 2.0/2.1 Grings and Males (1987) Barley straw NaOH C 9.8/9.5 2.2/2.1 332/334 18/18 74.4/76.6* 221/232* Smith et al. (1984)

Sp. = Species C = Cattle S = Sheep * = mg/dl Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Unfortunately, the methodology used in many of the studies is not adequate to draw firm conclusions on the quantitative aspects of mineral absorption, excretion and interactions. This led Doyle et al. (1986) to conclude that "in the case of rice straw there are generally insufficient data to establish clearly the status of specific minerals". Despite the wide variations in the concentrations of individual minerals in tropical FCR, Little (1985) has suggested that insufficiency of P, Na and Cu is most likely to occur. i) Untreated straw Talapatra et al. (1949) recognized that the high oxalate content may interfere with calcium and iron utilization in ruminants and suggested that washing with water would decrease oxalate concentration and improve the feeding value of rice straw. Subsequently Mandokhot and Mukherjee (1967) did observe that iron balance in bullocks became positive after straw washed with water was fed. The advantage of washing straw with water was also reported by Nath et al. (1969). The physical distribution of silicon with lignin, cellulose and other cell wall components of plants was described by McManus et al. (1977). The low digestibility of straw has been ascribed to the high concentration of silicon in lignocellulosic materials (Jones and Handreck, 1965; Van Soest, 1968). Harper et al. (1982) have questioned the validity of the structural evidence presented by McManus et al. (1977) to explain the low digestibility of straw. The exact mechanism by which silicon interferes with digestibility of fibrous feeds is not clear. Changes in the trace mineral composition of roughages were studied by Singhal and Mudgal (1984) who reported that, in general, roughages supplied Cu and Fe to meet the requirements of Murrah buffalo heifers (Kearl, 1982) but Zn may have to be supplemented. Wheat straw contained Cu, Fe and Zn at a concentration of 3, 134 and 60 ppm as compared to 30.5, 327 and 12 ppm respectively in hay. Punia et al. (1985) observed that there was a large flow of minerals in the rumen and substantial absorption in the omasum and/or abomasum after treated FCR were fed. ii) Treated straw If the concentration of trace minerals in the soil and plants is marginal, cows will be predisposed to infertility and other reproductive problems (Manickam et al., 1977; Hidiroglou, 1979). The effects of alkali-treated straw on the concentration and apparent retention of minerals have been reported by many workers (Fritz, 1982; Vijchutata et al., 1984; Little, 1986). Reviewing the literature on the subject, Jackson (1977) concluded that alkali treatment solubilizes minerals in the cell wall matrix of fibrous feeds. However, this does not necessarily mean that the minerals become available to the ruminant host. Devendra (1979) and Djajanegara et al. (1985) have observed depressed ash digestion in sheep fed straw treated with calcium hydroxide. The acute Ca:P imbalance and the high K and oxalate content were considered to interfere with Ca absorption and utilization. According to Little (1985), supplementation with P, Cu and S is necessary when chemically treated crop residues are fed. Deficiency of S would lead to decreased microbial protein synthesis, cellulose degradation and volatile fatty acid production in the rumen (Moir, 1970; Bird, 1972; Doyle and Djajanegara, 1983).

38 Significance of Nutrient Balance in Diet

Another factor which will affect overall nutrient balance and utilization is the effect of residual Na ions in the treated straw on electrolyte metabolism. In an effort to excrete the excess Na ions, animals tend to drink too much water which ultimately may lead to kidney problems. Recently, disturbances in the acid- base balance of sheep fed alkali-treated wheat straw were reported by Trevor- Jones and Leibholz (1984).

iii) Animal wastes The major problems of feeding processed animal wastes to livestock are the presence of chemicals and microbial pathogens in the excreta. This topic has been the subject of many reviews (Bhattacharyya and Taylor, 1975; Muller, 1980; Jaya et al., 1981; Sinha, 1982; Ketelaars and Iwema 1984). In an elaborate study involving the analysis of 43 elements, Westing et al. (1985a, b) characterized the tissue accretion of minerals in cattle fed broiler litter or feed-lot waste. Recently, Bangon et al. (1987) reported the incidence of Cu toxicosis in cattle fed chicken litter.

iv) Other nutrient interactions In addition to the nutritional imbalance caused by the level of nutrients and their interactions, digestive processes can also be adversely affected by chemical constituents which either occur naturally in feedstuffs or are generated or destroyed during the course of processing. These effects by acid and alkali treatments on the nutritive value of feeds have been reviewed (Kristensen, 1982; L'Estrange, 1982). The nutritional implications of phenolic compounds in forage have been reviewed by Jung and Fahey (1983). The ability of lignin in depressing cell wall digestibility has been attributed to several factors such as encrustation, effects on microbial population and formation of lignin-polysaccharide complexes. The soluble phenolic monomers, p-coumaric, ferulic and vanillic acids occur in wheat straw at concentrations of 4.9, 2.9 and 0.6 mg per g of plant cell walls respectively (Jung and Fahey, 1983). These compounds reduce in vitro dry matter digestibility, and various chemical agents have been tried to remove them. The detrimental effects of polymerized phenolics known as tannins on nutrient availability have been discussed by Price and Butler (1980). The chemical characterization and nutritional significance of saponins were reviewed recently by Price et al. (1987). Because of their surfactant properties, saponins have been incriminated in the development of pasture bloat. Growth retardation of experimental animals has been ascribed to the ability of saponins to affect the bioavailability of zinc. Recently, steers were fed ensiled pulp mill residues derived from the deligni- fication and bleaching of wood chips with chlorine dioxide (Bilawchuk and Owen, unpublished). Though the feed consumption and rate of body weight gain of the steers were excellent, it was recognized that it is possible that potentially carcino- genic compounds such as dioxane could accumulate in the tissues of these animals under these conditions. It is therefore necessary to ensure that chemical treatments do not leave undesirable residues in the tissues. Alkali treatment of roughages could result in the destruction of Atocopherol and B-carotene and supplementation would be necessary for animals consuming large amounts of such roughages (Frape, 1986).

39 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

3) Kinetic analysis and modelling of mineral metabolism Supplementation of chemically treated crop residues with macro and micro minerals can precipitate an imbalance. The chemical and/or physical interactions between minerals and other dietary components are more complex and balance studies alone are inadequate to explain the mechanisms involved. The chemical form and the route of administration of the mineral are additional factors to be considered in ensuring that the mineral is released slowly over a prolonged period of time. In recent years, isotopic tracer experiments in conjunction with balance studies and compartmental analysis of the data have contributed much to our understanding of the metabolism of Ca and P (Schneider et al., 1985; Ramberg et al., 1976), Zn (Foster et al., 1984), Cu (Weber et al., 1983), and V (Patterson et al., 1986). Recently, this methodology was used to study Se metabolism in pregnant and non-pregnant ewes under normal and deficiency conditions (Krishnamurti, Ramberg and Shariff, unpublished). The kinetic analyses of experimental data in these studies have been facilitated by the development of a simulation analysis and modelling (SAAM) computer programme by scientists at the National Institute of Health in Washington, D.C., under the leadership of the late Dr M Berman, (Berman and Weiss, 1978). The interactive version of this program, CONSAM (Boston et al., 1981), has provided the necessary interface between biological scientists and mathematicians. Mathematical models can therefore be constructed to fit the experimental data based on statistical criteria depicting the movement of the tracer atoms among different compartments within the animal body. The model also facilitates the estimation of transport rates of tracee atoms under steady state conditions. This technique has already been employed to determine glucose kinetics (Wastney et al., 1983) and water metabolism (Faichney and Boston, 1985) in sheep. Because of the paucity of information on the details of the metabolism of minerals when FCR are the major source of nutrients, the mathematical modelling approach will prove to be valuable in obtaining quantitative data on absorption, endogenous secretion, utilization and excretion as influenced by the treatments imposed. A radioactively labelled mineral is injected intravenously and blood samples are obtained at intervals. The concentrations of tracer and tracee in different blood fractions are measured. The separation and identification of the chemical forms of the mineral from blood would be further advantageous in constructing a more meaningful biological model. If two radio-isotopes of the mineral (e.g. Ca-45, and Ca-47) are available commercially, one may be injected and the other administered orally, while simultaneously monitoring the metabolic fate of the two isotopes. Alternatively, stable isotopes can be used to minimize health hazards Uanghorbhani, 1984). The radioactivity and concentration of the mineral in the faeces, urine and expired air, where appropriate, are measured during the course of the balance trial. Samples of tissues are obtained by biopsy on a daily basis or after slaughter of the animals at the end of the balance trial. The site and extent of digestion in different parts of the gastrointestinal tract may also be determined by inserting

40 Significance of Nutrient Balance in Diet cannulae at the appropriate sections. Symonds et al. (1982) have described surgical techniques for the collection of bile under chroiik conditions. If the radioactivity in saliva, bile and pancreatic secretion could be monitored, it would greatly facilitate the quantification of enterohepatic recycling of minerals under different nutritional conditions. The unique advantage of the mathematical modelling approach is that the computer programme permits the identification of kinetic parameters which have the most significant role in the maintenance of homeostasis of the mineral. This is, of course, precisely the kind of information which is required to assess the quantity, quality and routes of supplementation to achieve nutrient balance and better utilization of the minerals.

IV. Conclusions

FCR are the major sources of energy to ruminant animals and much effort has been expended to improve in vitro and in vivo digestibility by physical, chemical and microbiological treatments. The appropriate technology for commercial and on-farm applications in the future should be directed at finding ways and means of assessing the interactions between nutrients and their bioavailability. Only if these details are properly understood will it be possible to provide nitrogen, mineral and other supplements to bring the nutritive value of FCR up to the level of poor or medium quality hay. This is particularly important in developing countries where FCR will continue to provide the major source of nutrients to ruminants over a prolonged period of time. Experimental procedures are now available to determine quantitatively ruminal volatile fatty acid, ammonia production and microbial protein synthesis. The site and extent of digestion of fibre constituents have also been studied making use of dual-phase markers and gastro-intestinal cannulation techniques. Proce- dures have been standardized for measuring turnover of substrates, gluconeo- genesis from various substrates, in vivo absorption of lipids and nitrogenous constituents, as well as the endocrine factors involved in regulation. One area where experimental procedures are still not adequate is the study of the metabolism of minerals, the supplementation of which is necessary when FCR are fed to the animals. Isotopic procedures in conjunction with balance studies and kinetic analysis have lead to the development of mathematical models to facilitate the quantification of absorption, utilization and excretion of minerals. It is suggested that these techniques should be adopted to test the benefits of supplemen- tal nutrients when FCR are fed rather than relying only on balance measurements.

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44 : 343-354. Schneider, K.M., Ternouth, J.H., Sevilla, C.C. and Boston, R.C. (1985). A short term study of calcium and phosphorus absorption in sheep fed on diets high and low in calcium and phosphorus. Austral. J. Agric. Res., 36: 91-105. Sehgal, J. P., and Punj, M. L. (1983). Utilization of alkali-treated and neutralized wheat straw-based rations for growing goat kids. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 9 155-168. Singh, G.P. and Gupta, B.N. (1985a). Chemical composition. In vitro digestibility and dry matter disappearance from nylon bags as affected by soaking of rice husks in NaOH solution and washing. Asian J. Dairy Res., 4 : 197-202. Singh, M. and Jackson, M.G. (1971). The effect of different levels of NaOH spray treatment on wheat straw on consumption and digestibility by cattle. J. Agric.

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48 Significance of Nutrient Balance in Diet

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49 Availability and Utilization of Non-conventional Feed Resources and Their Utilization by Ruminants in South Asia

M L Punj National Dairy Research Institute Karnal 132001 India

Abstract

A major gall exists between the requirements and supplies of concentrates (grains and their milling by-products, conventional oil seed cakes), and green and dry foddersfor feeding livestock in South Asia. To alleviate this shortage, it is essential to increase these feeds by growing more fodders, propagating agro and social forestry, improving the nutritive value of crop residues and utilizing non-conventional feedstuffs. Potentially valuable feeds include rubber seed cake, sat seed meal, spent a'natto seeds, tapioca waste, tea waste, babul seeds, slaughter house by- products, animal organic wastes (bovine dung, poultry excreta), casm tora seeds, mango seed kernels, nzger seed cake, karanj cake, guar meal, Prosopis juliflora pods and cassava leaf meal. Many of these feed materials are low in energy, protein, minerals and contain high amounts of lignins, silica and other incriminating substances. The main constraints to the use of non- conventional feed resources are collection, dehydration for high moisture materials and detoxification processes. Processing technologies that are economic and practical are urgently required. Some of the materials like sat seed meal, neem seed cake, mahua seed cake, and galas seed cake are available in large quantities but due to the presence of potent toxic substances, have limited value as animal feeds. Many of the forest tree seeds contain 15-35 per cent oil and are used for the extraction of oil, after which the cake is valuable as animal feeds and as manure. Animal organic waste such as dung and poultry excreta are also potentially valuable as animal feeds. The paper discusses the availability and utilization of non-conventional feeds and inherent constraints.

1. Introduction

The South Asian countries have a large livestock population (Table 1) with a very low level of production. The main reason for this poor animal production is their inadequate and low level of feeding due to very serious shortage of feedstuffs in the region. There is justification for building up animal feed resources. The region

50 Utilization of NCFR by Runnnants

Table 1

Cattle and Buffalo Population in South Asian Countries 1103, F.A.O., 19851

Place Cattle Buffalo

India 182,410 64,500 Pakistan 16,549 13,070 Sri Lanka 1,750 990 Bangladesh 36,500 1,800 Bhutan 320 29 Nepal 7,050 4,500

has crop residues such as straws, stovers, sugar cane tops and sugar cane bagassc but these are inadequate to meet the nutrient requirements. Due to the shortage of conventional feed ingredients such as grains and their milling by-products and oil cakes, there is need to consider non-conventional feedstuffs. The present paper deals with the availability and utilization of non-conventional feed resources for ruminants in South Asia. These materials that are potentially important are briefly described. Their availability, chemical composition and nutritive value are summarized in Table 2.

1) Rubber seed cake (11evea brasiliensis)

The potential availability of the cake is 1.5 x 10' tonnes annually in India and is also available in other regions. The cake can be incorporated up to 30 and 25 per cent respectively in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves to give a daily gain of 500 g and a daily milk yield of 7-9 kg in cattle. It contains 18.6 per cent digestible crude protein (DCP) and 66 per cent total digestible nutrients (TDN) for cattle. It contains hydrocyanic acid but the level is too low (0.009 per cent) to produce any toxic symptoms (Ananthasubramamam, 1980).

2) Spent anatto seeds (Bixa orellaua) Anatto is known for the yellow dye extracted from its seeds. The residue after the extraction of dye and oil is called "spent anatto seeds". The total quantity available in the country is about 30,000 tonnes. These seeds can be incorporated up to 20 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of crop-bred calves to promote about 350 g/day. The nutritive value of' the seeds is 7.9 per cent DCP and 67.2

per cent TDN for cattle The low tannic: acid content of about 1 per cent on dry matter basis is harmless to animals.

3) Cassava starch waste (Manihot esculetla Cranlz)

The availability of the cassava starch waste in the country is estimated to be about 40,000 tonnes and most of it is used as animal feed. This feed can be included up to the 2,5 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures ol'crossbred calves to give about 370 g/day live weight gain. It is it good source of energy (TDN 64.0 per cent) but is it very poor source of protein (DCP, 1.8 per cent). It is not kno%vn to contain any toxic factor(s).

51 Table 2 Availability, chemical composition and nutritive value of agro-industrial by-products

Availability Chemical composition % DM basis % DM basis Name Level of Toxic (in India) feeding factor(s) (105 0 CP EE CF NFE Ash Ca P DCP TDN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Apple waste, 30% in CM of damage (Malus 0.20 12.0 2.8 3.5 78.5 3.2 2.0 70.0 crossbred sylvestris) calves and NIL 12.5% level in broiler mash Ambadi cake 20% level in (Hibiscus 0.30 23.4 6.3 19.7 40.2 10.4 18.7 63.8 CM of cross- NIL cannabinus) bred calves Babul seeds 30%inCM of (Acacia 0.60 17.6 6.0 12.3 59.3 4.4 0.9 0.3 13.8 59.0 crossbred Tannins nilotica) calves (5%) Cassava starch 0.40 4.9 1.0 19.2 69.3 5.6 1.8 64.0 25% in CM of NIL waste (Manihot crossbred calves esculenta Crantz) Detoxified meal Castor bean meal 0.60 34.8 10.6 33.2 32.2 10.4 - - at 10% in CM Ricin of sheep (0.22%) Cocoa pods 20% in the CM (Theobroma 0.30 7.8 2.3 35.1 47.6 7.2 6.6 63.5 of growing NIL cacao) calves Coconut pith 25% in CM of Lignin (Coir waste) 2.00 1.8 2.9 19.3 70.6 5.4 0.3 0.1 0.0 62.7 crossbred calves (35-40%) (Cocos nucifera) Karanj cake 15% in CM Karanjine (Pongamia glabra) 1.3 34.1 0.2 4.1 58.2 3.3 25.5 62.0 of crossbred & some (Solvent-extracted) calves and uniden- lactating cows factors (10-15mg/ 100g of cake) Kokam cake 0.15 16.6 1.6 4.4 70.0 7.4 9.3 80.0 15% level in (Garcinia indica) CM of cross- NIL bred calves Kosum cake 35% in the CM (Scleichera oleosa) 0.30 22.11 0.42 7.57 62.10 7.8 0.49 1.09 14.73 79.62 of crossbred HCN (Solvent-extracted) calves 17% in (2.4mg/ broiler mash 100g) Mango seed kernels 10.00 8.7 11.0 0.1 75.8 3.6 0.3 0.3 6.1 70.0 10% in CM of Tannins (Mangifera indica) milch cattle (5-6%) Mahua seed cake 3.0 20.4 2.7 13.3 57.2 6.5 0.4 0.2 9.3 49.8 20% level in Mowrin (Madhuca indica) the CM of 19% crossbred calves Niger seed cake 1.0 34.2 5.7 13.6 37.0 9.5 32.7 49.4 57% level in NIL (Guizotia abyssinia) CM of crossbred calves Panewar seeds 0.30 18.6 7.9 9.9 54.2 9.4 0.9 0.6 15.9 66.0 15% in CM Crysopha- (Casia tora) of milch nic acid cattle (0.083%) Name Availability Chemical composition % DM basis % DM basis Level of Toxic (in India) feeding factor(s) (105 mt) CP EE CF NFE Ash Ca P DCP TDN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Rubber seed cake 1.5 35.1 12.5 7.1 34.8 10.5 1.0 0.8 18.6 66 25-30% in HCN (Hevea brasiliensis) CM of cross- (9mg/100g bred calves and milch cattle Sal seed cake 0.70 8.6 2.5 1.3 84.4 3.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 57.8 10% in CM of Tannic (Shorea robusta) milch cattle acid (8-10%) Spent anatto seeds 0.30 11.8 4.9 15.8 62.4 5.1 7.9 67.2 20%inCM of Tannic (Bixe orellana) crossbred calves acid (10%) Spent brewer's 0.50 28.9 6.9 4.2 35.6 25.4 5.7 3.4 - - Air dried grains NIL material at 50% in CM of buffalo calves and lactating buffalo Sugar cane bagasse 0 Untreated 200 2.9 0.9 41.7 49.6 4.9 Low intake Lignin 8-10% ii) Steam-treated 3.2 0.9 39.2 52.3 4.4 Intake and Lignin digestibility interference improves decreased Sunflower straw 2.0 2.8 2.0 31.0 52.2 12.0 0.43 0.09 - - 50% in Tannins (Helianthus annuus) complete rations 1.5% for ruminants Sunflower heads 2.0 7.2 2.9 16.6 62.7 10.6 1.40 0.12 - - 50% in NIL (Helianthus annuus) complete rations for ruminants Tea waste, 15% in CM of decaffeinated 0.05 17.9 0.3 12.6 60.0 9.1 5.6 0.8 7.5 58.0 pigs 10% in Tannins (Camellia assamica ) broiler mash Tamarind seed 87.0 19.8 4.7 2.1 70.3 3.1 11.26 63.92 25% in calf NIL (decorticated) starters (Tamarindus indica) Tea waste 0.15 28.7 3.6 18.3 43.8 5.6 9.7 43.3 20% in CM Tannins (Camellia sinensis) of crossbred (1.9%) calves Vilayati babul 10.0 12.5 3.6 25.6 53.3 5.1 0.4 0.2 7.0 75.0 20-30% in CM Tannins pods (Prosopis of growing (0.74-1.5%) juliflora) calves and milch cattle Warai bran 0.20 6.2 4.8 18.7 58.2 12.1 4.5 57.4 30% in CM of NIL (Panicum milliceum) growing calves and lactating cows

CM = Concentrate Mixture - = Not determined Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

4) Sal seed meal (Shorea robusta)

The potential yield of sal seeds in the country is about 6 million tonnes annually, but only about 70,000 tonnes are actually collected. The seeds contain about 10-15 per cent oil resembling cocoa butter. The availability of the cake is about 50-60 x 103 tonnes annually. The cake can be incorporated at 10 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of milch cattle to give a daily milk yield of 7.5 kg and can also promote economic gains. The"DCP and TDN contents are 0.1 per cent and 57.8 per cent respectively for cattle. Though the material is a very rich source of energy, its availability is very poor, mainly due to the high content of tannins (8-10 per cent).

5) Panewar seed (Casia tora) According to rough estimates, about 30,000 tonnes of panewar seeds are available in the country annually, but only 30-35 per cent are collected. The seeds can be incorporated at the 15 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of lactating cows to give a daily milk yield of 6 kg. The seeds are a good source of protein and energy (15.9 per cent DCP and 66 per cent TDN) for cattle. The seeds contain 0.083 per cent crysophanic acid. Most of the toxic factor is removed during fresh water treatment. The tannic acid content is very low, about 0.8 per cent (Punj and jakhmola, 1985).

6) Mango seed kernels (Mangifera indica L.) About one million mango seed kernels are available annually in India. The product is also available in other countries such as Pakistan and Bangladesh where mangoes are abundant. A mango stone decorticator has been developed at Pantnagar. The kernels can be incorporated up to 10 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of milch cattle to give a daily milk yield of 8 kg. The kernels are a very good source of energy (TDN, 70 per cent) but the protein content is moderate (DCP, 6.1 per cent). The kernels are rich in tannins (5-6 per cent) and hence are mainly used in rations for ruminants only, at a level not exceeding 10 per cent and with other feed ingredients which do not contain high levels of tannins.

7) Babul seeds (Acacia nilotica) Babul pods are abundantly available and the seeds contain gum. Large quantities of extracted (degummed) babul seeds are available for feeding to livestock. Approximately 60,000 tonnes of the seeds are produced annually in India. The babul seeds (extracted) can be used up to 15 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of lactating cows to give a daily milk yield of about 8 kg. These can also be included at the 30 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves to give a daily gain of about 645 g. The seeds are A moderate source of energy (TDN 59 per cent) and a fairly good source of protein (DCP 13.8 per cent). The extracted seeds also contain about 5 per cent tannins.

8) Vilayati babul pods (Prosopis juliora)

The pods of vilayati babul are available to the tune of about one million tonnes annually in India. They are also available in the neighbouring countries. Assuming

56 Utilization of NCFR by Ruminants a 20 per cent rate of collection, the pods available for animal feeding are of 2 x 105 tonnes. The ground pods can be incorporated at 20 per cent level in the concentrate mixture of lactating cows to give a daily milk yield of 7 kg. The pods are a very good source of energy (TDN 75 per cent) and a moderate source of protein (DCP 7 per cent). The pulp of the pods contain about 20 to 30 per cent water soluble sugars, most of which is sucrose. The pods are thus greatly relished by the livestock. The pods contain about 0.74 to 1.5 per cent tannins which is very low and does not produce any harmful effects on the animal. The material is not known to contain any other toxic substance (Shukla et at., 1984).

9) Warai bran (Panicum milliceum)

Approximately 20,000 tonnes of warai bran is annually available for animal feeding. It is recommended that the bran can be incorporated up to 30 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves to give a daily gain of 418 g and a milk yield of 12.9 kg in lactating cows. The DCP and TDN contents of warai bran are 4.5 and 57.4 per cent respectively. The bran can replace wheat bran/rice bran by suitably adjusting the protein contents of the ration. It has not been reported to contain any toxic substances and is palatable.

10) Tamarind seed (decorticated) powder (Tamarindus indicus)

About 87 x 103 tonnes of tamarind seeds are available annually in India. The seeds contain 30 - 45 per cent red hulls and 55 to 70 per cent white kernels. The kernels are good sources of energy and protein (TDN 63.92 per cent and DCP 12.6 per cent). The kernel powder can be incorporated in calf starters up to 25 per cent level to give a daily gain of 728 g.

11) Niger seed cake (Guizotia abysainica)

Approximately I x 105 tonnes of the cake is annually available in India. It is a very good source of protein (DCP 32.7 per cent) and a moderate source of energy (TDN 49.4 per cent). The cake is not known to contain any toxic factor and is quite palatable. It can be incorporated up to 57 per cent in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves to give a daily gain of 632 g.

12) Ambadi cake (Hibiscus cannabinus)

The cake is available in very large quantities, particularly in Western Maharashtra and Marathwada regions. It is a good source of energy and protein (TDN 63.8 per cent and DCP 18.7 per cent). It does not contain any toxic factors and is palatable to the cattle. It can be incorporated at the 20 per cent level in the concentrate mixture of crossbred calves to give a daily gain of 418 g and a daily milk yield of 12.9 kg in lactating cows. The cake does not contain any toxic factor and is quite palatable.

13) Kokam cake (Garcinia indiea)

According to rough estimates, the cake is available to the tune of 15,000 tonnes annually in the country. The DCP and TDN contents are 9.3 and 80 per cent respectively for cattle. It has not been reported to contain any toxic factors and is palatable to cattle. About 15 per cent is recommended for use in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves to give a daily gain of 500 g (Joshi et al., 1985).

57 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

14) Damaged apple waste

Damaged apples (broken or injured during plucking and unfit for packing) are available during the apple season. After slicing, drying and grinding, these can be incorporated as energy sources up to the 30 per cent level in concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves replacing 100 per cent maize to give a daily gain in weight of up to 427 g. The waste can also be incorporated as an energy source at the 12.5 per cent level in broiler mash, replacing 25 per cent maize. The material is a good source of energy (TDN 65-70) but the protein content is very low (DCP about 2 per cent). The material is quite palatable.

15) Karanj cake (Pongamia glabra)

Approximately 1.3 x 105 tonnes of karanj seeds are annually available in India. The karanj trees are also available in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal. The seeds contain an average 28.3 per cent oil and the cake is unpalatable and toxic when fed even at 4 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures to calves. The solvent extracted cake is a good source of protein and energy (DCP 25.46 per cent and TDN 61.98 per cent). The cake contains several toxic principals and the most important is karanjine. Most of the toxin is fat soluble and is removed during solvent extraction. 100 ml of karanj oil contains about 147 mg of karanjine. The solvent-extracted karanj cake can replace 60 per cent of mustard cake nitrogen (24 parts by weight in concentrate mixture) for crossbred cows and produce a daily gain in weight of up to 412 g. This cake can also replace 60 per cent of mustard cake nitrogen without any adverse effect on milk production to give a daily milk yield of 10 kg-per animal. The solvent-extracted cake can therefore be fed to cattle with impunity.

16) Tea waste (Camellia sinensis)

It is available to the tune of about 15,000 tonnes per year in India. It contains a DCP and TDN value of 9.7 and 43.3 per cent respectively. It contains about 1.9 per cent tannic acid. The material can be used up to the 20 per cent level in the concentrate mixture of crossbred calves to give a gain in weight of 350 g per day. The decaffeinated tea waste (Camellia assamica) is also available abundantly, during tea processing in Assam and West Bengal. The material is not very palatable and should therefore be mixed with more palatable feed ingredients for its efficient use. It is a moderate source of protein and energy (7.5 per cent DCP and 58 per cent TDN). This material can be fed to pigs at the 15 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures to give a daily gain of 415 g. It can also be included up to 10 per cent level in broiler rations.

17) Spent brewer's grains

Considerable quantities of the material are available at distilleries approximating to 50,000 tonnes annually. It contains a very high level of moisture (75 to 85 per cent). After air drying, the material can be incorporated at the 50 per cent level in the concentrate mixture of buffalo calves to give a daily gain of 632 g and a milk yield of 7.6 kg in buffaloes. The material is a moderate source of energy and protein (AICRP, 1982).

58 Utilization of NCFR by Ruminants

18) Coconut pith (Coir waste)

The availability of the coconut pith is approximately 1.5 x 105 tonnes. It contains 62.7 per cent TDN but has no DCP. It can be incorporated at the 25 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures for crossbred calves to give a daily gain in weight of 335 g.

19) Complete rations based on non-conventional feed resources Low-cost, non-cereal, balanced complete rations incorporating locally available 46 per cent mixed forest grasses, 46 per cent sorghum straw, 10 per cent poultry droppings, 0.5 per cent urea, 20 per cent tapioca chips and 12 per cent molasses can be successfully processed in mash/pelleted form for sheep to give a daily gain of about 91 g. The dressing percentage ranged from 48 per cent in sheep fed mash and pelleted rations. The processing costs were Rs. 8 for mash and Rs. 16 for pellets per quintal* of feed during 1985-86.

20) Poultry droppings

Dried poultry droppings from caged birds either untreated (15 per cent level) or Pleurotus treated (20 per cent level) can be used in broiler rations replacing 7.5 and 10.0 per cent of groundnut cake respectively on nitrogen basis. The use of animal organic waste as animal feed has recently been reviewed (Jakhmola et al., 1988).

21) Mahua seed cake (Madhuca indica)

Mahua seed cake is available in considerable quantities in the country. Roughly about 3 x 103 tonnes of the cake becomes available during oil extraction. The cake in the unprocessed form could be fed to growing crossbred calves to give a daily gain in weight of 585 g when included at the 20 per cent level in the concentrate mixtures without any adverse effect. The cake contains about 18-19 per cent mowrin which is a toxin but results indicate that this material is broken down by rumen microbes and does not produce any adverse effects. The tannin content is about 1.5 per cent. The DCP and TDN contents are 9.3 and 49.8 per cent respectively. Limitations in the use of mahua seed cake have recently been reviewed by Jakhmola et al. (1987).

22) Sunflower straw or sunflower heads

Either sunflower straw or sunflower heads can be used in the complete rations for sheep at the 50 per cent level. The rations are economical and have the following composition: sunflower hay or sunflower heads 50 per cent, groundnut cake 20 per cent, rice polishings 8 per cent, wheat bran 10 per cent, molasses 10 per cent, urea 0.5 per cent, mineral mixture 1 per cent, common salt 0.5 per cent. Since there is no green fodder in the complete rations, rovimix at the rate of 10 g/quintal of feed is added as a vitamin supplement. The cost of the complete feed during 1985-86 was Rs. 133.70/quintal with sunflower straw, Rs. 134.33/ quintal with sunflower heads compared to Rs. 148.11 for control rations containing mixed

*I quintal = 100 kg

59 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues grass hay (AICRP, 1985). The cost per kg body weight gain was not significant for the various rations.

23) Kosum cake (Schleichera oleosa)

Approximately 30,000 tonnes of kosum cake is annually available in India. It is a rich source of energy (TDN 79.62 per cent) and a good source of protein (DCP 14.73 per cent). The expeller-processed cake contains cyanogenic glucocides at a level of 6.12 mg HCN per 100 g. The solvent-extracted cake contains only 2.14 mg HCN per 100 g of the cake. Both the expeller-processed and solvent-extracted cakes are palatable to poultry and ruminants. The expeller-processed cake can be included in the concentrate mixtures of crossbred calves at the 35 per cent level to give a daily live weight gain of 41 g. The cake can also be included in the broilers' diet and at the level of 17 per cent level. The toxin in the cake does not produce any adverse effects due to its very low level (Gupta, 1987a).

24) Cocoa pods (Theobroma cacao) Approximately 30,000 tonnes of the material is available annually in the country. It contains 6.6 per cent DCP and 63.5 per cent TDN. The dried and ground pods can be included in the concentrate mixtures of growing calves at the 20 per cent level to give a daily gain of 522 g without any deleterious effects (AICRP, 1986).

25) Castor bean meal (Ricinus communis) About 60,000 tonnes of castor bean meal is annually available in India. Detoxified cake (steam treated at 5 kg/cm2 for 15-30 minutes) could be included in the concentrate mixtures of sheep at the 10 per cent level. It is a good source of energy and protein. The toxin ricin (0.22 per cent) is mostly inactivated during steam treatment (AICRP, 1984). 26) Other non-conventional feeds A number of other non-conventional feed resources are also available in the region which have considerable potential as animal feeds. These have also been recently reviewed (Gupta, 1987) and include water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) leaves, ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), cassava (Manihot esculenta) leaves, banana (Musa spp) leaves, apple pomace, tomato pomace, citrus waste, banana waste (Musa spp), pineapple waste (Ananas cosmosus), tamarind seed hulls (Tamarindus indicus), guar meal (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba), mahua flowers (Madhuca indica), maize cobs (Zea mays), ipil-ipil seeds and cake, groundnut hulls, African payal meal (Salvinia molesta), cashew bran (Anacardium occidentale), coffee husk (Coffea arabica), frog meal, neem seed cake (Azadirachta indica), rain tree fruit meal (Enterolobium saman), silk cotton seed cake (Bombax malabaricum),cotton straw, etc. Many of these materials have also been reviewed by Devendra (1985).

References

AICRP (1982). Spent breweries grains as livestock feed. Ann. Progress Rept of the All Indian Coordinated Res. Project (Agric. By-Products), Pantnagar Agricultural University, Ludhiana Centre, India, pp. 63-66.

60 Utilization of NCFR by Ruminants

AICRP (1984). Castor bean meal as animal feed. Ann. Progress Refit. of All Indian Coordinated Res. Project (Agric. By-Products), Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad Centre, India, pp. 7-12. AICRP (1985). Sunflower straw and sunflower heads as animal feed. Ann. Progress Refit. of the All Indian Coordinated Res. Project (Agric. By-Products), Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad Centre, India, pp. 13-19. AICRP (1986). Cocoa pods as feed for livestock. Ann. Progress Refit. of All Indian Coordinated Res. Project (Agric. By-Products), KAU, Trichur Centre, pp. 13-17. Ananthasubramaniam, C.R. (1980). Agro-industrial by-products as livestock feeds - Rubber seed cake. Tech. Bull. No. 5, Kerala Agricultural University, Trichur, India, pp. 1-16. Devendra, C. (1985). Non-conventional feed resources in Asia and the Far East, FAOIAPHCA Publication, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 8-65. F.A.O. (1985). Production Year Book, F.A.O., Rome, Italy, Vol. 39: 224-225. Gupta, B.S. (1987). Different agro-industrial by-products as feed. In Advanced Animal Nutrition for Developing Countries, (Ed. Singh, U.B.), Indo-Vision Pte Ltd, Ghaziabad, India, pp. 93-105. Gupta, R. (1987a). Utilization of Kosum cake (Scleichera oleosa) as animal feed. Ph.D. Thesis, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, India, pp. 39-46. Jakhmola, R.C., Kundu, S.S., Punj, M.L., Singh, K., Kamra, D.N. and Singh, R. (1988). Animal excreta as ruminant feed - scope and limitations under Indian conditions. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 19 : 1-23. Jakhmola, R.C., Sharma, V. and Punj, M.L. (1987). Limitations in the use of mahua seed cake in animal feeding - a review. Int.,J. Anim. Sci., 2: 113-126. Joshi, A.L., Thole, N.S., Waghmara, B.S. and Rangnekar, D.V. (1985). Nutri-

tive evaluation of kokam extract. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 55 : 381-385. Punj, M.L. and Jakhmola, R.C. (1985). Terminal Report of AICRP Agri. By-Products, 1967-85, NDRI (ICAR), Karnal, India, 137 pp. Shukla, P.C., Talapada, P.M. and Pande, M.B. (1984). Agro-industrial by-products as livestock feed Prosopis jul flora pods - A new cattle feed source, Tech. Bull., Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand, India, pp. 5-10.

61 Availability and Utilization of Non-conventional Feed Resources and Their Utilization by Non-ruminants in South Asia

B. S. Gupta Department of Animal Nutrition Birsa Agricultural University Ranchi Veterinary College Ranchi-834007 India

Abstract

South Asian countries (SAC) are short of livestock and poultry feeds which limit their productive potential. A variety of agro-industrial by-products available in varying quantities constitute an important feed source. This paper assesses the availability of major by-products and wastes from agriculture and allied industries, excluding materials high in fibre. It describes the nutritional values and discusses their incorporation at maximum levels with and without special treatment and additives for better response in feeding systems for pigs and poultry. Approximate extraction rates and chemical characteristics of certain by-products are discussed. Brewers spent grains, molasses and cassava by-products are major sources of energy supply. Oil cakes are adequate protein sources when supplemented with limiting amino acids, but oil cakes from forest resources require processing. Cotton seed meal requires additional iron salts, castor meal broiling treatment, and karanj cake deoiling process. By-products like mango seed kernels, tamarind seeds and sat seed meal are rich in tannins and need processing for use at higher dietary levels. By-products from pulses and chunnies can supply protein. Amongfruit by-products, reject bananas, citrus pulp, pineapple bran and tomato waste are also useful but reject bananas can meet the entire requirement of fattening pigs. The high fibre and caffein content of coffee waste limits its use up to 20 per cent in swine feeding. By-products from animal origin like meat, blood, bone, feather meals along with hatchery waste and poultry excreta have great potential as feed for animals and can be used at 2.5 to 10 per cent levels. In the foreseeable future, the main role of agro-industrial by-products would be to augment the feed supply for animals. However, more research is needed to reduce deleterious elements in some by-products for their use at higher dietary levels and also to promote economic production.

1. Introduction

South Asian countries (SAC) are short of livestock and poultry feeds. For efficient livestock and poultry production, high density rations are essential. It is not feasible

62 Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants to use conventional feeds in developing countries since these are required for human use. It is desirable therefore to augment new feed resources, particularly those not being used for human consumption to meet the rise in the demand of animal protein (FAO, 1976) in the developing countries due to higher growth of both economy and human population. This can be met by increasing the productive potential of the animals and poultry by overcoming inadequate nutrition. In India, the feed shortage is estimated at 44 per cent concentrate, 40 per cent dry fodder and 38 per cent green fodder for livestock and poultry production (NAG, 1976). Similarly, in Pakistan, there is a deficit of 49 per cent of energy and 42 per cent DCP to feed livestock and poultry. These data justify increased utilization of both conventional and non-conventional feed resources. This paper discusses the utilizing of these feeds to maximum capacity by pigs and poultry.

II. Agro-Industrial By-Products' Availability and Chemical Composition

The livestock and poultry populations are shown in Table 1. Tables 2, 3 and 4 present estimates of a variety of agro-industrial by-products available. Reference to chemical composition of the feeds can be made to Ranjhan (1980), Gohl (1981), Punj (1986) and Gupta et al. (1986). The full utilization of the by-products would have a grain saving effect and would increase the low feed supply for pigs and poultry (PP) based on the application of available information.

1) Cereals

The principal grains grown are rice, wheat and maize. Barley, sorghum and other millet crops are grown on a relatively smaller scale (Table 2). Maize gluten feed (MGF) is the by-product of the wet milling of maize and the maximum recommended level is 10 per cent for growing chicks, 16 per cent for layers, 10 per cent for growing pigs and 16 per cent for fattening pigs (Gohl, 1981). The product is a good source of methionine though low in lysine and tryptophan and can be used to correct the deficiency of soyabean protein (Thakur and Pruthe, 1985). Guar is a legume and its meal (GM) is the by-product after extraction of

Table 1

Population Of Animals In South Asia (103 t FAO, 1986)

Country Pigs Poultry' Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat

Bangladesh - 70 36500 1800 1110 10500 Bhutan 76 - 320 29 44 46 India 8826 162 182410 64485 41300 81566 Nepal 400 25 7050 4500 2550 2650 Pakistan - 95 16548 13084 25048 29710 Sri Lanka 90 7 1750 990 29 540

106 heads

63 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 2 Major By-product Feeds From Cereals (103 t)

Feed Source /ndial Pakistan' Bangladesh2 Sri Lanka2 Nepal2

Rice - Total 61500 7630 111 1875 225 - By-products 12300 2030 33 376 675 Wheat - Total 46000 3280 1722 - 2200 - By-products 138000 656 23440 - 440 Maize - Total 6760 680 2 21 800 - By-products 2030 200 0.6 6.3 240 Barley 2330 140 15 - 22 Jowar 115300 - - Bajra 5320 - - - - Others 4310 - - - -

Approx. Extraction Rate : Wheat = Screenings, germ and bran = 30% of grain Rice = Broken, bran, polishings = 20% of grain Maize = Dry milled, germ, bran = 30% of grain

Source : 1. Fertilizer Statistics (1984-85); 2. FAO (1974).

Table 3

Minor By-products From Oil Seeds And Pulses from Various Sources in India (103 t)

Feed source Total Extraction Total By-product available rate (%) by-product

Groundnut 7239 45 3258 Groundnut oil meal Cotton seed 9120 88 8026 Cotton seed cake Rape and mustard 2566 67 1719 Mustard cake Linseed 474 67 318 Linseed cake Sesame 618 60 371 Sesame oil meal Niger 175 72 126 Niger seed cake Coconut 809 62 502 Copra cake Sunflower 272 72 196 Sunflower oil meal Safflower 469 65 305 Saflower oil meal Castor seeds 407 63 256 Castor oil meal Soyabean 800 73 584 Soyabean oil meal Pulses 12654 10-20 2531 Dal chunnies, etc.

Source : Fertilizer Statisics (1984-85).

64 Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants

Table 4 Forests, Agriculture And Industrial By-products In India (103 t)t

Total Total Extraction Feed source available by-product rate By-product ingredient available ( % J

Tapioca 6490 3701.0 57.0 Starch waste Guar seed 607.0 455.0 57.0 Toasted Sweet potato 1560 - - - Sal seed meal 5504 4806 87.5 Meal Mahua seed' 2176 1414 65.0 Cake Neem seed' 418 334 80.0 Cake Rubber seed' 336 117 35.0 Cake Karanj' 111 81 73.0 Cake Kosum2 105 70.4 67.0 Cake Khankan, Undi, Nahar' 101.7 58.60 40-75 Cake Tobacco seed Mango seeds3 1000.0 500 50-55 Meal/Kernel Tamarind seeds3 700 245 Hulls-35 Red hulls White kernel 455 Kernel-65 Babul, Prosopis3 250 - - Chunni as pods juliflora pods Cassia tora3 20 - - As seed Cashew nut 200 50 25 Cake Coffee 152 - 32 Spent meal Tea 560 16 - Waste Banana 4195 839 Reject Banana reject Citrus (ASIA) 16836 3359 9 Dried pulp (Total) (For processing) 5 Molasses Pineapple - - 60-80 Pineapple waste

' Fertilizer Statistics (1984-85); 2 Forest Economics (1984); 3 Ranjhan (1980)

gum from the guar seed. It is available in large quantities in India and Pakistan. It is richer in lysine (2.55 per cent), cystine (1.16 per cent) and glycine (4.61 per cent) than groundnut cake. It has two deleterious factors: residual gum which is an indigestible polysaccharide that leads to sticky faeces and the presence of trypsin inhibitor, but roasting of the meal can overcome these problems. Kwatra et at. (1968) replaced 15 per cent (W/W) groundnut meal by guar meal in chick diets and found that coarse guar resulted in greater body weight gains than fine guar. Toasted guar meal has no palatability problems. Khirwar et at. (1986) replaced groundnut cake with the toasted form in both growing and finishing Yorkshire pigs. Prasad et at. (1980) profitably incorporated toasted guar meal at 15 per cent level in layers' diets and produced eggs of superior quality. Similarly, Verma (1982) incorporated up to 20 per cent guar meal to replace groundnut meal in laying Japanese quails without affecting the egg number or egg size.

65 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Brewery by-products are important feeds in many South Asian countries. It is better to dry the brewers spent grain (BSG) to 10 per cent moisture. Ademosum (1973) showed that up to 15 per cent of BSG can replace maize in chick grower rations and up to 30 per cent from 8-18 weeks of age. Beyond this level, the performance of the birds were affected due to the high fibre content. Gohl (1981) recommended up to 20 per cent BSG inclusion in poultry rations with excellent results due to an unidentified factor in BSG which accounted for improved growth and feed conversion in chickens and for increased fertility and hatchability of the eggs. Waldroup et al. (1983) recommended that 25 per cent BSG could be profitably included in the diet of broilers. It can also be economically used in starter chick rations with a 15 per cent level by replacing groundnut cake, wheat bran and rice bran by suitably adjusting the C:P ratio (Katoch and Sood, 1983). Up to 40 per cent BSG can be used for growing White Yorkshire pigs without affecting their overall performance (Bhutia et al. 1982). Dal chun- mes (pulse by-products) can be included in non-ruminant diets up to 10 per cent levels. Sharda et al. (1976) successfully incorporated 10 per cent damaged pulses in growing and finishing pigs without affecting their growing rate or carcass characteristics. In general, they are deficient in methionine and tryptophan (Maner, 1973).

2) Oil Seeds

Numerous seeds like groundnut, cotton, sesame, linseed, coconut, rape and mustard, castor, safflower, and sunflower are cultivated for their oil content. Table 5 presents the chemical composition of oilseeds which, in general, contained about 20 to 50 per cent of protein. The most common conventional oil cakes/meals are those obtained from groundnut, soyabean, sesame and coconut and are traditionally fed as protein sources for non-ruminants. Groundnut cake is deficient in lysine and methionine whereas soyabean cake is deficient in methionine and cystine but sesame cake is a good source of methionine, and hence groundnut and soyabean combine favourably in the ration to improve the protein quality. These cakes are also very palatable. However, there is a problem in the presence of the fungus (Aspergillus flavus) infection in groundnut cake which causes afla- toxicosis, so that it is essential that the meal be free of this. Mustard, rape and linseed cakes are generally not used in the ration of swine and poultry because mustard cake contains a toxic lucoside sinalbin which cannot be tolerated by non- ruminants. However, work in India has shown that this can be detoxified by heat- ing to 85 °C. The fat-free meal is soaked with 5 parts water for one hour and then filtering and again washing with water removes all sinalbin. The sinalbin-free mustard is being successfully used in poultry and pig rations. Linseed cake contains 4-11 per cent mucilage which can only be utilized by ruminants but not by non-ruminants especially poultry as this mucilage clogs the beak (Ranjhan, 1980). Cotton seed meal (CSM) is deficient in lysine and contains the toxic principal gossypol which has an inhibitory effect on digestive enzymes in both swine and poultry. Layers fed on CSM produced eggs with mottled yolks. CSM is generally used safely in swine and poultry rations at 10 per cent levels and levels up to 27 per cent gave satisfactory performance when iron salts were added at an iron/total gossypol ratio of 1: 1 (Jarquin et al., 1968) to

66 Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants

Table 5 Effect of Replacing Maize with Deoiled Salseed Meal on the Performance of Growing Pigs (Pathak and Ranihan, 1973) TREATMENTS' Parame t er 40% M, 0% DSSM 20% M + 40% DSSM, (Control) 20% DSSM 0% M

Daily live weight gain (kg) 0.46 0.45 0.46 Feed intake/day (kg) 2.9 3.1 3.2 Feed efficiency 6.3:1 7.0:1 7.0:1

' M - Maize, DSSM - Deoiled sal seed meal swine. On the other hand, poultry are more tolerant to gossypol than swine, and an addition of 0.25 per cent ferrous sulphate routinely in rations for layers containing 10 per cent CSM prevented mottling of egg yolks. With a molar iron/gossypol ratio of 8: 1, adequate weight gains were registered in growing chicks on a diet containing 25 per cent CSM (Arms and Chicco, 1972). Coconut meal (CM) has a tendency to become rancid if it is old, because of the high fat content and causes diarrhoea. Due to the high fibre content, its inclusion in pig diets is restricted, and depending on the other ingredients used, it may constitute up to 25 per cent of the total diet. CM is low in lysine, isoleucine, leucine and methionine but high in fibre content and all these factors limit its use in poultry rations. Up to 40 per cent CM has been used in poultry diets when a high energy source and the deficient amino acids are included (Gohl, 1981). Recently, decorticated sunflower and safflower cakes have been used in pig and poultry rations. The protein contents are higher in sulphur, containing amino acids but deficient in lysine. They combine well with groundnut as well as soyabean protein (Roberts, 1974). They can replace two-thirds of the proteins in fish meal, meat meal or 100 per cent of soyabean meal in swine rations (Dorsi et al., 1965), or two-thirds fish meal in broiler rations and decorticated sunflower cake can be incorporated up to 40 per cent in the diet of broilers and layers (Singh, 1978). Castor seed meal (CSM) contains a principal toxic compound, ricin, but when detoxified, CSM can be used up to 40 per cent in chick rations (Vilhjalmsdottir and Fisher, 1971). Lysine and tryptophan are limiting amino acids but can be balanced through the use of other protein supplements. Niger meal can be incorporated successfully up to 30 per cent in the rations of chicks and layers (Gohl, 1981).

3) Unconventional Oil Cakes of Forest Origin

South Asian countries possess many oil-bearing perennial trees and India has 86 different varieties with a potential of 6.7 million tonnes of minor oil seeds (Ranjhan, 1980). Deoiled sal seed meal (DSSM) is poor in protein and is used only as an energy source. Due to the presence of tannins, it can only be used in poultry diets

67 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues up to 5 per cent (Panda et al., 1975). Pathak and Ranjhan (1973) demonstrated that replacing 50 and 100 per cent of maize by DSSM in the diets had no significant effect on the performances of growing pigs and it reduced the cost of pig production by 22 per cent (Table 5). Various treatments have been developed recently to reduce the tannin levels of DSSM which enable higher levels to be used in the rations (Gandhi et al., 1975; Maheshwari and Gupta, 1984). Mahua cake is also available in large quantities, but it contains 2 per cent bitter glycoside (Mowrine) which is very toxic to chicks. Rubber seed meal protein is poor in methionine and is unpalatable. Rajaguru and Ravindran (1979) in Sri Lanka and Narahari and Kothandaram (1982) in India successfully incorporated rubber seed meal in PP diets up to 20 per cent level although it contained 9 mg/100 g of HCN (Maggie et al., 1978). It should not be fed to breeding hens as it affects hatchability (Gohl, 1981). Neem seed cake has a bitter taste and can be incorporated up to 5 per cent level in poultry rations (Gohl, 1981). Kosum cake contains 6 mg/100 g of HCN but it can be safely and economically incorporated up to 16.8 per cent in broiler and pig diets without any adverse effects. It has been considered a self-balanced feed with respect to energy and protein (Gupta, 1987). Deoiled karanj cake (DKC) can replace 30 per cent N of the groundnut cake in grower and layer rations (Verma et al., 1983, 1985) but cannot be incorporated even at 5 per cent in the diet of growing pigs due to the presence of toxic principals, like karanjine, pongapin, pongalabrone, in the oil fraction of the cake (Gupta et al., 1982). Cashew (Anacardium Foccidentale L) meal can be included without restriction in feeds for pigs but may cause diarrhoea if fed in large quantities (Gohl, 1981). However, Raj and Kadirvel (1982) determined its ME value to be 3.29 Kcal/g and recommended its economical use up to the 20 per cent level in chick diets.

4) Agro-Industrial By-Products

Cassava (tapioca) waste (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is generally available in large quantities. Cassava peelings and cassava pulp are valuable energy sources. Wet pulp from factories can be fed to pigs with protein concentrates (Devendra, 1980). Tapioca waste can replace 50 per cent of ragi flour in diets for layers which can then produce 12 per cent more eggs (Pillai et al., 1968) and can replace 50 per cent of maize in broiler rations (Armas and Chicco, 1972) or 50 per cent wheat in chick growing rations (Latif et al., 1983). Similarly, 25 per cent sweet potato meal plus 10 per cent molasses can replace maize profitably in growing chick rations (Latif and Islam, 1975). It can safely and economically replace 50 per cent maize in growing pig rations without affecting performance (Chicco et al., 1972). The material is regularly used by compounded feed industries in India up to 10 per cent in non-ruminant feeds. Sugar cane molasses is one of the most widely used by-products and 5-10 per cent are used in non-ruminant diets to reduce dustiness and improve palatability. Up to 30 per cent molasses has been used in poultry rations with good weight gains but watery faeces is a problem (Martin et al., 1968). It is recommended that molasses may be included to a maximum of 10 per cent in poultry diets and 15 per cent in swine rations (Gohl, 1981). Tamarind seeds (TS) are abundantly available, and the seeds contain hulls and kernels which have 13-15 per cent tannins (Devendra, 1985). Banerjee (1978)

68 Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants pointed out that soaking overnight in water reduces tannin contents considerably. TS have limited use in non-ruminant diets. Reddy et al. (1986) concluded that maize can be completely replaced with 30 per cent TS and 10 per cent molasses economically in the ration of desi pigs. Cassia tora (CT) are abundantly available in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The seeds contain 1.1 per cent chrysophanic acid which has adverse effect on the birds but this can be reduced to half with boiling (Desai and Shukla, 1978) and successfully incorporated at 15 per cent in broiler diets. CT leaf meal can be included at 5 per cent levels in the diet of growing laying birds (Gupta et al., 1970). Babul chunni (Acacia arabica) and mosquites (Prosopis julii lora) have not been used because of the presence of trypsin inhibitor and haemagglutinins in the seeds (Pak et al., 1977). Spent coffee meal can be included up to 16 per cent in diets for swine with good results but cannot be included in poultry diets (Gohl, 1981). However, studies in India indicate that a 5 per cent level can be included in chick grower mashes (Nagra et al., 1980) and up to 2.5 per cent in layer rations (Reddy et al., 1980). Similarly, Sikka and Chawla (1985) recommended the use of this product at a 10 per cent level in diets for fattening pigs. Tea waste could be included in the ration of starter chicks at the 5 per cent level (Kadirvel, 1979; Konwar et al., 1983), up to 15 per cent in broiler diets (Konwar et al., 1983), and less than 10 per cent in layer diets (Kadirvel, 1980). Mango seed kernels (MSK) are abundantly available in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh but contain 5-7 per cent tannins which pose problems. It can be incorporated in the diets of poultry to a 10 per cent level (Gohl, 1981). Patil et al. (1982) observed that MSK contain tannins, cyanogenic glucosides and traces of alkaloids and gums, and recommended that 25 per cent of maize can be safely replaced by MSK in starter chick diets. Bananas (Musa spp.) are mainly fed to pigs ad lib. along with 1.2 kg of concentrate mixture. Unripe, dried banana meal can substitute 70-80 per cent grain in pigs but only 10 per cent in poultry diets (Gohl, 1981). However, Sethi (1983) fermented banana waste with Aspergillus niger MI and reported the total protein efficiency of this product to be 1.78. It can replace 50 per cent fish meal in broiler rations. Citrus waste that contains seeds are toxic to non-ruminants even at 2.5 per cent in their diets. It is due to the presence of limonin. Citrus molasses can replace 10-14 per cent of maize in pig rations (Gohl, 1981). Pineapple bran has been found to adversely affect growth and feed conversion in chicks even at lower levels (Ross, 1966), but it can be included in adult swine maintenance rations up to 50 per cent (Gohl, 1981). Apple waste (damaged apple meal) can economically replace 25 per cent of maize in broiler rations.

5) Animal and Poultry Industry By-Products

Animal by-products are good sources of quality protein and can improve the nutritional value of cereal and oil cake-based diets. Fish meal (FM) is the most valuable by-product for balancing the protein. It is usually included around 10 per cent in starter and 8 per cent for finishing chicks and 5 to 7 per cent for layers. For pigs, a common level is about 7 per cent (Gohl, 1981). Frog meal can replace FM twice by weight in the poultry rations both for gro,44h and egg production (Ranjhan, 1980). Meat meal/tankage (MM) can be included at 5 per cent in the diet of growing and finishing pigs and up to 10 per cent in-brood sows and poultry

69 Table 6 Availability Of Poultry Waste In South Asian Countries (103 t)

Poultry waste Quantity N u t r i e n t s Quantity spared A vail a bl e CP Fat Carbohydrate Cereal Cakes

(A) INDIA' Dry poultry manure 1384 461.00 33.10 739.3 1495.40 927.7 Feather meal 23.5 19.40 1.70 - 11.80 47.0 Hatchery waste 2.5 0.64 0.29 - 1.25 1.25 (e) OTHER COUNTRIES2 (Dry Poultry Manure) TDN Bangladesh 348.8 84.6 211.4 - - - Nepal 138.6 33.6 80.0 - - - Pakistan 278.2 67.4 168.6 - - - Sri Lanka 32.4 7.9 19.6 - - -

' Gupta et al. (1985); 2 Devendra (1980) Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants

(Gohl, 1981). Rao et al. (1982) indicated that MM can totally replace FM in starter chick diets. Blood meal (BM) is a major by-product from abattoirs and can form a valuable ingredient of non-ruminant rations. Low levels of about 5 per cent are common because of low palatability and high isoleucine content (Gohl, 1981). Garewal (1969) replaced all the FM with BM in chick diets. Hew and Devendra (1977) suggested that 3 per cent level of BM is optimum for pig diets. Leather meal mixed with MM can be included up to 3 per cent in pig diets without adverse effects (Gohl, 1981). Hydrolysed feather meal (HFM) is rich in glycine, cystine, phenylalanine but deficient in methionine, lysine, histidine and tryptophan, and therefore requires to be balanced with other ingredients. Khajarern et al. (1978) included 8 per cent HFM, replacing soyabean meal without observing any difference on weight gains, feed efficiency or dressing per cent in broilers. Similarly, up to 10 per cent HFM can be used in pig diets (Khajarern and Khajarern, 1977). However, the general recommendation is that HIM can be safely included in PP diets up to 5 per cent along with 2.5 per cent FM or MM (Subhaih and Rao, 1984). Boiled and dried hatchery by-product meal (HBPM) can be included in poultry rations up to 5 per cent level to replace part of FM and maize (Panda and Sharma, 1974; Ichhponani and Lodhi, 1976). Dried poultry manure (DPM) is widely used in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Table 6 presents the types and qualities available. Caged layers' DPM can be used up to 20 per cent in chick and layer rations without affecting growth, egg production and quality and feed efficiency (Blair and Lee, 1974). Kese and Donkoh (1982) replaced 10 per cent maize with differently processed DPM (Table 7) and recorded better performances, with no effect on the flavour of meat in broilers. However, inclusion of DPM over 5 per cent in pig diets affected FER (Gohl, 1981). Rumen contents, cow dung, palm oil waste, water hyacinth, Leucaena leucocephala and cassava leaf meal have potential promise as feed ingredients, but more research work is needed in this direction before definite recommendations can be made.

Table 7

Effect \\Of Replacing 10% Maize With Differently Processed Poultry Excreta On The Performances Of Broilers

Diet Control Sun-dried Steam heated Roasted

Performance data Average weight gain (g) at 10 weeks 1326a 1367a 1504b 1507b Feed consumed (g/bird) 4010a 4800b 4780b 4830b Conversion rate (kg feed/kg gain) 3.020a 3.511b 3.178a 3.288a Dressing percentage 69.7a 69.6a 69.1a 68 9a

a, b : means within each line having different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05) Source : Kese and Donkoh (1982).

71 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

III. Constraints

Apart from beneficial effects, several by-products contain toxic substances deleterious to animal health and performances. Processing, like autoclaving and boiling, could detoxify the presence of HCN in cassava leaf, rubber and kosum seeds. Sulphur amino acids in the diet influence toxicity through the formation of thiocynates. Tannins are widely present in feeds like sal seed, sorghum, mango seed, tamarind seeds and tree leaves, gossypol in cotton seed, mowrine in mahua cake and flower, karanjine in karanj, nimbine in neem cake, ricin in castor bean and trypsin inhibitor in guar meal. These affect the utilization of the feeds unless detoxified using the methods available. The addition of molasses and other feed ingredients help increase palatability and balance deficiencies in many by-products. High moisture content and uneven distribution of some by-products pose problems of collection, transportation, storage and mycotoxin contamination. It is suggested that there should be more concerted extensive research to solve these problems.

References

Ademosum, A.A. (1973). Evaluation of brewer's dried grains in the diets of grow-

ing chickens. Bri. Paull. Sci., 14 : 463-468. Armas, A. and Chicco, C.F. (1970, 1972). Cited by Chicco, C.F. and Shultz,T.A. 1976. Utilization of Agro-industrial by-products in Latin America. FAO Anim.

Prod. and HIM. Paper, 4 : 125-146.

Asian Livestock (1986), 11 : 106, Bangkok, Thailand. Banerice, G.C. (1978). Animal Nutrition. Oxford and IBH Publ. Co., New Delhi, India. Bhutia, P.N., Katiyar, R.D. and Pal, R.M. (1982). Note on growth response

of White Yorkshire pigs on chang. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 52 : 470-473. Blair, R. and Lee, D.J.W. (1974). The effects on egg production and egg composition of adding supplements of amino acids and/or urea on dried

autoclaved poultry manure to a low protein layer diet. Br. Poult. Sci., 14 : 9-14. Chicco, C.F., Perdome, J.T., Garbati, S.T. and Shultz, T.A. (1972, 1974). Cited by Chicco,C.F. and Shultz, T.A. (1976). Utilization of agro-industrial by-

products in Latin America. FAO Anim. Prod. and Hlth. Paper, 4 : 125-146. Desai, H.B. and Shukla, P.C. (1978). Cited by Shukla, P.C. (1982). New feed resources and their nutritive value. Anim. Nutr. Res. Workers Conf., Tirupati, India, Review Papers, pp. 206-226. Devendra, C. (1985). Non-conventional feed resources in Asia and the Pacific, FAO/APHCA Publ. No. 6, Bangkok, Thailand, vi + 140 pp. Dorsi, J., Carrazzoni, J., Monesiglio, J. and Sonvico, V. (1965). Cited by Chicco, C.F. and Shultz, T.A. (1976). Utilization of agro-industrial by-

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72 Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants

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73 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

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74 Utilization of NCFR by Non-ruminants

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75 Availability and Intensive Utilization of Sugar Cane By-Products

D V Rangnekar Bhartiya Agro Industries Foundation P B No. 2030 Asarwa Road Ahmedabad - 380 016 India

Abstract

Sugar production is emerging as one of the major agro-industries in India. The special characteristics of this crop renders it a choice for the farmer in irrigated areas. It is one of the best convertors of solar energy and is capable of achieving high yields if managed properly. The paper highlights the place of the sugar industry in the rural economy, the emergence of the co-operative sector and integration of sugar and milk production with reference to sugar cane tops, molasses and bagasse. The nutritive value of these by-products, their utilization and the factors limiting their utility are briefly reviewed. The by-products are low in starch, protein, some minerals and lipids. However, they are available at low cost and can be profitably utilized where there are feed shortages. Different ways of utilizing the by-products are described and future approaches recommended. Developing appropriate methods of ensiling along with supplementation and processing to improve the quality of sugar cane tops, particularly during the harvesting season is strongly recommended. Steam treatment of bagasse is effective in improving its palatability and digestibility. The treated material can be used as a low-cost roughage, or as a complete feed, with proper supplementation. It is extremely useful under scarcity conditions which occur almost every year. Bagasse pith is another product which demands attention and further work needs to be carried out on its utility. Attention is also needed on the use of forage supplements like leucaena, sesbania and cassava leaves for improving the utilization of sugar cane by-products.

I. Introduction

Sugar cane is one of the most popular crops wherever irrigation facilities are available and particularly where sugar production is well organized. India is said to be the first country to produce sugar, and sugar production was popular as early as 400 B.C. The Dutch and the British East India Co. started sugar production

76 Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products on an industrial scale but rapid growth only started from 1835 when the British abolished import duty. During the last two decades or so the industry has grown to be a major agro- industry and has created a definite impact on the rural economy. A number of well-organized factories have been established in India in 18 out of 26 states. The area under sugar cane has been increasing practically in every state during the last 10 years (Table 1). There are about 600 organized factories in the country. A considerable quantity (40-70 per cent) of sugar cane is also utilized for the manufacture ofja gery and raw sugar (khandsarz). In some states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh, 70 to 75 per cent of the sugar cane is used for the manufacture of jaggery or khandsari. An important development in the industry is the emergence of the co-operative sector, particularly in the western and southern states. This has had a significant impact on the economy of sugar cane farmers since they are able to benefit from selling a value-added product like sugar instead of sugar cane. However, another important aspect was systematic management of sugar cane cultivation and harvesting and ploughing in of the profits for overall agricultural development. In Maharashtra and Gujarat, co-operatives have been very successful and have promoted integrated development.

II. Availability of By-products and their Uses

The major by-products from sugar industry are sugar cane tops, molasses, bagasse and press mud. These products are available in a definite proportion. The sugar cane tops by and large form 25 to 30 per cent of the total yield of sugar cane. The sugar cane bagasse which is left out after the juice is extracted from the cane is around 10 to 15 per cent of the cane crushed. The ratio however varies according to the season. In the beginning of the season, i.e. in winter, the bagasse percentage is lower, while it is generally around 12 per cent of the total cane crushed. Thus it can be seen that through well-established sugar factories fairly large quantities of by-products in the form of sugar cane tops, molasses and bagasse can be produced. Only a limited quantity of sugar cane bagasse and molasses are available for animal feeding. Most of the bagasse is used as fuel for the factory boilers. Unfortunately, many of the factories have fairly inefficient boilers and only 10 per cent of the bagasse produced is surplus. By comparison, reports from other countries indicate that the use of improved boilers can give considerable savings in bagasse consumption and more than 30 per cent bagasse become available. A medium-size factory crushes 400,000 to 500,000 tonnes of sugar cane in a season, out of which nearly 8,000 tonnes is bagasse and about 20,000 tonnes is molasses. The cultivated areas around also make available more than 100,000 tonnes of sugar cane tops for animal feeding and other uses. Sugar cane tops are one of the first by-products available from sugar cane harvesting. The average quantity of tops available is equivalent to one-third of the cane harvested. Its major use in most of the areas is for feeding of dairy animals. During the late winter and the summer, sugar cane tops are probably the only

77 Table 1

Sugar Cane, Sugar and Molasses Production in India during the last 15 years

Year Area Production Yield No. of Average Average Total Total Recovery Molasses Molasses under of sugar of facto- duration capacity cane sugar of sugar produc- % cane sugar cane ('000 cane ries in (days) (mt per crushed produc- cane tion ('000 cane t) per operation day) (000 tion 0 (000 hectare 0 (1000 acre) (t) 0

1971-72 2390 113,579 47.5 220 107 1437 31015 3113 10.04 1228 3.96 1972-73 2452 124,866 50.9 228 133 1454 40407 3873 9.57 1694 4.19 1973-74 2752 140,805 51.2 229 135 1491 42278 3948 9.34 1831 4.28 1974-75 2894 144,289 49.9 246 140 1534 48435 4797 9.90 2012 4.15 1975-76 2762 140,604 50.9 252 116 1563 41880 4262 9.83 1703 4.07 1976-77 2866 153,007 53.4 270 125 1578 48819 4840 9.91 2059 4.22 1977-78 3151 176,966 56.2 287 165 1551 67329 6461 9.59 2971 4.41 1978-79 3088 151,655 49.1 298 140 1562 59717 5841 9.78 2537 4.25 1979-80 2610 128,833 49.4 300 86 1651 39050 3858 9.88 1582 4.05 1980-81 2367 154,243 57.8 315 104 1713 51584 5148 9.98 2125 4.12 1981-82 3193 186,358 55.4 320 173 1721 87342 8437 9.66 3833 4.39 1982-83 3358 189,505 56.4 320 158 1784 82,697 8229 9.95 3508 4.24 1983-84 3110 174,076 56.0 325 111 1785 59,024 5917 10.02 2488 4.22 1984-85* 2992 173,569 58.0 338 106 1819 59,741 6144 10.28 2507 4.20

* Provisional

Source : Co-operative Sugar May 86: Vol. 17, No. 9 (Page 727). Utilization-of Sugar Cane By-products green material available for feeding cattle in most of the sugar cane growing areas. The material is usually dried and used as thatch or fuel. In many areas, surplus sugar cane tops are stored after sun drying and used as dry fodder during the late summer and early monsoon. Proper methods of conservation and utilization of sugar cane tops are important in such areas. Molasses is a major valuable by-product. It is a peculiar commodity, in view of its nature and the controls on its use. Molasses is fermentable and corrosive and needs special care during storage and handling. Use of molasses and its price are controlled by the government and special permission is needed to purchase, store and use it. The overall position suggests a shortage of molasses in the country, but in western Maharashtra there is a surplus, and considerable quantities of molasses are washed. It is the cheapest source of energy for animals and can significantly reduce the cost of feeding. In India, the major use of molasses is not for animal feeding but for other industrial purposes like in distilleries for making alcohol and acetone, and is used in paint industries and in factories. Its use in the feed industry accounts for less than 8 per cent of the total molasses produced, equivalent to about 3 million tonnes. The feed industry finds a lot of difficulty in getting the allocation of the desired quantity of molasses, even though it has been making strong representation to the Government. Molasses can be very fruit- fully utilized for developing low-cost feed and this is of special significance this year due to continued drought. Bagasse is another by-product available in large quantities. Bagasse production is equivalent to about 12 per cent of the sugar cane crushed. The major use of surplus bagasse is as fuel for the factory boilers, where only 8 to 10 per cent is surplus. This small percentage presents nevertheless a substantial quantity. With the introduction of more efficient boilers, larger quantities of bagasse are becom- ing available. The other major use of bagasse is for paper making, fuel or for making compost. The price of bagasse varies from Rs. 0 to about Rs. 400/tonne, depending on the season and demand for paper factories. For making paper, only the coarse bagasse can be utilized and the pith or fine bagasse is thrown away. This latter by-product is valuable for utilization as cattle feed.

III. Nutritive Value of Sugar Cane By-Products

The sugar cane by-products which are useful as animal feeds have been fairly extensively studied in several countries and there is marginal variation between reports on chemical composition of the feeds. The chemical composition of whole sugar cane, tops and bagasse are indicated in Table 2. Sugar cane tops are poor quality roughage, lacking in protein and minerals and the feed has low energy value (Anon, 1978; Ffoulkes, 1985; Leng and Preston, 1985). Sugar cane tops, however, acquire some importance in view of their availability at low cost during the period when other green fodders are not available. They are generally highly palatable and voluntary consumption is good when they are chaffed and fed. The total digestible nutrient values generally reported vary between 50 to 55 per cent. The gross energy values are between 8.0 to 9.0 MJ. The digestible crude protein values are fairly low and between 2 to 2.5 per cent (Pepito et al., 1969; Chowdhury et al., 1972; Castillo and Gerpacio 1976; Devendra, 1983; Nassevan, 1986).

79 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 2 Chemical Composition of Whole Sugar Cane and Cane Tops (on D.M. basis)

Constituents Whole Cane M Cane Tops (%) Bagasse (%)

Nitrogen 0.4 0.9 0.4 Total Sugar 48.0 25.0 3.0 Crude Fibre 28.0 35.0 48.0 Cell Wall 79.0 65.0 82.0 Ash 6.0 8.0 3.2 Hemi Cellulose 26.0 20.0 30.0 Cellulose 36.0 38.0 40.0 Lignin 10.0 7.0 12.0 Silica 3.0 1.8 2.0 Calcium 0.3 0.1 - Phosphorus 0.3 0.4 - Sodium - Potassium 2.8 2.3 -

Sugar cane bagasse has almost no protein and mineral but has about 1 per cent sugar. It has fairly low digestibility. The in vitro digestibility of the dry matter of untreated bagasse is around 25 per cent while in vivo values vary between 25 to 30 per cent (Ghauri Kazi and Schnieder, 1964; Roxas et al., 1969; Roxas, 1983; Ibrahim and Pearce, 1983; Rangnekar et al., 1982). In this paper, the reference is to final molasses, which is obtained as a by- product during the crystallization of sugar. Variations in composition between different kinds of molasses, obtained during the manufacture of sugar is essentially in terms of the content of reducing sugar which depends on the category of molasses and ash content due to the methods used to process and refine sugar. Molasses is not only a rich source of energy but also of some minerals which include calcium, potassium and some trace minerals (Table 3). The readily available carbohydrates in molasses are entirely as highly soluble sugars, mainly as sucrose. In India, molasses is generally rich in sulphur due to the sulphitation process used in the refining of sugar crystals. This is found advantageous for animal feeding and particularly in the utilization of urea. Molasses has a TDN value of 50-60 per cent. Increasing dietary molasses levels lead to decreased value as a supplement (Preston, 1986). Molasses is not a good source of protein and contains very little nitrogen.

IV. Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products for Feeding of Livestock

Sugar cane and its by-products are of special importance for tropical countries, particularly those where there is a shortage of cereals. Before discussing utilization of the by-products and different feeding systems, it is appropriate to briefly mention the utilization of whole sugar cane for feeding of livestock due to peculiar

80 Table 3 Mineral Composition of Molasses from Four Different Sugar Factories in Mauritius (Sansoucy, 1973)

Sample Ash Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Magnesium Zinc Iron Manganese Copper (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

1 11.1 1.16 0.08 3.20 0.060 0.45 13 180 59 11 2 9.9 0.95 0.05 2.80 0.039 0.45 14 142 36 22 3 10.7 0.93 0.06 3.10 0.054 0.45 10 106 17 6 4 11.3 0.85 0.06 3.45 0.036 0.53 12 120 21 5

Average 10.9 0.94 0.06 3.175 0.046 0.7 12.25 137 33.2 11.0 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues characteristics of this crop. This type has been tried in the West Indies but is not suited for South Asia where there is a demand for sugar.

1) Sugar cane tops

Sugar cane tops are extensively used in India and in other countries as green forage. Working bullocks in most of the cane growing areas in India and Pakistan are mainly maintained on sugar cane tops during the harvesting season. Cane tops can support growth and production with supplementation (Roxas, 1983; Nassevan, 1986). Use of urea and rice polishing with cane tops-based rations supported a growth rate of 400 g/day in steers. Similarly, supplementation with rice bran, coconut meal, cotton seed meal or fish meal and leucaena also gave improved live weight gain. (Pepito et al., 1969, Pate et al., 1971, Tuagon, 1974, Farrlero and Presto, 1976). In Mauritius, it has been reported that sugar cane tops-based diets supported 2-4 litres of milk without supplementation. This was due to the selective eating of bundle leaf sheath which has higher degradability compared to other parts of the tops (Sansoucy, 1972; Nassevan, 1986). In India, sugar cane tops are extensively fed to ruminants during the harvesting season and particularly during late winter and summer in view of its availability in large quantities. During the summer months, it is probably the only green material available to the animals. The bullocks and other livestock belong- ing to small farmers and landless peasants are maintained practically on sugar cane tops. This material needs to be supplemented in order to sustain production. In some parts of the country sugar cane tops are considered inferior and are used as fuel. Those who feed the top store the surplus after drying which further reduces its quality. In most cases, the sugar cane tops are not chaffed and are offered in the long form to animals, with resulting wastage and energy expendi- ture by animals during eating. Sugar cane tops can easily be ensiled after supplementation with molasses- urea or after mixing with other crops (Rangnekar et al., 1985; Nassevan, 1986; Leng and Preston, 1986). In western Maharashtra and south Gujarat, ensiling of cane tops has been well demonstrated to farmers who now adopt it. Treat- ment of sugar cane tops with alkalis like NaOH, NH3 or urea has also been used to improve the digestibility but the results reported are variable (Roxas, 1983; Nassevan, 1986; Leng and Preston, 1986). This aspect needs to be investigated more critically to assist conservation and improving utilization of the cane tops. The following approaches can be tried for improving the utilization of the tops: (i) Chaffing of sugar cane tops: This would reduce the wastage and save animal's energy spent on eating. (ii) Another useful approach is supplemented with agriculture by-products and leguminous fodders particularly those which would provide much needed protein and energy for sustaining higher levels of production. Use of protein and energy sources like rice bran, rice polish and cotton seed cake can give good results. It is necessary however to ensure economic levels of supplementation for achieving optimum results. (iii) The third approach which needs to be propagated is ensiling of sugar cane tops during the harvesting season. This would help in preserving the quality

82 Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products

of material and improve the utilization of sugar cane tops. While ensiling supplementation with other better quality crops or with molasses, urea has been found to be very useful. (iv) Treatment of sugar cane tops has been recommended to improve its utilization. It has been shown that alkaline treatment using ammonia/urea is effective in improving digestibility. However, more work is needed on its practical feasibility.

2) Sugar cane bagasse

Sugar cane bagasse is a material of low nutritive value but available on a large scale. It is not palatable, the digestibility is low and has not been used very much as cattle feed. However, in a country like India which constantly faces shortage of roughages and more acutely during scarcity periods, the value of exploring increased use of bagasse is of considerable importance. The approaches that have been generally tried for using sugar cane bagasse are as follows: (i) Supplementation with energy and protein-rich material for providing nutrient balance and improving the palatability. (ii) Treatments for improving palatability and digestibility to utilize bagasse as a substitute for conventional roughages and for making complete feeds. Sugar cane bagasse has been tried as low-cost roughage in several sugar producing countries for ruminants in a variety of ways. A few of these reports would be worth referring like Bin et al. (1961) from Australia, Kart et al. (1962) from USA, Davis and Kirk (1962), Khan et al. (1962) and Ghauri et al. (1964) from Pakistan, James (1969) from West Indies and Martin et al. (1974) from Cuba. Extensive studies were conducted on use of sugar cane bagasse for feeding of cattle of Randal and his co-workers (1976) in Puerto Rico. Similarly in the Philippines, Roxas et al. (1969) have studied use of bagasse-based rations for feeding sheep, cattle and buffaloes. In most of these studies, sugar cane bagasse has been used at 10-30 per cent levels for ruminants, with economic gains in live weight. Considering the limitations of sugar cane bagasse as feed for ruminants, supplementation with energy and protein, preferably by-pass protein, along with easily fermentable nitrogen source like urea is recommended. Roxas et al. (1969) have also reported good results with cattle and buffalo using bagasse at levels between 50 to 60 per cent supplemented with molasses, copra meal and wheat pollard. Leng and Preston (1986) recommended an approach for the treatment of bagasse together with supplements like urea, by-pass protein, oil seed meal or rice polish and green legumes for optimum utilization of coarse roughages like sugar cane bagasse or tops. In India, sugar cane bagasse has also been used for developing low-cost feeds as drought feed as well as for reducing the cost of feeds. Observations on crossbred heifers fed sugar cane bagasse supplemented with molasses, urea and concentrate, indicate that it is possible to get good growth on such rations (Rangnekar et al., 1975). Bagasse, like any other coarse roughage, responds to chemical treatment, particularly the use of alkalis. Improvement in the digestibility has been reported with caustic soda treatment (Devendra, 1979). However, the results with urea- ammonia treatment have not been encouraging. It is not known why bagasse

83 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues does not respond to urea-ammonia treatment like cereal straws. This is an area where further investigations are necessary. The use of caustic soda has not been popular in view of the high cost. Amongst the physical treatments, steaming under high pressure has been found to be very effective for improving palatability as well as digestibility of bagasse (Rodrigues, 1968; Rangnekar, et al., 1982). This type of treatment is advantageous considering the safety of the process, although the cost may be high (Wong You Chang, et al., 1974; Martin, 1986). In India, good possibilities exist for utilizing this process in the sugar factories, since steam can be made available at very low cost. Several trials have been conducted for standardizing the treatment and the use of treated bagasse for maintenance, growth and production (Rangnekar et al., 1984). Field trials with steam-treated material showed very good results and acceptance by farmers. In some areas this material has been mostly used as an alternative roughage source during feed scarcity to maintain animals, while in other areas, this has been useful in complete feeds for lactating cattle. This also reduces the labour cost on feeding (Rangnekar et al., 1986; Rangnekar, et al., 1987). The recommended process involves exposing bagasse to steam at 7 to 9 kg/cm2 cm pressure for 30 minutes, in view of the very high cost of equipment needed for higher pressures. However, in western countries, much higher pressures are recommended, and in Canada a continuous process has been developed for the treatment of bagasse with steam. Another approach that has been recommended is a combination of alkali and steam treatment using caustic soda or urea at low levels while subjecting bagasse to high-pressure steam. Variable results have been reported with this approach. More recently, interest has been generated in trying biological treatment through the use of bio-fermentation technology. Cultivation of fungi is being tried for improving the palatability, digestibility and protein value of the bagasse. Some of the fungal species which are being tried extensively are Pleurotus and Coprinus. However, the problem of high dry matter loss nullifies the gains due to improvement of protein value and digestibility. No specific recommendation on the use of this treatment is available presently (Badve et al., 1987). Where paper factories exist, the cost of bagasse increases. However, bagasse is not used for paper pulp and is thrown away. This material is usually obtained after screening the whole bagasse. The chemical composition and in vitro digestibility values of fine or whole bagasse do not differ very much, except in particle size and nature of material. Fine bagasse is dusty with a very small particle size and the material can be explored for use as cattle feed. At our centre, studies are in progress on the treatment of fine bagasse for use as cattle feed. The following approaches are suggested for optimizing utilization of sugar cane bagasse by ruminants: (i) Use of untreated bagasse supplemented with green legumes, urea, molasses along with rice polish, cotton seed meal or copra meal as good quality protein and energy sources. (ii) Use of treated bagasse supplemented with urea and molasses, as a low-cost substitute for cereal straws. (iii) Use of treated bagasse for developing complete feeds after supplementation according to the requirement.

84 Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products

There is a need for more research and development into the engineering aspects related to equipment for drying, and briquetting of treated bagasse to increase the output of treated material with suitable machinery.

3) Molasses

Molasses is possibly the most important by-product from sugar cane and has been used for feeding of livestock for many years. Research on its use as animal feed is very extensive. It is impossible to completely review the work reported in the literature. We need to understand the characteristics of the product, the factors limiting its utility, the kind of fermentation it promotes in the rumen, the manner in which it is generally utilized and the feeding systems that can be developed to optimize utilization. Molasses is available at a very low cost in India. However, in view of the competition from industry, its availability for animal feeding is rather limited. Moreover, due to government controls on storage and utilization, it is not easily available to farmers. Judicious use of molasses can substantially reduce the cost of feeding livestock, provided suitable systems are developed. For recent reviews on the value of molasses as a livestock feed refer to Leng and Preston (1985), Preston (1986), and Perez (1986). Molasses is used for animal feeding mainly in three different ways: (i) As part of a concentrate mixture as an energy source. (ii) As a liquid feed supplement offered directly with urea and minerals or after spraying on roughages. (iii) As blocks where the molasses is solidified with a limited quantity of roughages, protein supplement, urea and mineral. Studies on molasses have shown that while it is a good and cheap source of sugar, it cannot sustain higher levels of growth or production. The utility of molasses decreases with the increase in its level of feeding (Preston, 1974). In ruminants, it promotes production of butyric acid and for supporting growth and production it has to be supplemented with glucogenic promoting substances like rice polish and grains. When used with roughages to improve their palatability and utilization, it may act adversely at higher levels of intake by depressing the digestion of fibre. It is a poor source of protein and hence needs to be supplemented with both the readily fermentable source as well as by-pass protein for sustaining higher levels of production. Very good results have been reported with the use of urea, poultry excreta, rice polish, cotton seed meal, copra meal and fish meal (Yee et al., 1981, Gaya et al., 1982). A judicious mixture of molasses with urea, poultry excreta, supplemented with lowly degradable protein and minerals can sustain fairly high levels of production (Ffoulkes, 1985; Preston, 1986), improved growth and feed conversion with the use of poultry litter (Meyreles and Preston, 1980; 1982 and Hariera, 1984). Poultry litter increases propionate production and decreases butyrate (Table 4). It has been observed that at higher levels of molasses inclusion, feeding of green fodder, particularly leguminous types, is extremely useful (Meyreles et al., 1982; Preston and Willis, 1974; Alvaraz and Preston, 1976). Very good results have been reported with the use of leucaena fodder with molasses-based diets. Cassava leaves have also been used with good results for growing animals fed

85 Table 4

Mean Feed Intake and Growth Responses in Cattle Fed Sugar Based Diets

Supplement Growth rate Response due to supplement Reference of control (g/d) Daily growth Feed intake rate (g/g (% DM protein) increases)

Sugar cane diets Rice polishing 225 5.00 (2.17) 42 Preston et al. (1976b) Rice polishings 287 2.31 (1.05) 22 Lopez and Preston (1977) Commercial protein 205 1.76 24 Silvestre et al. 0976) Maize (ground) 363 1.58 (0.24) 22 Silvestre et al. (1976) Maize (ground) 174 2.61 (0.40) 22 Silvestre et al. 0977a) Wheat bran 62 1.22 21 Silvestre and Howell (1978) Fish meal 233 1.94 10 Silvestre et al. 0977a) Cottonseed meal 171 2.55 7 Silvestre et al. (1977a) Meat meal 181 0.77 25 Silvestre et al. (1977a) Meat meal 215 0.35 11 Silvestre et al. 0977b) Cassava forage -40 1.53 16 Meyreles et al. (1977a) Cassava forage -184 0.40 45 Meyreles et al. (1977b) Leucaena forage 11 3.70 33 Hulman and Preston (1981) Molasses diets Meat meal 273 1.20 18 Silvestre et al. (1977) Soyabean meal 582 0.96 0 Fernandez and Preston (1978) Sunflower meal 252 1.09 18 Sanchez and Preston (1980) Cottonseed cake 292 2.51 -7 Teeluck et al. (1981) Cottonseed meal 83 3.64 26 Ffoulkes et al. (1983) Molasses/sugar cane tops diets Wheat bran 241 3.00 31 Meyreles et al. (1982) Chicken litter 241 2.40 17 Meyreles et al. (1982) Wheat bran and chicken litter 241 1.90 46 Meyreles et al. (1982) Chicken litter 190 1.83 33 Meyreles and Preston (1982) Sugar cane juice diets Sunflower meal 261 1.93 44 Sanchez and Preston (1980) Fish meal 850 0.94 13 Duarte et al. (1982) Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

molasses. Improved rumen outflow may be'a factor improving utilization of molasses (Rowe et al., 1979 a, b). Tree leaves from plants like leucaena and cassava should be of special interest for South Asian countries since their use is reported not only to increase the flow of nutrients and N in ruminants, but also to provide protein material which escapes degradation in rumen and has good amino and make up (Meyreles et al., 1982; Devendra, 1984). Increase in the rumen outflow rate due to forage supplementation is also reported to improve utilization of protein and one of the explanations is the reduction in number of rumen protozoa due to higher outflow (Leng and Preston, 1986). On a molasses-based diet there is an increase of protozoa population and several small ciliates predominate. As a result of their ability to assimilate soluble sugar, they rapidly multiply. Protozoa are known to be retained in the rumen for a longer time and meet their protein requirement by engulfing bacteria. Thus utilization of protein is reduced and, according to Leng (1984), there is a positive relationship between protozoa pool size and growth rate. Many workers recommend defaunation for improving protein utilization and encouraging results have been reported in terms of faster growth and better efficiency of protein utilization by defaunated animals. However, such an approach may not be appropriate for developing countries. Faster rumen outflow and a possible reduction in the protozoa population in rumen would be an approach worth attempting. In view of the difficulties in the transport of molasses in liquid form, studies were undertaken on the possibilities of solidifying molasses, either alone or mixed with non-protein nitrogen (NPN) sources or after mixing NPN along with some by-pass protein with limited quantity of roughages and minerals, etc. The concept of using urea molasses blocks is not new and about 25 years ago work was initiated in Australia by Bearnes (1963). The approach did not attract much attention and only limited success in the preparation and use by the animal was observed. With better understanding of the rumen fermentation processes, and improvement of solidification techniques, interest in the use of molasses blocks has been revived. Some years ago, work was also initiated independently at the Agricultural University, Ludhiana, resulting in the product Uromel and encouraging results have been reported with its growth and feed efficiency (Rana and Lengar, 1982; Sansoucy et al., 1986). Molasses-urea blocks can be prepared using three types of processes described as hot, warm and cold processes. The differences relate to the temperature used for solidification. The binders used are either calcium oxide or bentonite. Cement has also been tried for solidifying the molasses. The major considerations in the development of this kind of product are optimal hardness, storage ability, the ultimate cost to the farmer, as well as the feasibility of the processing method. The system is reported to be working very well in Gujarat where a large Co-operative Dairy (AMUL) is producing the blocks and making them available to the farmers. Kunju (1986) has reported excellent results in feeding trials with farmers using the blocks in terms of improvement in feed intake and overall economy in the cost of feed. An aspect worth considering while discussing higher levels of utilizing molasses for fattening cattle concerns its toxicity which has been reported in Cuba. The symptoms reported are salivation, dejected posture, unsteady gait along with

88 Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products

Figure - 1 Integration of sugar and milk production for optimizing land use

LAND ------*-SUGAR CANE ---i SUGAR

Manure /Rotational Catch Nitrogen Crop Crop (Rhizobia)

RAW SUGAR

Sesbania Leucaena Acacia

Biogas

FODDER/FEED FUEL

Biogas Plant l Dung,- CATTLE p Milk Urine BUFFALO Progeny GOAT Meat

89 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues blindness and nervous symptoms. One of the important post-mortem findings is necrosis in the brain (Verdura and Zamora, 1970). While the exact reason of such drastic symptoms is not known, Edwin et al. (1979) have suggested absolute deficiency of thiamine as a causative factor; while Losadu and Preston (1973) suggested glucose deficiency to be the main cause. In a critical review of the molasses feeding system, Preston (1986) has reported that inadequacy of forage supply in quantity and quality appeared to be the main causative factor of molasses toxicity. He has strongly recommended the use of leguminous forages with high levels of molasses for optimal results and performance.

V. General Considerations

Considering the farming system currently prevailing in the Indian sub-continent, the development of an integrated system of sugar and milk production for maximizing use of available land is recommended. The kind of system which has been developed in western Maharashtra and the one which is working very well is illustrated in Figure 1. This kind of approach would, however, need considerable emphasis on development of crop combinations with sugar cane, proper utilization and conservation of sugar cane tops, developing systems for utilizing high levels of molasses and processing bagasse for use as low-cost roughage. Similarly, alternative systems can be developed for other coarse roughages prevalent in different regions in the country. This would, however, require a farming system study coupled with applied research and strengthening of current extension programmes.

References

Anonymous (1980). Review of research on agriculture by-products. Bhortiya Agro Industries Foundation, Urulikanchan, District Poona, India (Mimeograph, 10 pp.). Badve, V.G., Nisal, P.R., Joshi, A.L. and Rangnekar, D.V., (1987). Studies on the use of lignocellulose degrading fungi to improve the nutritive value of sugar cane bagasse and sorghum straw. Proc. Int. Workshop on Biological, Chemical and Physical Treatment of Fibrous Crop Residues for Use as Animal Feed, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi, India, pp. 112-125. Beames, R.M. (1961). Dayo molasses as the basis of a fattening ration for cattle.

Queensland Agric. Sci., 18 : 425-428. Beames, R.M. (1963). Provision of urea to cattle in a salt/urea/molasses block. Queensland j Agric. Sci., 20 : 213-219. Castillo, L.S. and Gerpacio, A.L. (1976). Nutrient composition of some Philippine Feed- stuffs, Techn. Bull., 21, Department of Animal Science, University of the Philip- pines, Los Banos, Philippines, iv + 114 pp. Chaudhry, K.C., Sharma, K.C., Ahuja, S.P. and Bhatia, I.S. (1972). A note on in vitro utilization of sugar cane (Saccarum officinarum) tops compared with other fodder for cattle. Indian j Anim. Sci., 42 : 671-673.

90 Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products

Davis, G.K. and Kirk, W.G. (1962). Bagasse as a cattle feed. Sugarj, 21 : 12-19. Devendra, C. (1979). The digestibility of chemically treated bagasse in molasses based diets for sheep and goats. MARDI Res. Bull., 7: 103-115. Devendra, C. (1983). The nutritive value of sugar cane (Saccarum officinarum) tops,

MARDI Res. Bull., 11 : 389-394. Devendra, C. (1984). Forage supplements. Potential value in feeding systems based on crop residues and agro;industrial by-products in South East Asia. Proc. Int. Workshop on Relevance of Crop Residues as Animal Feeds in Developing Countries, (Eds. Wanapat, M. and Devendra, C.), Khon Kaen, Thailand, Funny Press, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 221-248. Edwin, E. E., Markson, L. M., Schreava, J., Jackman, R. and Carroll, P.J. (1979).

Diagnostic aspects of cerdirospinal necrosis. Vet. Res., 104 : 4-7. Ferriero, H.M. and Preston, T.R. (1976). Studies in urea utilization in sugar cane diets effect of different methods of incorporating urea in the ration. Trop.

Anim. Prod., 1 : 178-185. Ffoulkes, D. (1985). Practical feeding systems for ruminants based on sugar cane and its by-products. In Ruminants Feeding Systems Utilizing Fibrous Agricultural Residues, (Ed. Dixon, R.M.) International Development Program of the Australian Universities and Colleges Ltd., Canberra, Australia, pp. 11-26. Gaya, H., Hulman, B. and Preston, T.R. (1982). The value of milk production of different feed supplement effect of cereal protein concentrate, poultry litter

and oil seed meal. Trop. Anim. Prod., 7 : 134-137. Ghauri, R.H., Qazi, A.Q. and Schneider, B.H. (1964). Experiments on fattening sheep in Pakistan with bagasse pulp as a roughage in sheep fattening

rations. Agric. Pakist. , 15 : 223-229. Harrera, F. (1984) Cited by Preston, T.R. (1986). Ibrahim, M.N.M. and Pearce, G.R. (1983). Effects of chemical pretreatments on the composition and in vitro digestibility of crop by products. Agric. Wastes,

5 : 135-139. James, L.A. (1969). Nutritive value of fresh sugar cane pith for ruminants. M.Sc. Thesis, McGill University, Canada. Khan, N.A., Qazi, A.R. and Schneider, B.H. (1962). Levels of roughages and molasses and their effect of adding bagasse - fattening and bullocks. Agric. Pakist., 13: 89-97. Kirk, W.G., Peacock, F.M. and Davis, G.K. (1962). Utilization of bagasse in cattle finishing rations. University of Flo. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 641. Kunju, P.J.G. (1986). Urea molasses block lick a feed supplement for ruminants. Proc. Int. Workshop on rice straw related feeds in ruminant rations, (Eds. Ibrahim, M.N.M. and Sehiere, J. B.), Publ. Straw Utilization Project, Sri Lanka, Kandy, Sri Lanka, pp. 261-274. Leng, R. A. (1984). Microbial interactions in the rumen. Ruminant physiology concepts and consequences. (Eds. Barker, S.K. et al.), Pub. University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, pp. 161-169. Leng, R.A. and Preston, T.R. (1985). Constraints to the efficient utilization of sugar cane and its by-products as diets for production of large ruminants. In Ruminant Feeding Systems Utilizing Fibrous Agricultural Residues, (Ed. Dixon, R.M.), International Development Program of the Australian Universities and Colleges, Canberra, Australia, pp. 27-48.

91 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Losada, H. and Preston, T.R. (1973). Effect of forage on performance, content of the reticulo rumen and VFA in rumen and caecum of calves fed diets based

on molasses-urea. Revista Cubana ciencia Agricola, 7 : 185-191. Marrufo, D. (1984). La leucaena leucocephala cited by Preston (1986). Molasses as Animal Feeds, Proc. FAO Expert Consultation on Sugar cane as Feed, (Eds. Sansoucy, R., Aarts, G. and Preston, T.R.), FAO, Rome, Italy, pp. 198-207. Martin, P.C., Cribeiro, T.C., Cabello, A. and Elias, A. (1974). The effect of sodium hydroxide and pressure on the dry matter digestibility of bagasse and bagasse pith. Cuban J. Agric. Sci., 8 : 21-28. Meyreles, L., Pound, B. and Preston, T.R. (1982). The use of leucaena leucocephala or sugar cane tops as sources of forage in cattle diet based on molasses/urea, supplemented with chicken litter and/or wheat bran, Trop.

Anim. Prod., 7 : 92-97. Nassevan, R. (1986). Sugar cane tops as animal feed. Proc. FAO Expert Consulta- tion on sugar cane as feed, (Eds. Sansoucy, R., Aarts, G. and Preston, T.R.), FAO, Rome, Italy, p. 106 (abstr.). Pate, F.M., Beardsley, D.W. and Jayes, B.W. (1971). Chopped sugar cane tops as a feedstuff for cattle and horses. Everglades Station Mimeo. Rep., EES 71-5. Pepito, E.A., Castillo, L.S., Perez, C.B. Jr. and Skinner, E.C. (1969). The digestibility of sugar cane tops silage by cattle, sheep and goats. Philip. J. Anim.

Sci., 6 : 21-30. Preston, T.R. (1974). Sugar cane as the basis for intensive animal production in the tropics. Proc. Conf. on animal feeds of tropical and sub-tropical origin, Tropi- cal Products Institute, London, England, pp. 69-84. Preston, T.R. (1977). Nutritive value of sugar cane for ruminants. Anim. Prod., 1: 150-159. Preston, T.R. (1986). Sugar cane as animal feed - an overview. Proc. FAO Expert Consultation on sugar cane as feed, (Eds. Sansoucy, R., Aarts, G. and Preston, T.R.), FAO, Rome, Italy, p. 6 (abstr.). Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. (1978). Sugar cane as Cattle Feeds. Nutritional

constraints and perspective. Wrld. Anim. Rev. (FAO), 27 : 7-12. Preston, T.R. and Willis, M.B. (1974). Intensive beef production. (2nd Ed.), Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, xxii + 544 pp. Rana, V.K. and Langar, P.N. (1982). Comparative nitrogen balance studies with only uromol and groundnut cake supplemented wheat straw diets in the

ruminants. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 52 : 226-230. Randall, P.F., Soldevila, M. and Salas, B. (1967). A complete ration composed of concentrates and sugar cane bagasse is a conventional ration of pangola grass and supplemented concentrates for milk production. J. Agric. Univ. Puerto

Rico, 51 : 167-176. Rangnekar, D.V. (1987). Large scale processing of sugar cane bagasse for use as a low cost roughage and as a complete feed. Proc. Int. Workshop of Biologi- cal, Chemical and Physical Treatment Fibrous Crop Residues for Use as Animal Feed, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi, India, pp. 173-183. Rangnekar, D.V., Badve, V.C., Kharat, S.T., Soble, B.N. and Joshi, A.L. (1982). Effect of high pressure steam treatment on chemical composition and

92 Utilization of Sugar Cane By-products

digestibility in vitro of roughages. Animal Feed Sci. Technol., 7 : 61-70. Rangnekar, D.V., Joshi, A.L., Badve, V.C. and Thole, N.S. (1986). Studies on steam treatment of sugar cane bagasse for feeding of dairy cattle - a review proceeding. Int. Workshop on rice straw and related feed in ruminant rations, (Eds. Ibrahim, M.N.M. and Schiere, J. B.), Publ. Straw Utilization Project, No. 2, Kandy, Sri Lanka, pp. 192-200. Rangnekar, D.V., Joshi, A.L., Gadekar, H.L. and Patil, B.R. (1986). Field application of processing of paddy straw and sugar cane bagasse in Maharashtra and Gujarat State. Proc. Int. Workshop on rice straw and relatedfeeds in ruminant ration, (Eds. Ibrahim, M.N.M. and Schiere, J. B.), Publ. Straw Utili- zation Project, No. 2, Kandy, Sri Lanka, pp. 337-343. Rangnekar, D.V., Nigadikar, V.P., Soble, B.N., Joshi, A.L., Patil, R.E. (1974). A pilot study on the use of sugar cane by-products for growing crossbred heifers. Proc. Conf. on animal feeds of tropical and sub-tropical origin, Tropical Product Institute, London, England, p. 335 (Abstr.). Rowe, J. B., Babadilla, M., Fernandez, A., Encarnacion, J. C. and Preston, T. R. (1979). Molasses toxicity in cattle: Rumen fermentation and blood glucose

entry rates associated with this condition. Trop. Anim. Prod., 4 : 78-89. Row, J.B., Loyghnan, M.L., Nolan, J.V. and Leng, R.A. (1979b). Secondary fermentation in the rumen of sheep given a diet based on molasses. Brit. f.

Nutr., 41 : 393-398. Roxas, D. B. (1983). The utilization of sugar cane by-products for ruminant feeding in the Philippines. In Utilization of Fibrous Agriculture Residues as Animal Feed, (Ed. Doyle, P.T.), School of Agriculture and Forestry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia, pp. 102-107. Roxas, D.B., Perez, C.B.Jr. and Trinidad, E.E. (1969). The feeding value of sugar cane bagasse based rations for ruminants. 1. Digestibility and nitrogen

balance by cattle carabaos and sheep. Philip. ,J. Anim. Sci., 6 : 33-42. Sansoucy, R. (1972). Vabur Nutritive Destates de canne. Ministry of Agriculture and N R. , Animal Production Division. Rep. Expt. 26 May 1972 cited by Naseevan, M.R., 1986. Sansoucy, R. (1973). Bagasse as a source of roughage in molasses based diets. Cited by Preston. T.R. (1974). Sugar cane as the basis for intensive animal production in the tropics. Proc. Conf. on the animal feeds of tropical and sub-tropical origin, London, Publ. Trop. Products Institute, London, England. Tuazon, A.M. (1974). Feedlot performance of bulls on sugar cane tops silage molasses and copra meal or urea. Monitor, Phil Council for Agriculture Res. Bull.,

2 : 12. Verdura, T. and Zamora, F. (1970). Carebro cortical necrosis in beef cattle fed

high levels of molasses, Revista Cubana Agricole, 4 : 209-213. Yee T.W., Hulman, B. and Preston, T.R. (1981). Effect of urea level on the performance of cattle on a molasses/urea and restricted forage feeding system. Trop. Anim. Prod., 6 : 60-65.

93 Complete Rations Based on Fibrous Agricultural Residues for Ruminants

M Raj Reddy Department of Feed and Fodder Technology College of Veterinary Science Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030 (A.P.) India

Abstract

The complete diet system is a promising methodfor improving the utilization offibrous agricultural residues in South Asia where most of the ruminants subsist on poor-quality crop residues. The concept and advantages of complete rations and work done in various countries is reviewed, including that in India where more than 60 complete rations were formulated and processed into mash or pellets utilizing locally available fibrous agricultural feed ingredients, etc. These formulations were tested in several experiments on crossbred cows, Murrah buffaloes, crossbred calves and sheep for maintenance, milk production and growth. Cost of processing, nutrient digestibility and nutritive value of these rations were also assessed. The nutritional characteristics of these rations are summarized as a guide for ration formulation. The results clearly indicated that blending of poor-quality agricultural residues (40-45 per cent levels) with other ingredients in complete rations improved the utilization of the residues and ensured the supply of nutrients for milk or meat production. No adverse effects were recorded on rumen fermentation and animal performance. The main constraintfor popularizing thisfeeding system is non- availability of suitable machinery for processingfibrous crop residues. The strategy for promoting this promising feeding system requires wider support on the fabrication of suitable machinery for commercial production and large-scale on farm testing.

1. Introduction

In many South Asian countries where there is a severe shortage of feedstuffs, ruminants mainly subsist on fibrous agricultural residues. About 250 million tonnes of these residues are produced in abundance in India which forms 61 per cent of the total feedstuffs on a dry matter basis (Reddy, 1987). The fibrous agricultural residues like cereal straws and stovers are poor in digestible protein, digestible energy, mineral and vitamins. Thus, these agricultural residues cannot support

94 Complete Rations Based on FAR

maintenance when fed alone. Traditional systems of feeding these agricultural residues must therefore be examined critically in view of poor nutritional quality and serious feed deficits. In this context, complete diet systems are a promising method for improving the utilization of the poor quality fibrous agricultural residues. This system not only ensures improved utilization of nutrients from the agricultural residues but also helps in formulating and processing low-cost ready- made balanced diets for ruminants. The system also helps in utilizing locally available agricultural residues, agro-industrial by-products, animal wastes and also facilitates in the formulation of balanced rations for cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats. The system also ensures the supply of balanced rations to the landless labourers, marginal and small farmers and the poor. The advantages of formulating a complete diet are associated with reduced feed and labour costs, and optimum utilization of mainly locally available by-products and fibrous agricultural residues. Concentrate roughage levels may vary from diet to diet so as to meet the optimum nutrient requirements of various categories of ruminants for production. Apart from water and sometimes certain minerals, this product is fed as the sole source of nutrients.

H. Concept of Complete Rations

All feed ingredients inclusive of roughages are proportioned, processed and mixed into a uniform blend which is made freely available to the animal to supply adequate nutrients. The product is fed as a sole source of nutrients. This system has been introduced in recent years in the developed countries to simplify the feeding of high yielding dairy cows with minimum labour use. The system ensures the supply of balanced nutrients, controls the ratio of concentrate to roughage, helps in improved utilization of low-grade fibrous agricultural residues, reduces feed wastage and also reduces feeding costs. It also promotes better consumption and avoids refusal of the unpalatable portions of the feedstuffs. Such rations also reduce eating and rumination time and increase resting time. One of the main advantages of the system is that it provides a uniform mixture of processed feedstuffs (concentrates and roughages) in a form which prevents selection. Consumption is more widely spread in this system than with the conventional one. More frequent feeding is advantageous to the ruminant because the load on the rumen is reduced, avoiding particularly changes in the acidity (pH) of the rumen fluid. Rumen contents are less acidic on frequent feeding with a ratio of acetic to propionic acid in the region of 3: 1 which favours normal butter fat content. This lower acidity also tends to favour cellulolytic bacteria. A more even intake of feed is also associated with less fluctuations in the release of ammonia so that non-protein nitrogen may be more efficiently utilized and may lead to an increase in the general utilization of protein. Increased intakes of dry matter on the complete diet system compared to conventional feeding system has been reported by several workers, which gives good scope for increasing the use of home grown fibrous agricultural residues, various by-products and animal wastes.

95 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

III. Bulk Density

Bulk density of fibrous agricultural residues is very low compared to conventional ingredients like cereal grains and oil meals (Table 1). These materials are very light and have a low density of about 100-150 kg/m3 (Kinher and Chaplin, 1977). However, grinding of these residues increases the density significantly which helps in uniform mixing. The work done in our laboratory indicated that grinding chopped mixed grass through a 5 mm sieve increased bulk density by 500 per cent, whereas it was only about 17 per cent for maize grain and 20 per cent for groundnut meal (Table 1). The density of the complete mash rations containing different levels of fibrous residues (20-68 per cent) were about 150 to 300 per cent more than the ground fibrous residues (Reddy, 1986). The increase in bulk density due to pelleting of mash feed ranged from 52 to 137 per cent depending on the level and type of crop residues used in the complete rations (Table 2). The significant increase in bulk density of chopped roughages when incorporated and processed into complete mash and pelleted diets may help in economic transportation of these materials from the site of production. Fibrous feedstuffs, when used at higher levels in complete rations may create problems in conveying systems and in mixers mainly due to low density. The mixing experiments conducted at our laboratory indicated that the optimum performance and maximum efficiency was recorded at 10-minute mixing periods compared to either 5 or 7.5 minutes in a horizontal mixer when complete rations with higher levels of roughage like dry mixed grass (47.5 and 65 per cent) were used (Murthy, 1982). The reasons for such variation in mixing performance of feedstuffs are bulk density, particle size, particle shape and flow characteristics of the feedstuffs. In view of low density, most of the fibrous agricultural residues are not free flowing. These may create problems in conveying systems and other processing machines, thereby affecting production rate and the cost of processing.

IV. Particle Size

In addition to the roughage level, particle size and fibre characteristics of the roughage are also important in maintaining milk fat levels (Owen et al., 1971; Todorov, 1975; Kay, 1972; Sutton, 1979 and Reddy et al., 1984). The increased intake and improved nutritive value of fibrous agricultural residues due to mechani- cal processing (grinding and pelleting) is mainly attributed to the particle size reduction. The extent to which particle size needs to be reduced for improving intake, for increasing the density of feed and maintaining milk fat level is an important factor in the processing of complete rations. Campling and Milne (1972) indicated the difficulty in interpreting the literature because of the variations in particle size reduction even after grinding roughages through a given screen size. The Modules of Fineness (MF) indicates the coarseness of the particles and the Modules of Uniformity (MU) is indicative of the distribution of feed particles in coarse, medium, fine mesh screens (ASAE,

1967). In general, MF range from 1 to 2 for ground and pelleted roughages and

96 Complete Rations Based on FAR

Table 1 Densities of Feedstuffs (Kg/ft3)

A. Agricultural residues Dry mixed grass (chopped) 0.8 Dry mixed grass (ground 4.2 Sorghum straw (chopped) 1.4 Sorghum straw (ground) 4.0 Sugar cane bagasse (ground) 4.5 Cotton seed hulls 4.0 Rice straw (ground) 3.1 Peanut hulls 4.9 Safflower residue 11.6 Sunflower straw (ground) 5.3 Cotton straw (ground) 5.9 NH3-treated cotton straw (ground) 6.1 Corn cobs (ground) 5.4

B. Concentrates Corn grain 27.3 Corn grain (ground) 28.7 Peanut meal 13.7 Peanut meal (ground) 16.7 Wheat bran 8.2 Gram chunni 16.0 Sal seed meal 17.5 Tapioca chips 16.8

C. Others Cage layer droppings (dried) 7.0 Urea 20.0 Mineral mixture 25.0

Table 2 Effect of Processing on the Bulk Density of Complete Rations

Level and type of roughage Mash Pellet % increase in used in the complete ration ------(Kg/ft3) density due to pelleting of mash rations

Cotton seed hulls (20%) 11.0 18.3 66.4 Sugar cane bagasse (20%) 10.5 16.5 57.1 Sorghum straw (46%) 12.2 18.5 51.6 Dry mixed grass (46%) 10.7 16.8 57.0 Dry mixed grass (68%) 6.0 14.2 136.7 Wheat straw (50%) 5.8 10.1 74.1 Cotton straw (45%) 9.0 14.2 57.8 NH3 treated cotton straw (45%) 9.9 16.1 62.6 Concentrate mixture 12.5 -

97 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

5 to 6 for chopped roughages (Greenhalgh and Wainman, 1972). Swan and Clarke (1974) compared the effect of grinding barley straw through different screen sizes (3.18 mm giving MF 2.38; MU/O: 5: 5; 6.35 mm giving MF 2.93; MU/O 7.3; 9.54 mm giving MF 3.39; MU 2: 7: 1), and found that a screen size of 6.35 mm was optimum in terms of diet digestibility, intake and growth rate when the barley straw level was 30 per cent in a diet containing 70 per cent concentrate fed ad libitum to beef cattle. The particle size estimated in our laboratory for mixed grass ground through 5 mm screen was MF 2.94, 2.96 and 3.01; MU 1: 7: 3, 1: 6: 3 and 1: 6: 3, respectively (Murthy, 1982). In another study, the particle size of cotton straw and complete feed containing cotton straw at 45 per cent level ground through 5 mm screen were MF 2.98 and 2.95, MU 1: 7: 2 and 1: 6: 3, respectively (Reddy and Reddy, 1985). Grinding either mixed grass hay (Reddy and Reddy, 1983) or cotton straw (Reddy and Reddy, 1985) through a 5 mm sieve and pelleted through 9 mm die did not affect the milk fat percentage in crossbred cows or in buffaloes compared to conventional rations.

V. Research Work on Complete Rations

The concept and advantages of using complete feeds have been discussed extensively by several workers (Bath, 1969; Cappock et at., 1971; Cappock et al., 1974; McCoy et al., 1966; Rakes, 1969; Marshal and Voigt, 1975 and jenny and O'Deill, 1979). It is clear that this method is useful to induce animals to consume proper proportions of roughages and concentrates for optimum performance. The level of crude fibre and roughage in the complete ration is apparently of major importance (Balch et al., 1954). Complete feeds containing 30 and 40 per cent roughage and 9 per cent DCP were compared (Benz et al., 1966) and it was found that the 40 per cent roughage ration produced significantly more FCM and milk fat when compared to that of a 30 per cent roughage ration; the difference in solids-not-fat was not significant. Nelson et al. (1968) studied the effect of complete feeds with varying forage to concentrate ratios (100: 0; 75: 25; 50: 50; 25: 75 and 0: 100) on milk yield and its composition in Holstein cows, and reported that there was a highly significant decrease in FCM production and per cent SNF among animals consuming all forage ration compared to the other four rations. There was also a highly significant linear decrease in per cent milk fat as per cent concentrate was increased in the ration. They further indicated that ruminants would adjust voluntary feed intakes to energy needs, if rumen load did not limit their consumption. Owen and Miller (1971) fed complete diets containing barley straw (20, 35 and 50 per cent) to Friesian cows and observed that dry matter intake, milk yield and SNF per cent declined while fat per cent increased progressively with increased levels of straw. Hunt et al. (1971) found no significant difference in FCM and milk production, and DM and DE consumption on complete rations containing 25, 35 and 45 per cent cotton seed hulls. Owen and Miller (1969) fed complete diets containing various levels of milled straw (16, 24, 32 and 40 per cent) to dairy cows and

98 Complete Rations Basedon FAR their findings confirmed that cows could perform normally when given complete diets. Dry matter and DE intake was depressed and milk fat was lowered as the level of straw in the complete ration was increased. They concluded that complete rations for self-feeding of dairy cows should contain a minimum of 24 per cent milled straw. Several workers (Coppock et al., 1974; Marshall and Voigt, 1975; Everson et al., 1976 and Owen, 1984) have compared constant with varying forage to concentrate ratios during lactation and the effects of different ratios at the same stage of lactation with complete diets offered ad libitum. The results suggested that varying the energy concentration of the diet as lactation progressed could be advantageous. As a general guide, a system of two forage to concentrate ratios during lactation and another for dry cows has been suggested (Owen, 1976 and Everson et al., 1976). Thomas (1975) suggested that 12.5 per cent CP in the DM was sufficient for a cow giving 20 kg milk/day. Horn et al. (1976) showed no effect on milk production by exceeding 13.5 per cent CP in the DM of complete rations. Complete rations containing 13-14 per cent CP have supported milk production similar to those obtained with conventional rations (Rakes, 1969). Vanhorn et al. (1980) reported that complete rations containing 40 or 55 per cent cotton seed hulls gave excellent results and similar gains from 80 to 180 days of age, at either 10 or 12.5 per cent protein and with or without 0.89 per cent urea, when fed to growing heifers. Bush et al. (1978) concluded that pelleted complete rations were economically advantageous in fattening and that there was no advantage of increasing CP content of pelleted complete rations from 13 to 15 per cent. A significant increase in growth rate was recorded by Burt (1966) when heifers were fed ground and pelleted barley straw in a roughage/concentrate ratio of 70: 30 and recorded a marked response in energy value with low-grade roughages when ground and pelleted. The reports from Bulgaria and many East European countries have shown that low-quality fibrous crop residues can serve as an important energy source for beef cattle, if these are processed into complete diets (Todorov, 1975; Arizanu et al., 1970 and Henning et al., 1972). Pelleting of complete rations for fattening animals have proven to be highly beneficial (Dardjonov et al., 1969; Dardjonov and Kosev, 1973; Kumarrov et al., 1969 and Palfy et al., 1972). Well-controlled experiments showed that the nutritive value of the pelleted ration is greater compared to the ground ration at an equal DM intake (Dardjonov et al., 1969). A number of experiments were successfully conducted in sheep using complete feeds utilizing poor-quality crop-residues (Belogrudov et al., 1974; Dardjonov and Kosev, 1973 and Sarbasov, 1974). Extensive work has been done in our laboratory in India over the last 10 years, and more than 60 complete rations have been formulated and processed utilizing various fibrous agricultural residues like dry mixed grass, sorghum straw, wheat straw, cotton straw, sunflower straw, sugar cane bagasse, fallen tree leaves, cotton seed hulls and waste wood pulp (Table 3). The percentage ingredient composition of some of the complete rations are presented in Table 4. The cost of processing and the total cost of these complete rations have been assessed and the results are presented in Table 5. These complete feeds have been successfully tested in several experiments on sheep, cattle, growing crossbred calves, milch

99 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 3

Agricultural Residues Used In the Preparation of Complete Rations

Feed Level in complete ration M

Sugar cane bagasse 20 Sorghum straw 20-46 Dry mixed grass 30-75 Sunflower straw 30-50 Sunflower heads 33.5-50 Wheat straw 50 Wood pulp waste 12.5-50 Subabul leaf meal (Leucaena leucocephala) 20-30 Fallen teak leaves (Tectona grandis) 17.5-70 Fallen mango leaves 30-60 Rice straw 40-50 Saw dust 30 Cotton straw 45

Table 4 Percentage Composition of Complete Rations

Complete Rations M Name of the Agricultural Residue Ingredients Mixed Sorghum Wheat Cotton grass straw straw straw

Dry mixed grass 46 Sorghum straw - 46 - - Wheat straw - - 50 - Cotton straw - - - 45 Tapioca chips 20 20 - - Molasses 12 12 13 15 Peanut meal 10 10 10 10 Cage layer droppings (dried) 10 10 15 - Mineral mixture 1 1 1 1 Common salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Urea 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 Deoiled rice bran - - 10 - Wheat bran - - - 10 Rice polishings - - - 17 Rovimix*

* Rovimix containing Vitamin A 40,000 IU; Vitamin B2 20 mg and Vitamin D3 5,000 IU per gram was added @ 10 g/100 kg feed.

100 Complete Rations Based on FAR

Table 5 Processing Costs of Complete Rations

Item Mash Pellet

Number of complete rations 27 24 Level of roughage component (%) 46-68 20-70 Processing cost/q (Rs.) 6.68-10.11 8.55-21.89 Total cost of feed/q (Rs.) 44.71-108.27 46.68-109.00

Table 6 Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value of Complete Ration (Range from 67 Rations)

S. No. Item Percentage

1. Roughage component 20-70 2. Chemical composition (on dry matter basis) Crude protein 9.2-16.0 Crude fibre 12.2-29.9 Ether extract 0.9-6.8 Nitrogen-free extract 33.0-60.0 Total ash 9.7-20.9 Acid insoluble ash 1.9-7.9 Calcium 0.7-3.2 Phosphorus 0.2-0.8 3. Nutritive value (%) DCP 4.5-10.6 TDN 42.1-64.4 cows and buffaloes for maintenance, growth and milk production. Nutrient digestibility, utilization and nutritive value of the complete feeds have been assessed and their effect on rumen fermentation was also studied. Some of the saliant findings are summarized in the following paragraphs:

1) Chemical composition and nutritive value of complete rations The chemical composition and nutritive value of the different types of complete rations processed and tested in our laboratory are given in Table 6. The crude protein content ranged from 9.2 to 16.0 per cent; crude fibre from 12.2 to 29.9 per cent, ether extract from 1.5 to 6.8 per cent, NFE from 33.0 to 60.3 per cent; total ash from 4.1 to 22.8 per cent and acid insoluble ash ranged from 1.4 to 7.8 Per cent. The DCP ranged from 4.5 to 10.6 per cent whereas the TDN ranged from 42.1 to 64.4 per cent. Although the nutritive value was variable, all the rations supported the maintenance requirements of the animals by way of higher feed consumption. Some feeds with higher DCP and TDN supported growth and milk

101 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

production. The chemical composition and digestibility of nutrients of most of the feeds were optimum and supplied the nutrients required by the animals for maintenance. Regarding the mineral composition, only calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) were studied. The former ranged from 0.7 to 2.5 per cent and latter from 0.2 to 0.8 per cent. Complete rations containing fallen tree leaves supplied more calcium and less phosphorus hence such rations needed supplementation of phosphorous. In all the experiments, the animals were on positive Ca and P balances indicating that these complete rations supplied sufficient quantities of Ca and P to meet the requirements of the animals.

2) Plane of nutrition of the experimental animals

The DM, DCP and TDN intake by the experimental animals on different complete rations was compared to the recommended levels suggested by Kearl (1982). The intakes of DM, DCP and TDN were higher on all the complete rations studied, except cotton straw ration fed to crossbred calves, than the recommended values of Kearl (1982). The higher intakes were due to ad libitum feeding. The DM intakes were 12.9 to 113.5 per cent higher than the recommended levels of Kearl (1982) indicating that all the complete rations were highly palatable due to blending and processing of less palatable fibrous agricultural residues with other ingredients into complete rations. The DCP intakes were 6 to 400 per cent higher whereas TDN values were 11.3 to 183.8 per cent higher than the recommended values of Kearl (1982). All the complete rations supplied the required quantities of DCP and TDN. In diets with 50 per cent sunflower straw, 30 per cent sunflower straw plus 20 per cent subabul forage meal, the DCP and TDN intakes were much higher in sheep and were therefore useful for production. The rations containing cotton straw (45 per cent), dry mixed grass (46 per cent), sorghum straw (46 per cent), wheat straw (50 per cent) and wheat straw (35 per cent) plus berseem hay (15 per cent) were used successfully for growth performance and the rations with cotton straw (45 per cent) and dry mixed grass (47.5 per cent) for milk production in crossbred cows and buffaloes. The specifications recommended for dairy cattle by Owen (1979) and the results of our studies on nutrient consumption by dairy cattle, crossbred animals and sheep are presented in Table 7. Complete rations are normally formulated to contain appropriate amounts of energy and protein with a minimum of 40 per cent forage dry matter (as hay or silage) or 30 per cent (as straw) in the total ration (Owen, 1979).

3) Effect on growth The results of the experiments conducted at our laboratory on growing crossbred calves and sheep with complete rations containing either untreated or chemically treated agricultural residues are presented in Table 8. Complete rations containing 68 per cent dry mixed grass supported 500 to 600 g/day growth (Reddy and Reddy, 1983) whereas the rations containing 50 per cent wheat straw or 35 per cent wheat straw plus 15 per cent berseem hay supported 450 g/day growth (Reddy, S.K.R., 1986) in crossbred calves. The complete rations containing untreated/

102 Table 7 Nutrient Specification of Complete Rations

Dairy animals Crossbred cattle Sheep NUTRIENT Lactation diet Adult Growing Adults Growing calves lambs (Owen, 1979) (Present studies) ------(Present studies) ------

ME (MJ/Kg DM) 10.5-11.5 7.6-9.8 7.2-8.6 7.2-8.4 5.8-9.9 8.1-8.5 Crude protein (%) 13 11.6-16.0 11.8-13.8 9.8-16.0 9.2-13.6 11.8-12.4 Crude fibre (%) 16-20 14.7-25.1 17.3-23.6 19.8-25.1 12.2-29.9 16.9-19.1 Ether extract (%) 3-8 3.4-4.1 2.7-4.1 3.1-6.3 1.5-6.8 3.6-4.0 Proportion of forage DM to total DM 1%) - for diets based on hay or 40-70 silage - for diets based on chopped 30-40 40-43 45-54 4-60 40-65 40 or coarsely ground straw Calcium (%) 0.7 1.3-1.5 - 1.0-1.5 0.7-2.5 0.9-1.0 Phosphorus 1%) 0.5 0.7-0.8 - 0.5-0.8 0.2-0.5 0.4-0.5 Magnesium (%) 0.2 Sodium (%) 0.15 Table 8 Effect of Complete Rations on Growth Performance

Average daily DM intake/kg Cost of Reference ITEM gain (g) live weight feed/kg gain (kg) gain (Rs)

Crossbred calves Experiment-l Control ration 371 11.54 5.65 Reddy and Reddy (1983) 68% dry mixed grass (mash) 513 9.55 5.02 68% dry mixed grass (pellet) 609 8.17 4.75 Experiment-ll Conventional ration 480 8.45 5.80 Reddy (1986) 50% wheat straw (mash) 460 10.16 5.92 50% wheat straw 15% berseem hay 462 11.28 6.78 Experiment-III 45% cotton straw (mash) 796 7.40 5.10 Reddy and Reddy (1985) 45% cotton straw (pellet) 878 6.80 5.30 45% NH3 treated cotton straw (mash) 928 6.40 5.40 45% NH3-treated cotton straw (pellet) 974 6.20 5.80 Sheep Experiment-1 46% mixed grass hay (mash) 58 12.45 9.28 Reddy and Reddy (1985) 46% mixed grass hay (pellet) 92 10.39 8.65 46% sorghum straw (mash) 55 12.77 9.45 46% sorghum straw (pellet) 86 9.68 8.05 Experiment-11 50% crop residue mixture A* 45 12.67 Reddy and Reddy (1981) 50% NaOH treated crop residue mixture A 43 14.07 35% crop residue mixture B** 46 12.89 35% NaOH treated crop residue mixture B 49 12.12

* Crop residue mixture A contained maize cobs 25, groundnut hulls 15 and safflower hulls 10 parts. ** Crop residue mixture B contained maize cobs 25 and groundnut hulls 10 parts. Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

NH3-treated cotton straw (45 per cent) supported an average daily gain of 790 to 970 g/day among crossbred calves (Reddy and Reddy, 1985). Pelleting of mash rations and ammoniation of cotton straw had a complimentary effect on growth rate. Complete rations containing either alkali-treated or untreated agricultural residue mixture (50 per cent) comprising corn cobs (25 per cent), peanut hulls (15 per cent) and safflower hulls (10 per cent) supported an average daily gain of 43 to 51 g/day among Deccani sheep (Reddy and Reddy, 1981) and these gains were comparable to the earlier reports on Deccani sheep with conventional feeding. Average daily gains of 55.2 to 91.7 g/day were recorded among Nellore sheep with complete rations containing either 46 per cent sorghum or 46 per cent dry mixed grass. Pelleting of mash rations containing dry mixed grass or sorghum straw improved daily live weight gain by 57 per cent.

4) Effect on milk production

The milk production of cows fed blended rations have generally been comparable to those fed on conventional feeding of roughages and concentrate portions of the ration separately. The effect of feeding a complete ration on milk production indicated that 45 per cent cotton straw or 47.5 per cent dry mixed grass as a sole roughage source for crossbred cows and Murrah buffaloes maintained daily milk production of 6-8 litres with normal butter fat, compared to conventional type of feed containing hybrid napier grass (green), dry mixed grass and concentrate mixture. Pelleting of dry mixed grass or NH3-treatment of cotton straw did not show any improvement on milk production.

5) Cost economics of processing complete rations

The cost of processing and total cost of the rations were calculated taking into consideration fixed charges (depreciation on building and machinery, interest on block investment and maintenance) and direct charges (cost of power, labour, operators, etc). The total cost of processing the complete mash rations ranged from Rs. 6.68 to 10.11 per 100 kg and, for the complete pelleted rations, Rs. 8.55 to 21.89 per 100 kg (Table 5). The level of agricultural residues used in the ration and the fibre characteristics were mainly responsible for variations in the processing costs. The processing costs increased as the roughage level in the complete feed increased. If the fibre of the roughage is resistant and hard, it takes more time for grinding and pelleting, resulting in less feed production/hr and, therefore, higher processing costs. If the fibre of the roughage is non-resistant like tree leaves, it is easy to grind and pellet, resulting in more feed production/hour and reduced cost of processing. The rate of pelleted feed production ranged from 300 (68 per cent dry mixed grass ration) to 857 (70 per cent fallen teak leaves ration) kg/hr for a pellet mill with a capacity of one tonne per hour for a conventional concentrate mixture. The total cost of the rations (Table 5) were calculated taking into consideration the existing market rates of different ingredients used in the formulae. The total cost of the non-cereal mash rations (inclusive of processing cost) ranged from

Rs. 44.71 (50 per cent mango leaves + 1 per cent urea ration) to Rs. 108.28 (48.5 per cent dry mixed grass ration). The cost of the ration depended on the

106 Table 9 Effect of Feeding Complete Rations on Milk Production

DM Milk Milk FCM SNF DM Cost of Reference intake/ yield fat yield (%J intake/ feed/kg ITEM 100 kg (kg/ (%) (kg) kg milk produc- body day) production weight tion (kg) (Rs) (kg)

Murrah buffaloes Conventional ration 2.94a 5.51 6.18 7.22 9.91 1.89 1.58 Reddy and Reddy 47.5% mixed grass hay (mash) 4.006 6.38 5.85 8.04 10.09 2.23 1.41 (1981) 47.5% mixed grass hay (pellet) 3.95b 6.55 6.00 8.48 10.03 2.14 1.42 Crossbred cows Experiment-1 Conventional ration 3.34a 8.09 4.65 8.86 9.37 1.43 1.23 Reddy and Reddy 47.5% mixed grass hay (mash) 4.26b 8.69 4.55 9.34 9.44 1.70 1.07 (1981) 47.5% mixed grass hay (pellet) 4.59b 8.80 4.39 9.26 9.34 1.82 1.20 Experiment-11 Conventional ration 2.93 7.22 4.13 7.32 9.30 1.40 1.28 Reddy and Reddy 45% cotton straw (pellet) 3.43 7.25 4.12 7.36 9.35 1.70 1.18 (1985) 45% NH3 treated cotton straw (pellet) 3.35 7.58 4.25 7.84 9.58 1.60 1.03

b - Values with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.01). Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues type of processing (mash/pellet), type and level of roughage, level of concentrates in the ration, etc. As the percentage of roughage increased, the total cost of the rations decreased. Mash rations cost less since they do not involve the pelleting process. Pelleting of mash rations increased the processing cost by 57 to 130 per cent. This again depended on the type and level of roughage in the ration and fibre characteristics of the roughage used in the complete rations.

VI. Constraints to Commercial Exploitation of the Technology

Sufficient information is available on formulation, processing and nutritional characteristics of complete rations for improved utilization of abundantly available fibrous agricultural residues and agro-industrial by-products for ruminants for production. However, the technology is not widely used for the following reasons: 1) Processing of complete rations with high level of fibrous agricultural residues is difficult due to non-availability of suitable processing machinery. In many developed countries, good quality forages, hays, silages, grains and other conventional ingredients are used for the preparation of complete rations for dairy and beef cattle. These rations usually contain concentrates to the extent of 70 per cent of the total ration. In such situations, processing of complete rations is not problematical and the cost of processing would also be reasonable. When low-density fibrous agricultural residues are used at higher levels (40-50 per cent), the lignified fibre creates problems in processing machinery like conveyers, grinders, mixers and pelleting plants. Suitable machines for processing fibrous low-density materials are not available at present in South Asian countries. 2) High cost of processing machinery. 3) High cost of processing. 4) Lack of managerial and technical skills to utilize the agricultural residues, industrial by-products and animal wastes in situ. 5) Problems of transportation and handling of light fibrous agricultural residues. 6) Lack of initiative from the government, cooperatives and other related agencies to try the new technology on a commercial scale.

VII. Strategy for Action

There is an urgent need to devise strategies for popularizing the usage of complete rations. This can be achieved by firstly initiating work on the development of suitable machines for economic processing of complete rations using fibrous agricultural residues. These machines would then need to be tested for commercial feasibility. Secondly, there is need for formulating and processing complete rations and to test these rations for milk and meat production on long-range studies. This needs to be followed up thirdly by on-farm testing of the complete diet system compared to the conventional feeding system and, fourthly, through economic evaluation.

108 Complete Rations Based on FAR

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rations for lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 49 : 1058-1063. Murthy, S.R. (1981). Evaluation of mixing efficiency of complete dairy cattle rations. M.V.Sc. Thesis, A.P. Agricultural University, Hyderabad, Pakistan. Nelson, B. D., Ellzey, H. D. and Morgan, E. B. (1968). Effect of feeding varying forage to concentrate ratio to lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 51 : 626 (Abstr. ) Owen, J.B. (1976). Cited by Owen, J.B. 1981. Complete-diet feeding of dairy cows. In Recent Developments in Ruminant Nutrition. (Eds. Haresign, W. and Djacole), University of Nottingham, School of Agriculture, 159 pp. Owen, J.B. (1979). Complete diets for cattle and sheep. Farming Press Limited, Suffolk, England, 159 pp. Owen, J. B. and Miller, E. L. (1969). Complete diets given ad libitum to dairy cows.

The effect of the level of inclusion of milled straw. J. Agric. Sci., 72 : 351-357. Owen, J. B., Miller, E. L. and Bridge, P. S. (1971). Complete diets given ad libitum to dairy cows. The effect of straw content and of cubing the diet. J. Agric.

Sci., 77 : 195-202. Palfy, F. Yu., Pandurez, L.M., Tirke, B.D., Kajdalov, A.F., Kotliarov, A.I. and Pavluk, 1.1. (1972). Use of complete feeds for fattening cattle. Cited by Todorov, N.A. (1975). In Recent Developments in Animal Nutrition Research in

Eastern Europe. J. Amim. Sci., 40 : 1284-1299.

Rakes, A.H. (1969). Complete rations for dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci., 52 : 870-875. Reddy, D.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1983). The effect of feeding complete feeds on nutrient utilization and milk production in crossbred cows. Indian J. Dairy

Sci., 36 : 421-423. Reddy, D.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1983). Effect of feeding complete rations on growth performance and nutrient utilization in growing crossbred calves. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 53: 697-700. Reddy, G.V.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1984). Dry fallen mango tree leaves as roughage source in the complete feeds of sheep. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 54 1046-1050. Reddy, G.V.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1985). Effect of ammonia treatment and processing of whole cotton plants as sole source of roughage in complete feeds

for growing crossbred calves. Anim. Feed Sci. and Tech., 13 : 93-102.

110 Complete Rations Based on FAR

Reddy, G.V.N. and Reddy, M.R. (1985). Effect of ammoniated and processed cotton straw as sole source of roughage in complete feeds for crossbred milch

cows. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 55 : 1082-1086. Reddy, K.J. and Reddy, M.R. (1985). Effect of feeding complete rations on growth performance and nutrient utilization in Nellore sheep. Indian J. Anim.

Sci., 55 : 459-463. Reddy, M. R. (1986). Processing of crop residues for formulation of complete feeds. Proc. Vth Anim. Nutr. Res. Workers Conf., Udaipur, India, pp. 129-154. Reddy, M.R. (1987). Status of Animal Feed Resources in India. Proc. Symp. on Anim. Feed Resources in Asia, Tokyo, Japan (In Press). Reddy, M.R. and Reddy, D.N. (1981). Complete rations for sheep. Utilizing crop-residues and agro-industrial by-products. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 51 455-458. Reddy, S.K.R. (1986). Development of complete feeds utilizing wheat straw and agro-industrial by-products for ruminants. Ph.D. Thesis, A.P. Agricultural University, Hyderabad, India. Sutton, J.D. (1979). In factors affecting the yields and contents of milk constituents of commerical importance. (Eds. Rook, J.A.F. and Moore, J.H.). Bull. Inst. Dairy Fed. (In Press). Thomas, P.C. (1975). Cited by Owen, J.B. (1981). Complete diet feeding of dairy cows. In Recent Developments in Ruminant Nutrition. (Eds. Haresign, W. and Djacole), University of Nottingham, School of Agriculture, pp. 159. Todorov, A.O. (1975). Recent Developments in Animal Nutrition Research in

Eastern Europe. J. Anim. Sci., 40 : 1284-1299. Vanhorn, H.H., Marshall, S.P., Floyd, G.T., Olaloku, E.W., Wilcox, C.J. and Wing, J. M. (1980). Complete rations for growing dairy replacements utiliz-

ing by-products feedstuffs. J. Dairy Sci., 63 : 1465-1474.

111 Discussion

The first paper by Dr Devendra on "Strategies for intensive utilization of feed resources in the Asian region" gave a detailed account of the feed and animal resources in the region. He stressed the importance of feeding and nutrition as an important factor affecting production. These include crop residues and other lignocellulosic materials of both conventional and non-conventional origin. He pointed out that the availability of the information already on hand justified the application of this knowledge at the farm level. Innovative feeding systems were needed that can demonstrate more economic animal performance in terms of research and development effort. He emphasized the importance of large-scale on-farm testing of available technology with the participation of farmers to extend technologies on improved feeding value of crop residues, other potentially useful lignocellulosic materials and their efficient utilization. Chosen technologies must obviously be appropriate and realistic to the farming systems in individual countries, in order to achieve their potential value in economic feeding systems for various animal species. The paper generated wide discussion on a number of areas. This included methods of calculating feed availability, definition of non-conventional feed resources, priorities for the utilization of feed ingredients by individual animal species, methods to assess deleterious principals in feedstuffs and large-scale on- farm testing. During discussion, attention was drawn to the vast amount of information on feed resource utilization that was essentially only found in agricultural universities and governmental experimental stations, and which have not been extended to real farm situations. It was emphasized that animal nutritionists, in general, had not consciously considered the concurrent application of successful research results in terms of large-scale on-farm testing with the participation of farmers. Dr Devendra emphasized that until and unless there was more commitment to large-scale and expanded utilization of non-conventional feed resources and fibrous agricultural residues, available technology will not be available or beneficial to farmers. He urged therefore that, in view of the situation, future efforts for the intensive utilization of the feed resources should give increased emphasis to on-farm application concerning the economic utilization of the research results. This approach far out-weighed any further documentation on the more fundamental issues of research on feed resource utilization. Discussion also centred on the potential value of various leguminous and green fodders as protein supplements in feeding systems for ruminants. It was

112 Discussion reported that there is a considerable body of knowledge that clearly indicated that in situations where green supplements are readily available, the benefits to ruminant feeding systems in terms of reduced cost of feeding and higher profitability were quite substantial. There was a need therefore, to also give increased attention to the utilization of a wide variety of these feed materials for ruminants in the Asian region, commensurate with complementary advantages in fence-lines and agro-forestry systems. The second paper by Dr Verma described the general feed situation in South Asian countries and also discussed the availability and intensive utilization of cereal straws and other fibrous crop residues. The availability of cereal straws and other fibrous crop residues was relatively large, and he discussed measures to improve their utilization by livestock. Based on several years of research both at the laboratory and in farm situations, it was reported that feeding crop residues after treatment with urea (ammonia) was potentially beneficial. Discussion centred on the strengths and weaknesses of the research and development relating to the profitability of utilizing crop residues, and mechanisms to extend the vast amount of available research data to the farm. The latter was of concern since technology does not appear to be reaching the farmers who needed them most. The lack of adequate extension education or government support for large-scale application was implicated. Scientists also appeared to lack sincerity in their efforts to demonstrate the benefits of adopting new technology with the participation of farmers. The third paper by Dr Krishnamurti presented an overview of nutrient balance in utilizing crop residues, and the nutritional implications of processing techniques, kinetic analysis, and modelling of mineral metabolism with special reference to selenium. He underlined the need for more efforts to study and ensure that appropriate technology for commercial and on-farm application has reached a point where future research should be directed at finding ways and means of assessing the interaction between the nutrients and their bio-availability under farm conditions. These details need to be properly understood for enhanced utilization of crop residues. He also emphasized that the use of isotope markers will be of great value for examining the site and extent of digestion of fibre constituents in the alimentary tract. The role of trace elements in the utilization of crop residues was also of great value. Discussion centred on the extension of radio isotopes for the improvement in the nutritive value of poor-quality crop residues. Dr Krishnamurti also suggested that there is a need to establish an Animal Feed Resources and Promotion Board, under the auspices of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), for India. The scheme would involve various agencies such as the ICAR Insti- tutes, National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), various agricultural universities, animal husbandry departments, Department of Agriculture and Engineering, and the feed milling sector. The fourth paper by Dr Punj reviewed the use of various agro-industrial by- products evaluated under the All Indian Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on the Utilization of Agro-industrial By-products. He emphasized that any feeds for animals should be examined thoroughly by conducting proper trials over long durations for growth and milk production. In order to be sure about

113 Discussion the extent of the feeds available, he pointed out that the AICRP programme has been modified and the present emphasis is on surveys to assess the feeds available in the country, and farmers' practices on feed utilization. Discussion also centred on the need to identify the toxic principals and appropriate methods to detoxify them, especially since many of the agro-industrial by- products had limitations which adversely affected production in animals. He went further to suggest a need for a Central Laboratory to screen the feed samples for toxic principals, as well as for applied research in this area. The fifth paper by Dr Gupta covered the availability of the by-products for non-ruminants like poultry and pigs. He drew reference to all the available feeds for ruminants and non-ruminants. He indicated that the nutritive values reported for ruminants may not be appropriate for non-ruminants. Furthermore, the toxic principals hydrolyzed in the rumen may not affect the ruminants but may be harmful for non-ruminants. Discussion centred on the definition of non-conventional feeds and the use of molasses in poultry feeds. The sixth paper by Dr Rangnekar outlined the emergence of the cooperative sector in the Urlikanchan area and how cattle development provided remunera- tive employment. Concerted efforts have therefore been made in an integrated manner to improve feed supplies and, since sugar cane was a major crop in the chosen area, the problems and merits of using by-products from it were given focus. This paper showed that a non-profit cooperative movement can serve as an interface for transferring feed processing technology to the field. Such a service- oriented extension structure was important for the transfer of technology. The seventh paper by Dr Raj Reddy outlined the advantages of complete rations for ruminants, utilizing various non-conventional roughages. The paper highlighted that this was a relatively new subject and one that had much potential. Processing of the feeds was hampered by a lack of suitable machinery, and managerial and technical skills. He stressed the fact that instead of reacting to adverse circumstances, such as droughts, a planned strategy should be adopted to exploit the resources even after the emergency stops. Experiments on complete rations using indigenous feeds were capable of sustaining high milk production. The major problems related to the processing technology and particularly methods of handling the particle sizes of feeds with various densities. He stressed the need for engineering personnel to work with the animal nutritionist. During the discussion which followed, it became obvious that there was a need for more basic research on the kinetics of the movement of digestible particles in the gastrointestinal tract, less degradable proteins, and the overall utilization of nutrients for milk synthesis. Research on particle size and its influence on rumen fermentation pattern in relation to meat and milk production will have to be initiated. The role of protected proteins in complete rations for various functions like milk and meat production also needs to be initiated. It was stressed that research on various engineering aspects involved with the processing and formulation of complete diets should have the final objective of producing small-size, low-cost mobile units comprising chaffing machines and grinders for on-farm use.

114 Discussion

Large-scale on-farm testing of complete rations utilizing locally available crop residues, etc., for milk and meat production, coupled with economic evaluation also need to be undertaken. There was an urgent need to initiate work on the development of suitable machines like grinders, conveyers, pelletizers, extrusion cookers, etc., for economic processing of complete rations. These machines will have to be tested for commercial feasibility. Suitable machines also need to be developed for chaffing, grinding, briquetting, waffering and extrusion cooking, and production of processed feeds. The technology already available in the developed countries for commercial production of steam-treated bagasse should be studied and suitably modified and tried in South Asian countries. Suitable driers have to be fabricated and tested for drying animal wastes, starch industry by-products, slaughter house by- products, brewery and distillery by-products, etc.

115 Feed Availability, Requirements for Animals and Current Patterns of Utilization in Bangladesh

A M M Tareque and M Saadullah Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh Bangladesh

Abstract

This paper discusses the land use patterns by different crops, feed availability, feed balance and pattern of utilization and feedstuff in Bangladesh. Of the available land, 84 per cent of the total cropped area is used for cereal and only 0.05 per cent for fodder production. The dry matter availability is estimated to be 17.7 million tonnes contributing I million tonnes of crude protein and 116 million MJ of energy, giving a deficiency of 56, 74 and 84 per cent of dry matter, crude protein and ME respectively for feeding animals. Efforts should be made therefore to increase the feed resources by increasing the fodder production within existing cropping systems. The paper discusses possibilities of improving the feeding value of crop-residues for evolving appropriate technology, as well as making more use of the non-conventional feeds to increase feed supplies in order to maximize productivityfrom animals. This paper also emphasizes the importance of development of a feeding standard for different species of animals.

1. Introduction

Bangladesh is situated approximately 20° 7' and 26° 80' north latitude and 88° 01' and 92° 75' east longitude. The country has an area of 143,998 sq km. The daily temperature ranges from 7° - 29°C, with an average of 18°C during the cold season, rising to 40.5'C in the warm season. The average annual rainfall is over 200 cm with seasonal and regional variation from 550 cm in the north-east to 150 cm in the west. Agriculture is the main source of employment and income for Bangladesh. Land utilization and land use statistics by different crops in different region are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Out of 14.5 x 106 ha of total land 8.7 x 106 ha are used for cultivating different crops, 84 per cent of which arc cereal crops and the remaining land is not available for cultivation. Agriculture contributes around 48 per cent of the gross domestic products (GDP) employing 61.3 per cent of the labour force. The livestock sector contributes 4.8 per cent of the GDP, engaging 13 per cent of the manpower (B.B.S., 1984-85)

116 Table 1

Land Utilization in Bangladesh (106) (1983-84). B.B.S., (1984-85)

Region Total area Cultivated Forest Cultivable Current Net cropped (Ha) area (Ha) area (Ha) waste (Ha) waste (Ha) area (Ha)

Chittagong 4.5 0.8 1.4 0.2 0.2 1.9 Dhaka 3.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 2.2 Khulna 3.1 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.1 2.0 Rajshahi 3.4 0.7 0.01 0.1 0.1 2.6

Bangladesh 14.0 2.3 2.11 0.7 0.5 8.7 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 2 Land Use by Different Crops (B.B.S., 1984-85)

Crops Total area (103 ha) % of total area

Cereals 11,136 83.9 Pulses 279 2.1 Oil seeds 294 2.2 Spices 149 1.1 Sugar 180 1.4 Fibres 4,657 4.6 Drugs and narcotics 146 1.1 Fruits 154 1.2 Vegetables 140 1.1 Other food crops 175 1.3 Fodder 6 0.1 Miscellaneous 0.8

The Bangladesh Census of Agriculture and Livestock (1983-84) reported that there are 22 million heads of bovine and 73.7 million heads of poultry (Table 3). About 49.5 per cent of the household possessed cattle, 35.6 per cent sheep and goats and 71.8 per cent poultry. Of the total households, 52.5, 37.8 and 74.3 per cent of the non-municipal households possessed cattle, sheep and goats and poultry respectively, compared to 13.0, 8.7 and 41.6 per cent in municipal households. It is clear that livestock is reared mostly by the farms in the non-municipal areas with an average number of 1.5 cattle, 2.7 sheep and goat and 5.1 poultry respectively per household. With the human population increasing by 2.4 per cent/year, the competition between animals and land to grow food has also increased to a point where little or no land is available for fodder cultivation. A recent on-farm study in a village reported that there is no defined pasture land in the country. Livestock live mainly on crop residues, wayside grazing and by-products from agro-industrial processing. The nutritive value of these by-products is generally very low. Data concerning the production of feeds, their availability, patterns of utilization and their nutritive value are very scarce. A complete inventory of all available feedstuffs in respect of production practices, availability in different seasons and regions, and nutritive values is needed for the proper planning and development of the livestock sector. The aim of this paper is to highlight the feed resources, their availability and nutritive values, the requirement of nutrients for the livestock, present patterns of utilization and current approaches to large-scale utilization.

II. Sources of Roughages

The bulk of roughages for livestock feeding consists of straw from rice, wheat and other grains, pulses, sugar cane tops and bagasse, sweet potato leaves, water hyacinth, fruit wastes and fodder crops.

118 Table 3 Livestock Population and Annual Nutrient Requirement (B. B.S., 1984-85)

Species Number Av. Live Total Dry matter Crude protein Metabolizable (mil) weight (kg) (mil. kg) (103 t) 103 t) energy (mil. MJ)

Cattle 21.50 145 3117.0 34127 3413 341270 Buffaloes 0.57 183 105.0 1150 115 11498 Sheep 0.67 10 6.7 99 7 986 Goat 1.36 12 162.7 2373 178 23725 Poultry 73.71 1 73.7 2690 489 314739 Total - - - 40439 4202 692218

A W Q R Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

1) Rice straw

Total production of rice straw in respect of all varieties is about 16.9 million tonnes in 1983-84. About 22 per cent of this production was derived between mid July to mid September, 44 per cent between mid-November and mid- February, and the remainder was from the crop harvested during March- April. The straw from the July-September crop (3.0 million tonnes) is of very low quality and is generally burnt. This leaves 14.0 million tonnes. Out of this production, if 39.6 per cent is used, only 5.8 million tonnes will be available for ruminant feeding on a dry matter basis. If wheat straw and straws from other cereal grains which are not used as ruminant feeds are added to this, the total availability of straw is 6.8 million tonnes, accounting for 38.4 per cent of the total dry matter.

2) Green roughages

The combination of roughages from pulses, sugar cane, sweet potato leaves and water hyacinth is estimated to be 0. 18, 1.1, 0.21 and 0.72 x 106 tonnes respectively (Table 4). Sugar cane bagasse is not used for cattle feeding at present. The contributions of protein and energy from dry roughage are 25 and 49 per cent respectively (Table 5). The dry matter from green grasses, weeds, fodder, waysides and fallow land is estimated to be 6.7 x 106 tonnes, contributing 38 per cent of the total roughage yield. Due to continued grazing by livestock, the yield of grasses shown is much less. Green roughage contributes 57 and 38 per cent of the total production of protein and energy respectively (Table 5).

3) Concentrates

Concentrates consist of rice bran, wheat bran, oil cakes, pulse bran, molasses and fish meal, and contribute only 6.8 per cent of the total dry matter (Table 5). The rice meal offals comprise rice bran, rice husks and broken rice. The average breakdown of rice milling in the country is rice 67 per cent, husk 26 per cent, bran 6 per cent and broken rice 1 per cent. About 10 per cent of the total rice production is used for seed and other food preparation which, after deducting from the total rice production, produces 107.4 x 103 tonnes of rice bran, equivalent to 58 per cent of the concentrate feedstuffs. Since there are no standard specifications for rice milling, the production and quality of this by-product varies considerably. In addition, the presence of oil hampers keeping quality of the by-products. Solvent extraction could render this by-product and oil cakes more stable. Five per cent of the total wheat production of 3.1 x 106 tonnes (1.2 home grown + 1.9 imported) is milled for flour. The production of bran at an extraction rate of 20 per cent is 27,000 tonnes, contributing 2.2 per cent to total concentrate production. Keeping 10 per cent of the total production of pulse for seed and other purposes, about 54,000 tonnes of bran are produced for use by livestock. The total production of molasses (Table 3) is 69.8 x 103 tonnes which is mainly utilized for producing alcohol by distilleries, for tobacco and for export. Very little is fed to ruminants.

120 Table 4 Source and Availability of Feeds and Fodder in Bangladesh

Crops Yield (103 t) By-product Extraction Yield Available DM rate (103 t) (103 t)

Cereal/others Rice 14508 Rice straw 100- 150 18820 16938 Wheat 1211 Wheat 100 1211 1035 Other grains (maize, sorghum) 48 - 250 120 108 Pulses 199 Pulse straw 100 199 179 Sugar cane 7170 Bagasse 30 2151 1075 Tops 23 1649 461 Sweet potato 713 Leaves 150 1069 213

Green grasses

Weeds 17 mil. acre 1 tonne/acre 17100 2569 Wayside 9 mil. acre 5 tonnes/acre 2735 4102 Fodder 48 10 Water hyacinth 0.2 mil. acre 3.6 tonnes DM/acre 720

Cont'd Overleaf Table 4 - cont'd

Crops Yield (103 t) By-product Extraction Yield Available DM rate (103 t) (103 t)

Fruits Banana 675 Leaves 85 574 115 Skins 30 203 51 Mango 159 Wastes 20 32 8 Pineapple 137 Wastes 25 34 5 Jackfruit 211 Wastes 50 106 21

Concentrates Rice Polish 6 783 91 Wheat bran 20 30 27 Oil cakes 70 - 155 Pulses 30 - 54 Molasses - - 70 Cotton seed 28 13 12 Fish meal - - 300 Cereal grains 190 Table 5 Nutrient Component of Animal Feed and Fodder Supply in Bangladesh

Type of feed Dry matter % Crude protein % ME % (103 t) (103 t) Million MJ

Dry roughage 8202 46.4 260 24.7 57371 49 Green roughage 8275 46.8 602 57.4 44493 38 Concentrates 1214 6.8 188 17.9 15203 13

Table 6

Exports of Animal Feeds during 1979-80 to 1983-84 in Bangladesh

Feedstuffs 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84

t Mil. Tk t Mil. Tk t MY. Tk t Mil. Tk t Mil. Tk

Molasses 8884 4.5 5117 4.0 9537 4.5 35000 16.2 3188 5.2 Wheat and rice bran 11169 19.6 12100 21.5 22949 69.2 21377 121.7 24323 67.8 Rape seed Et mustard 3000 7.6 2500 7.9 6502 15.5 3520 8.8 2078 4.5 oil cake Wheat and gram residue n.a. 5.7 377 3.8 n.a. n.a. 961 2.2 729 1.6 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Fish meal is produced mainly by the Fisheries Development Corporation and a few private companies of small scale amounting to 300 tonnes annually. The protein content of this varies from 40-50 per cent. Very little grains are available for feeding of animals in the country conventionally. Poultry are fed with grains in the government and commercial farms. Out of the 73 million heads of poultry in the country, only about 0.2 million are reared by specialized farms consuming 40-50 per cent grains in the ration. The remaining 72.8 million heads are reared by backyard poultry farms, scavenging grains from the fields and yards as and when available. It is estimated that 190 thousand tonnes of grains are available to the livestock feeding contributing 15.7 per cent of the total amount of concentrates. It is evident from Table 5 that the contribution to protein and energy were 1 per cent and 13 per cent respectively.

II. Non-Conventional Feed Sources

The dry matter coming from cotton seed is estimated to be 11.6 x 103 tonnes which is not used for livestock, and only 729 tonnes are exported (Table 7). Other non-conventional sources are rubber seed cake, sal seed cake, silk worms, and abbatoir wastes, all of which are not used. Information on the production of these is not available. The situation concerning feed requirements and availability is shown in Table 7. It can be seen that only 44, 26 and 20 per cent of the dry matter, protein and energy requirements are met presently from the available feed resources in the country.

III. Utilization of Animal Feed Resources

1) Seasonal variation on the availability of feeds Feed data from villages in the Noakhal district have been gathered and analysed in order to obtain information about the variability of the kind and quantity of feed for cattle during the year 1981-1983 (Hermans, 1984). Seasonal effects on

Table 7

Livestock Feed Nutrient Supply and Demand Balance in Bangladesh

Nutrient Dry matter Crude protein ME in MJ character mil. t mil. t (million)

Supply 17.7 1.1 117,064 Demand 40.4 4.2 692,218

Balance -22.7 -3.1 -575,154

% available 44 26 20

124 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bangladesh the kind and quantity of feed offered to ruminants is shown in Figures 1 and 2. It was found that peaks in the availability of straw alternated with peaks of green feeds. More straw rations are offered in January-March, July-August and again in November. Most green materials are supplied from mid-March to July and during the month of September and October. These fluctuations follow more or less the succession in dry and wet seasons and the harvests, with the straw peaks corresponding to the dry season and the green peaks to the wet season. The data on seasonal fluctuations enable a definition of suitable grazing times. It was also reported that during the dry season, the animals gained weight. In the wet season, the bulk of the feed consisted of green grasses, during which the animals consumed less than 2 per cent of their live weight and were not able to maintain their live weight. The dry matter intake during the dry season amounted to more than 3 per cent of their live weight. Only a few of the traditional milk pockets (grazing fields in winter) remain, mainly in the district of Pabna and Sylhet. These areas also become too deeply flooded for cropping in the monsoon and are used for the production of fodder during the dry season. Such land is frequently held in comparatively large blocks by the government or rich farmers who have leguminous forest seeds that are broadcast with the receding flood waters. Stocking rate is about two cattle per hectare for six to seven months for grazing from November to May. Until the end of January, grazing is mainly on mung bean (Vigna mungo), followed by chickling vetch (Lathyrus satiaa) till April, after which most grazing is provided by Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon). This practice is then followed in another part ofthe country. Most of the low-lying areas have now been taken up for intensive crop cultivation with accelerated programmes of flood control and low lift pumping.

2) Present systems of feeding

The main feed supplies for cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats come from by- products of cash crops. These animals also scavenge for grasses or any feeds that may be available on the non-cultivated areas along waysides and bunds. Poultry subsist on food scraps, insects and fallen grain, and around village housing. Large landholders supply more straw, rice bran, wheat bran and oil cakes to their animals compared to that of smallholders. Small farmers supply concentrate feeds to those animals that are used for draught and transportation. Farmers usually feed the straw chopped, soaked in water or chopped and mixed with grasses. Rice gruel mixed with small quantities of oil cake or bran are also fed to their animals, especially milking cows. Water hyacinth, banana stems, leaves and sugar cane tops also constitute a green supplement with a straw-based diet as and when available. Free grazing animals are kept in the "char" and "haor" areas in winter.

IV. Current Approaches to Large-scale Utilization

Various opportunities for improving the feeding values are being examined in the country and warrant further research and/or on-farm testing. Improving nutrition by enhancing the feed value of available dry matter has become the main approach in more recent research programmes in Bangladesh. Among these

125 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

6.0-

4.0 J k

3.0.E

1.0 J

0 -r-r- A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M Months

1981 1982 1984 Years

Figure 1 Seasonal Fluctuation in the Intake of Treated Straw (kg DM) by Cows

126 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bangladesh

3.0_, I

2.5_

2.0 J I i

1.5 J V

v 1-1 1.0_j

0.5-

A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A Months 1981 1982 1984 Years

Figure 2 Seasonal Fluctuation in Intake of Green Fodder (kg DM) by Cows

127 50/1

Number of animals per treatment 4-6 400 32 Days on experiment 84 28 Initial liveweight 57 kg

24 Basal diet rice straw ad /ib 300 m m m Supplements

500 g green grass fresh basis

bone meal and salt - 1 % of straw

urea (except untreated) 28g/day

Sodium sulphate to make N/S 10/1 100 8

Source: Saadullah, Haque and D olberg (1982)

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Treatments

Figure 3 Performance of Calves Fed Rice Straw by Different Methods Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bangladesh programmes, the Farming Systems Research and Development started to work with the objective of accelerating the application of integrated crop-livestock farming systems on the farm level by introducing more legumes into the farming systems as a short rotation crop or as perennial shrubs and trees. The benefits from including a small proportion of legume forage to a ration based on crop residues are substantial. Mahtab et al. (1984) reported increased dry matter intake and live weight gain of Black Bengal goat fed with leucaena leaves. Greater use of leucaena trees around houses and pigeon pea in hedges along roadsides and bunds could be made. There is considerable potential for growing more legume crops in the dry season particularly after rice is harvested. Investigations into the range of available legumes and testing them under the various soil moisture conditions are required. Efforts have also to be made to utilize other feed resources such as water hyacinths, banana leaves and stems, fruit residues and other tree leaves. Tareque and Hayee (1980) reported that 15 per cent of the wheat bran in the poultry ration can be replaced by sal seed as a source of energy without any harmful effect. During the last two decades, there have been over 400 scientific papers published in many countries concerning the utilization of low-quality roughages as ruminant feeds (Han and Garret, 1986), including the recent reviews by Davis et al. (1983) and Sundstol (1985). Several experiments demonstrated differences in production obtained from untreated and ammonia-treated straw, and most of these originated from on-station experiments. Performance of growing cattle fed rice straw treated by different methods is shown in Figure 3. It is important to note the low rates of live weight gain (less than 50 g/day) and high feed conversion ratios (kg DM/kg gain) are normal when untreated straw is fed without supplements, which represent the feeding practices in typical village situations. Dramatic improvements can be achieved by the supplementation of untreated or urea-treated straw with 50 g of fish meal/day per calf on live weight gain and feed intake (Saadullah, 1984). A comparison of ammonia-treated rice straw, supplemented with either equal amounts of roadside grass or water hyacinth demonstrated improved benefits on the rate of live weight gain and the value of water hyacinth as a green supplement respectively. Shahjalal and Islam (1986) reported that sugar cane bagasse can replace 50 per cent of rice straw for growing animals. Khan et al. (1987) reported a significant live weight gain in castrated calves when rice straw was supplemented with 50 per cent water hyacinth.

V. Conclusion and Recommendations

The above discussion highlights the gross inadequacy of feed resources, stressing the need to use all available feeds efficiently as well as the domestic production to meet the deficiencies of dry matter, protein and energy. Good quality fodder production should be increased in relation to the pattern of land use, and rotation of crops. The feeding value of low-quality roughages also needs to be improved. Proven technology in the field of chemical treatment of crop residues (urea treatment) should be adopted on the farm. The policy of exporting large quantities of concentrates should seriously be reconsidered because of feed deficits in Bangladesh.

129 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bangladesh

Food compounding industries can also be set up. At present, there is no well- organized feed manufacturing industry in the country which can place emphasis on the formulation of balanced rations utilizing agro-industrial by-products like molasses and other non-conventional feed sources.

References

B.B.S. (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), (1984-85). Report on the Bangladesh Livestock Survey 1983-84. Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Davis, C. H., Saadullah, M., Dolberg, F. and Haque, M. (1983). Ammonia treatment of straw for cattle production in intensive agrarian agriculture. Proc. Maximum Livestock Production from Minimum Land. (Eds. Davis, C. H., Preston, T.R., Haque, M. and Saadullah, M.). Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, pp. 1-25. Han, I.K. and Garret, W.N. (1986). Improving the dry matter digestibility and voluntary intake of low quality roughages by various treatment - A review. Korean J. Anim. Sci., 28 : 199-236. Hamid, M.A., Haque, M. and Saadullah, M. (1987). Supplementing untreated and urea treated rice straw with water hyacinth for local calves. Submitted for publication. Bangladesh J. Anim. Sci., (In press). Hermans, C. (1984). Patterns of seasonality in livestock production and cattle ration. Centre for World Food Studies, Wageningen, Netherlands. pp. 1-24. Khan, M.J., Razzaque, M.A. and Tareque, A.M.M. (1981). Effect of feeding water hyacinth in combination with straw on the growth of bullocks. Bangladesh J. Agric., 6: 16-22. Mahtab, S.M., Ali, A. and Asaduzzaman, A.H.M. (1984). Nutritive value of ipil-ipil in goats. Livestock Adviser, 6: 29-33. Sundstol, F. (1985). Recent advance in development and utilization of chemically treated low quality roughages. Proc. Relevance of Crop Residues as Animal Feeds in Developing Countries, (Eds. Wanapat, M. and Devendra, C.), Khon Kaen, Thailand, Funny Press, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 121-146. Saadullah, M. (1984). Supplementing ammonia treated rice straw for native cattle in Bangladesh. Ph.D. Thesis, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen. Shahjalal, M., Islam, M.M. and Tareque, A.M.M. (1986). Studies on the voluntary intake of bagasse and its digestibility by Nylon bag technique. Bangladesh

J. Anim. Sci., 15 : 23-29. Tareque, A.M.M. and Hayee, A. (1980). Utilization of Sal Seed (Shorea robusta) as poultry feed in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Vet. J, 14 : 29-34.

130 Feed Availability, Requirements for Animals and Current Patterns of Utilization in Bhutan

D B Tamang Royal Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory P 0 Box 155 Serbethang, Thimphu Bhutan

Abstract

Bhutan is a predominantly agricultural country, with 95 per cent of the labour force engaged in agriculture producing most of the cereals and other crops. The main crop residues available are maize stovers, rice straws and wheat straws. Agro-industrial by-products include milling by-products like rice bran, wheat bran, mustard oil cakes, and by-products from apples, pineapple and citrus. Livestock are an integral part of agriculture in the country. Ruminants are traditionally raised by seasonal migration from alpine meadows to lower pastures. Pigs and poultry are maintained on free-range systems and are sometimes handfed with rejected grains, grain by-products or kitchen waste only. Ruminants are generally more important than non-ruminants. The country has a deficit offeeds andfodders. Through bilateral and multilateral assistance, the government has formulated firm plans and policies to improve and develop pastures.

I. Introduction

Bhutan, covering an area of 46,000 sq km, is situated in the eastern part of the Himalayan range between latitudes 26 ° 40' and 28 ° 20' north and longitudes 88 ° 45' and 92 ° 7' east. It is surrounded by the Tibetan plateau in the north, the Assam and Bengal plains in the south, Arunachal Pradesh in the east and Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalaya in the west. The topography is very mountainous, marked by numerous gorges, comprising natural forests. About 5 per cent of the total area is cultivated and inhabited. The altitude of the terrain ranges from sea level to 8,000 in above sea level with climatic conditions varying from the hot and sub- tropical conditions in the south to perpetual ice and snow in the high Himalayas in the north. The population density is estimated to be around 25/sq km. Agriculture and animal husbandry account for nearly half of the gross domestic product (GDP) and provide the main livelihood for nearly 95 per cent of the population. Landlessness is not a serious problem. There is, however, an

131 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

acute shortage of both skilled and unskilled labour. This gap is bridged by employing non-nationals. The principal crops are rice, wheat, barley and oilseeds. Commercial and horticultural crops include potatoes, oranges, apples, cardamom, ginger, pineapple and other vegetables. Livestock play an indispensable role in agriculture in Bhutan. They provide draught power for cultivation and dung for the replenishment of the soil. In addition, livestock provide food for farming communities, particularly milk, butter, cheese and meat. According to a census conducted by the Department of Animal Husbandry in 1985-86, the estimated livestock population of Bhutan comprises 325,511 cattle, 24,695 yak, 46,496 sheep, 25,725 horses, 61,419 pigs and 82,160 poultry, 4,814 buffaloes and 36,999 goats. Households which depend mainly on livestock as sources of income follow the age-old practice of seasonal migration between alpine meadows and lower pasture land. Constrained by lack of labour, stall-feeding is not very common. The traditional system of rearing the animals is grazing them on the natural pasture in private and community holdings with little or no concentrate. Pigs and poultry are also maintained on free-range systems, and are sometimes hand-fed with rejected grains, grain by-products or kitchen wastes.

II. Feed Resources Availability

Bhutan produces cereals and other crops. Crop residues are an important feed resource. Animal wastes and agro-industrial by-products are the next important feed resources. The prominent crop residues available in the country are rice

straws, wheat straws and maize stovers. Table 1 gives an indication of the various types of crop residues and by-products available in Bhutan. The milling industry is small. The by-products resulting from milling usually become the only feeds for livestock kept in the farms. Due to the prevailing technology in the village, the by-products are of low quality. Rice bran for example, contains a high percentage of husks. The most significant oil cake produced is mustard oil cake which is used as a protein supplement for dairy cows. The fruit canning factory situated in southern Bhutan makes available a substantial quantity of canning wastes. The factory produces 300 tonnes (fresh weight) of pineapple waste annually. The other three juice factories located in northern Bhutan, which operate for four months in a year (September - December), each produces 1000 kg (fresh weight) containing 20 per cent dry matter of apple pulp daily. The dry matter yield of temperate pasture is estimated to be 2,400 to 2,800 kg/ha, and for native grasslands at 2,600 in, 850 kg/ha, and alpine grasslands at 3,900 m, 313 kg/ha. Improved pastures of white clove r-ryegrass-cocksfoot yielded 10,000 kg DM/ha. Native fodder trees play an important role in the diet of ruminants in the sub-tropical and temperate regions of Bhutan. Many farmers maintain fodder trees around their houses. Most fodder trees are 7-15 in high and yield 70-90 kg of' fodder in a year.

132 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bhutan

Table 1

Availability of By-products in all Climatic Zones

Climatic Zone Seasons Crop By-products (Locality)

Sub-tropic Summer/ Maize Stover, cob (Samchi, Gaylegphug Winter Samdrupjonkhar) Winter/ Wheat Straw, Mill-run Summer Summer Rice Straw, Mill-run Summer Cassava Root meal, leaf and stem All year Banana Pseudostem, leaf, fruit waste (peel) Autumn Sugar cane Top, bagasse Summer Pineapple Bran, presscake £t industrial waste Winter Orange/ Pulp, peel Tangerine Winter Apple Apple pulp Temperate (Gedu, Summer Maize Stover, cob Chukha, Paro, Punakha, Chirang, Tashigang, Winter/ Wheat Straw, mill-run Mongar, Wangdi, Summer Shemgang) Summer Buckwheat Straw Summer Millet Straw Summer Sorghums Stover Summer Oat Straw Autumn Sugar cane Top, bagasse Summer Sugar beet Pulp, leaf All year Banana Pseudostem £t leaf Summer Pumpkin Leaf ft stem, pumpkin (surplus) Summer Peaches Fruit (surplus & waste) Winter Orange/ Peel, fruit (surplus Tangerine and waste) Winter (Apple juice Apple Pulp Industry) Autumn Turnips Tops Ft turnips (surplus) Summer Plum Fruit (surplus ft waste) Alpine (Thimphu, Summer Wheat Straw, mill-run Tongsa, Lhuntshi, Gasa, Wangdi, Summer Red Rice Straw, mill-run Bumthang, Shemgang, Ha) Summer Pumpkin Leaf and stem, Pumpkin (surplus) Winter Apple Fruit (surplus & waste) Summer Plum Fruit (surplus Et waste) Summer Sweet Potato Peel, leaf £t stem

133 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

The concept of supplementing green feed with concentrates to sustain the production of animals is new in Bhutan. Under a UNDP/FAO Project BHU/84/020 - Establishment of a Pilot Feed Mixing Plant, a plant with a daily capacity of 15 tonnes was established in 1987. The plant meets the entire requirements of all classes of animals maintained by government and private farms. The feeds manufactured include pig, poultry, cattle, and pheasant rations for different ages and growth stages. Lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) grows abundantly around the sub-tropical zone of eastern Bhutan. The villagers collect it for extracting oil, which is then sold for export to India for industrial synthesis of Vitamin A and other uses. During the period of extraction (June to September), the factory produces daily 20-25 tonnes of spent lemon grass (40 per cent dry matter) and 960-1200 tonnes of dry matter.

III. Feed Requirements

1) Non-ruminant animals

The population of these animals is small. According to an unpublished report of the Ministry of Agriculture, the annual feed requirement is estimated at 50,457 tonnes while the availability is 43,916.3 tonnes. The deficit is therefore 13 per cent. The above calculations have been based on the assumption that the ratio of adults to young ones is 1: 3 for pigs and 1: 2.5 for poultry, and the average feeding rates are as follows:

Adult Young Pigs 2.5 kg/day/pig 2 kg/day/pig Poultry 134 g/day/bird 78 g/day/bird The manufactured feeds requirement for government farms for 1987-88 for poultry, pigs, cattle, pheasant and fish are 494, 649, 254, 54 and 6 tonnes respectively.

2) Ruminants

The total population of ruminants is about 464,240 heads. Assuming that one livestock unit (LU) is equivalent to one mature cow, two calves of 1-2 years age, five adult sheep and seven weaned lambs, the total livestock unit is 294,859. This is in excess of the carrying capacity on the available feed resources, estimated at 136,261; emphasizing a feed deficit situation. This deficit is unevenly divided in different zones of the country, and is partly being met by the use of native fodders and agricultural by-products. The following carrying capacities on pasture land (both native and improved) reflect the prevailing situation: Native (acres/L. U.) Improved (acres/L. U.) Sub-tropical region 5 0.75 Temperate region 10 1.50 Alpine region 25 5.00

134 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bhutan

The total area under native pasture and improved pasture is 407,544 and 2170 ha respectively.

IV. Current Pattern of Utilization of Feed Resources

The stocking density of animals per unit area of the land is heaviest in the southern and eastern part of the country. There has been little or no increase in area of pasture land in recent years, whereas there has been a marked increase in the number of grazing animals: cattle 59 per cent, yaks 17 per cent, horses 87 per cent and sheep 69 per cent. With improved animal health measures, animal numbers are likely to increase further unless steps are taken to regulate numbers. Farmers are more concerned about numbers of animals rather than their quality, and this is associated with the strong religious sentiments against culling and slaughter of unproductive animals. This further aggravates the feed shortage. About 10,000 tonnes of maize grains are available annually, in addition to a substantial quantity of wheat grains. Cereals and cereal by-products represent 70-80 per cent of animal feeds requirement and are the main feeds in the country. Oil cakes and other plant protein ingredients are scarce. The only significant oil cake available is mustard oil cake which is an important ingredient in concentrates for cattle. However, the content of phytotoxins (sinigrin or sinalbin) limits its incorporation to 4-5 per cent in poultry and pig rations. As a land-locked country, fish is scarce and hence no fish meal is available as a feedstuff. The abattoir does not yield sufficient quantities of collectable wastes for processing into feeds. Thus, the total requirements of animal proteins are met by imports from India. The non-conventional feed resources and by-products usable by non- ruminants are limited to those of plant origin. The by-products originating from the milling industries like brans, polishings and oil cakes and from fruit processing such as citrus, apple and pineapple pulps are common feedstuffs. At the rural level, vegetables and vegetable wastes are fed to poultry and pigs. Pumpkins, turnips and turnip tops and lettuce are fed to pigs as their sole ration without fortification with concentrate feeds. Use of animal wastes in feeds is restricted to government farms. Research on the feeding of poultry manure to pigs is at its onset. An integrated farming system involving ducks, pigs and fish is practised in the south. In most places in the temperate zone, livestock keeping faces a serious shortage of green feeds in winter. Hay, silages and straws (treated and untreated) are the main feed sources. These resources are, generally, insufficient to sustain the performance of animals due to low quality and insufficient supply. Urea treatment of straw has been widely adopted by farmers in rice producing areas for winter feeding. Although the treated straw is inadequate to fulfil all the requirements, it has inevitably provided significant amounts of rumen-degradable nutrients. In the sub-tropical and temperate regions, fodders from trees are widely used as supplements with rice or wheat straw. In order to sustain the milk yield of native (siri) cows, kitchen wastes and mustard oil cakes are also generally fed during the periods when green feeds are in scarcity.

135 BHUTAN

INDIA

LINGSHI O YAK NARO GASA YAK PUNAKHA O POo W.PHODRANG LHUNGTSHI PUNAKHA (Do pX A RL O+ A POo TONGSA TASHIYANGSHI JJ 0+ JAKAR YAK 0+ V PPP o IPO PHOBJIKHA e S Y THIMPHU O G YAK NAMTHER IP RANGTHANG PH+OC LONGTEY O THUNGTI HAe PARO YAK -WANG + _ IS + o0+ OO+ o+ TASHIGANG L. THANG SOMBE DAWAKHA O+ o WAMRONG SHAMGONG O oAO+ Oo go MONGAR TASITYANGPHU o0+ DENCHUKHA DOKAR S IS TENDU O YADI MINZIWANG .0 Q o CHIRANG -o0 (o o0+ DORAKHA O+ BADO DAGA JAMPA 0o // 00 YURONG SIBSOG CHHUKHA AOo Do Ao ARONG o0+ go SHUMAR o DIAPHAM G O MA UNI MO G M SAMCHI -U S.JONGKHAR O+ 00 o0 D o+OGO+ O+o O oa o 0 +15 GOKTI oO SARBHANG DEOTHANG CHASILAKHA GEYLEGPHUG PHUNTSHOLING o0+ (] of KALIKHOLA, (Do

Figure I Animal Husbandry Activities in Bhutan

1. Bulls/A.L Centres (31) 0 13. Pig Breeding Station-cum-Pork Processing Plant (1) PPP 2. Common Carp Breeding Farm (3) oa 14. Poultry Development Project (1) P 3. Dairy Development Project (1) D 15. Sheep Breeding Farms (2) S 4. Feed Mixing Plant (1) F 16. Trout Breeding Farms (2) oa 5. Grass Seed Production Centre (1) G 17. Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (1) 6. ILDP Centres (7) 0 18. Veterinary Dispensaries (27) Q 7. Intensive Sheep Development Projects (3) IS 19. Veterinary Hospital (1) 8. Integrated Projects (2) IP 20. Veterinary Regional Laboratory (1) RL 9. Livestock Farms (6) + 21. Veterinary Sub Dispensaries (15) Q 10. Mithun Breeding Farms (2) M 22. Veterinary Training Institute (1) VTI 11. Milk Collection Centre-cum-Sales Booths (7) b 23. Yak Breeding Farm (1) Y 12. Pheasant Rearing Farm (1) PH 24. Yak Disease Eradication Scheme (5) YAK Feed Requirements and Utilization in Bhutan

Agro-industrial by-products, fruit processing wastes and other non- conventional feed resources are available but scattered throughout the country. Lack of knowledge on proper feeding management in the rural areas and poor communication links due to the difficult terrain of the country result in under- utilization of these feed resources. For example, the "spent" lemon grass could be utilized as an alternative to straw for areas where rice is not cultivated. However, the distance from the sub-tropical eastern zone where lemon grass is found and the areas where rice is not grown is far, involving inadequate access to places by motorable roads. Further, the cost of transportation renders the feeding of this non-conventional feedstuff uneconomical. The feeding of manufactured rations to animals is a new concept among farmers and would take considerable time to be accepted. The demand for manufactured rations is mainly from the government breeding farms who use it to produce milk and then supply it to the urban population. There are presently very few private farms though the government has been encouraging the private sector to enter commercial livestock farming through the specially granted rural credit schemes and multilateral loans. Development strategies are needed to overcome feed shortages, reduce unproductive animal numbers and improve the utilization of the feed resources.

V. Future Development Policy of the Government

One of the principal policy objectives of the VIth Plan (1987-92) laid down by the government is to enhance rural incomes through livestock development activities by generating wealth through livestock production. The main strategy for livestock development is to raise the level of productivity through genetic improvement and proper feeding management. Ambitious targets have been set for the improvement of pasture (6,921 ha), plantation of fodder trees (926,600), urea treatment of straw (9,215 households), fodder conservation (1,630 households) and rangeland management (2,024 ha) in continuation of current activities (Figure 1). Ruminants will continue to depend on grasses, crop residues and other non- conventional feed resources with some concentrate supplement to sustain production. Research has been initiated to explore the potential of local non-conventional feedstuffs for improved utilization by ruminants. One such non-conventional feedstuff is lemon grass, which grows abundantly in the sub-tropical eastern region of Bhutan. Similarly, better utilization of apple, pineapple pulps and other canning by-products, and agro-industrial by-products like brans will also be investigated. In the past, day-old chicks and piglets were distributed in the villages with the expectation of improving the production at the farm level. However, the impact has not been satisfactory due to manpower constraints to follow up and improve poor feeding management practices in the villages. This has been remedied by the introduction of organized farming systems in which larger flocks and units will be maintained by the villages to facilitate closer monitoring. Improved animal husbandry systems involving concentrates and complete rations will be gradually introduced in these farms in addition to improved veterinary assistance.

137 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

References

Choo, B.S. (1983). Consultancy Report on Establishment of Feed Analysis Laboratory, UNDP/FAO Project BHU/76/001, pp. 2-18. Choo, B.S. (1984). Consultancy Report on Establishment of Feed Analysis Laboratory, UNDP/FAO Project BHU/76/001, pp. 2-24. Dorji, J. (1987). Feed requirements of livestock for Bhutan. Unpublished paper prepared for Ministry of Agriculture, Bhutan, RGOB, pp. 1-26. FAO Report (1987). UNDP/FAO Project BHU/84/020. Establishment of a Pilot Feed Mixing Plant - Interim Report, pp. 2-30. FAO Report (1981). UNDP/TAO Project BHU/72/DIO. National Sheep and Yak Development Project. Terminal Report, pp. 3-21. Gyamtsho, P. (1984). Bhutan j Anim. Husb., Vol. 7 : 8-12. Roder (1982). Bhutan j Anim. Husb., Vol. 5 : 10-14. Rai, M.K. (1987). Rural poultry development in Bhutan. A Study in Retrospect and Prospect: Working paper presented in seminar in Dhakar, Bangladesh, pp. 1-19.

138 Animal Feed Resources and Current Patterns of Utilization in India

V D Mudgal Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes Sirsa Road Hisar-12500 Haryana India

and K Pradhan Haryana Agricultural University Hisar-125004 Haryana India

Abstract

The paper addresses the animal feed resource situation and current patterns of utilization in India. Emphasis is made on the shortfall of 44 per cent concentrates and 36 per cent green fodders for ruminants. Cereal straws are the most important ruminant feeds and the estimated animal production is 200-2500 x 106 tonnes. Sodium hydroxide and urea treatments have been successful, as also the development of urea-molasses blocks. The organization of research, involving the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, various agricultural universities, State Departments of Animal Husbandry, public and private organizations, as well as research and development programmes involving national and international agencies are also discussed. It is well known that the improved breeds of livestock and poultry, unless fed properly, will not express acquired genetic potential under excellent health and environment. Improved breeding and health cover are, therefore, no substitute for proper feeding. The most critical input in animal production strategy, therefore, is provision of improved and balanced nutrition to livestock and poultry in India where the amount of good quality feeds and fodder are inadequate, and there exists a large number of less productive animals.,

1. Feed Resources

The annual requirements of feeds and fodder are estimated to be 25.4 million tonnes of concentrates, 353.0 million tonnes of dry fodder and 308.1 million tonnes

139 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues of green fodder. However, only 16.5 million tonnes of concentrates, 300.5 million tonnes of dry fodder and 261.0 million tonnes of green fodder are available. The gap between the availability and requirements of concentrates and green fodder is very wide, and there is a shortfall of 44 per cent for concentrates and 38 per cent for green fodder. In terms of digestible crude protein and total digestible nutrients, the shortfall is 34 per cent and 37 per cent, respectively (Table 1). Current milk production in the country has been estimated at 42 million tonnes compared to 30 million tonnes a decade ago. The increase in production is due to massive crossbreeding programmes, especially in cattle and in the use of improved quality of feeds and fodder. Of this total production, the milk contribution from buffaloes with less development support is about 55 per cent. Crop residues and other cellulosic materials are staple ruminant feeds in India. The most abundant residues are the cereal straws of which rice straw forms the bulk. The estimated annual production in India varies from 200 to 250 million tonnes. The low nitrogen and mineral content, along with the high lignin and silica content of these roughages influence their low digestibility and cannot meet the maintenance requirements of ruminants. In order to achieve production, concentrates and/or green fodders have to be fed along with the straws. The availability of concentrate supplements is not only inadequate but also expensive. Additionally, any improvement in the nutritional quality of straws and bagasse will enhance nutrient supply to livestock. Improving digestibility refers particularly to cellulose and hemicellulose. If, for example, the digestibility of dry matter could be increased from 40 to 44 per cent, this increases the available energy by 10 per cent, leading to doubling of the amount of energy for production. Also, any increase in the utilizable nitrogen content will also help to reduce the requirements for the amount of concentrates at supplementary green feeds. In Indian crop residues like wheat and paddy straw and "Jowar" (sorghum), "bajra" (pearl-millet), "ragi" (finger millet) and maize stovers are generally stored, at the time of the harvest, near farmers' houses either in the form of stacks of "bonga" or in a thatched but or sometimes within the house. These roughages

Table 1

Requirements of Nutrients for Bovine Populations in India (106 t)

Attribute Requirements Present Deficit availability

Energy (TDN)+ 342 216 37.0 Protein (DCP)" 24 16 34.0

Roughages Green fodder 343.57 .227.5 36 per cent Dry fodder 347.00 207.0 Concentrates 19.60 11.10 44 per cent

+ TDN - Total digestible nutrients ++ DCP - Digestible crude protein

140 Feed Resources and Utilization in India are fed to livestock either alone or whenever possible (to prevent weight loss of the animal), mixed with a small supplement of green forage (maize, sorghum, cowpea, berseem) with or without concentrates (groundnut cake or other oil cakes/meals). A handful of common salt is also offered occasionally. In some cases chaffed straws are wetted or soaked in water prior to feeding. Any practical treatment of straw to increase the nutritional quality must take into consideration prevalent animal husbandry practices related to harvesting, transportation, storage and feeding of straws. Attention also needs to be given to improving the feed resources through breeding better varieties of cultivated fodder to get higher yields and better quality nutrients per unit area, time and inputs. Introduction of fodder legumes in crop rotation and inter-crops, revegetating waste lands, common grazing lands and natural rangelands through reseeding with perennial grasses and legumes are other possibilities. Another approach which has been initiated in India refers to the coordinated research project on the utilization of agricultural by-products and industrial waste materials for evolving economic rations for livestock funded by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) since 1967. Many feed materials, including non-conventional feeds, are also being used in formulating rations for livestock and poultry. The feed compounding industry is presently using such materials to produce livestock feeds, which has significantly increased over the last two decades (Table 2).

11. Research and Development

An extensive research and development programme has been launched in India to achieve the required target of milk, meat, fibre and other produces from livestock and poultry. Although, the productivity of animals has increased through improving their genetic merit and providing better quality rations, the production targets are far from being realized. This emphasizes the need to expand further in terms of quality and quantity. A linear increase in human population in our country demands more and more land use for food and fibre production, thus allowing no additional land to produce more feeds and fodder. It is, therefore, imperative for us to improve the feed resource situation by adding non-conventional and less utilizable feed ingredients to the animal feed reservoir. Research in animal nutrition in India is undertaken by the ICAR, State Agricultural Universities and some public and private organizations. The application of research results is carried out by professionals employed by the State and Central Government Departments of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, and a number of public and private organizations who undertake limited animal nutrition research at the livestock farmers' level. ICAR operates through its network of research organizations in undertaking fundamental as well as applied research to address solutions to problems on animal production. The research is carried out through Central Institutes, National Research Centres, Project Directorates and National Bureaux, etc. The Council also promotes various research activities in animal science throughout the country on location-specific problems. This is achieved through the cooperative endeavour

141 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 2

Compound Feeds Produced by CLFMA (103 t) (Annual Report of CLFMA, 1987)

Year Cattle and other Feeds Poultry Feeds Total

1964 25.0 14.0 39.4 1965 53.3 25.4 78.6 1966 69.4 39.2 108.6 1967 91.5 42.6 134.1 1968 94.5 47.1 141.6 1969 131.3 57.7 189.0 1970 125.4 84.3 209.7 1971 144.8 114.7 259.5 1972 188.5 183.0 371.5 1973 238.3 163.8 402.1 1974 275.4 164.6 440.0 1975 275.3 143.9 419.2 1976 313.8 160.5 474.3 1977 401.8 204.2 606.0 1978 428.9 225.7 654.6 1979 517.6 270.4 788.0 1980 549.9 350.2 900.1 1981 590.9 359.3 950.2 1982 618.9 325.3 944.2 1983 663.9 348.9 1012.8 1984 750.5 406.7 1157.2 1985 867.3 502.8 1370.1 1986 924.8 567.4 1492.2 1987 1229.0 654.3 1883.3

The zone-wise production of our members during the year 1987 were as follows: (103 t, 1987)

Zone Cattle and other Feeds Poultry Feeds Total

South zone 381.3 327.6 708.9 North zone 141.3 189.6 330.7 West zone 789.6 122.7 812.3 East zone 16.9 14.4 31.3

Total 1228.9 654.3 1883.2 of State Agricultural Universities and other research institutes. The Council locates coordinated research projects at these institutions. It also helps State Agricultur- al Universities to improve their research capabilities under the National Agricul- tural Research projects, assisted by the World Bank. Research on specialized projects is also pursued in collaboration with foreign agencies such as India-USA

142 Feed Resources and Utilization in India fund, USA Agency for International Development (USAID), I ndo- Netherlands, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), World Bank and many others. The Council also supports research institutions in time-bound ad hoc research schemes on a 100 per cent basis using agricultural produce cess funds.

III. Organizing Research

At present, the facilities for conducting research in animal nutrition are available in animal nutrition divisions or sections of eight ICAR research institutes, along with their regional centres, (Indian Veterinary Research Institute, National Dairy Research Institute, Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Central Insti- tute for Research on Buffaloes, Central Institute for Research on Goats, Central Avian Research Institute, Central Agricultural Research Institute at Portblair, Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute) and four national research centres, (National Research Centres on Equines, Camel, Yak and Mithun), the research complex for the North Eastern Hill Region, and animal nutrition and animal science departments of 23 Agricultural Universities. In addition, facilities are also available at the Agricultural Research Institute, Allahabad, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, R.B. College, Agra, and Bharatiya Agro-industrial Foun- dation (BAIF), Pune. In addition to the research conducted at these institutions, the ICAR also supports various programmes in many other institutions and universities in order to tackle regional problems. It also provides support to coordinated research projects and research directories. The All India coordinated research project on utilization of by-products of agriculture, forest, marine and such other origin as livestock feeds is implemented in 12 centres in various parts of the country. The objectives of the project are:

1) To study agricultural wastes, forest products and by-products of"agricultural based industries as a possible source for livestock feed and thereby augment feed resources and improve nutritional standards of livestock by utilizing these materials. 2) To investigate the possibilities of improving the nutritive value of such by- products by suitable treatment. 3) To evolve non-cereal economic rations for cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and pigs. The project directorates on cattle and poultry improvement also undertake research on nutrition in cattle and poultry, including broilers and layers. In addition, several schemes are also sanctioned by the ICAR to the universities from the agricultural produce cess funds and USA-India funds. These schemes are scrutinized and approved by the Scientific Panel on Animal Nutrition before funds are released for their implementation. An Indo-Dutch project on bio-conversion of fibrous crop residues was implemented in our country for improving the nutritive value of the crop residues (straws, bagasse, etc.) used for the feeding of ruminants, by means of chemical

143 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues and biological treatments. It is hoped that the methods developed would be economically viable and technically feasible for the farmers. Research on conversion of biodegradable animal wastes, such as poultry litter, dung and urine, slaughter house wastes, fish industry by-products and wastes as livestock feed is conducted in five different centres using USAID assistance. The project aims at bioconversion of these wastes by a wide array of micro-organisms: algae, bacteria and fungi alone in combination with physical or chemical processes, so that these can be suitably incorporated in livestock and poultry rations. Appropriate research is needed to develop methods for microbial conversions of waste materials of animal origin. The utilization of such converted feeds offers an important means for maintenance and production of farm animals. Specific processing techniques based on the bioconversion method will be developed for the utilization of non-conventional feeds for utilization in villages. The identification, development and testing of processing technologies cover the treatment of wastes, their evaluation and utilization. The use of such materials in animal feeds will help small farmers, landless labourers and organized farms to minimize cost of animal rations and raise production. The research programme also includes the establishment of a pilot scheme for testing at the village level and extension of the methodology to selected villages or animal populations. The operational part will be taken up by all the centres of the sub-project. These projects supplement the ongoing research on expanding feed resources for livestock and poultry production. Both basic and applied research in animal nutrition is thus undertaken in all states of the country, taking account of regional and ecological considerations, competence of the scientists and adequate laboratory facilities, species of livestock, multi-locational testing and other relevant factors. The efforts hitherto have been commendable but will need to be further strengthened by expanding the scope of animal nutrition research activities to include more unconventional and less utilizable available feeds. Simultaneously, there is a need for the developmental agencies to be more committed to utilizing research results in the field, as well as providing feedback to the scientists for resolving other problems faced by the small farmers. Therefore, the continuing influence of science and technology is essential to animal feeds and feeding to produce more feeds and fibre for the livestock resources.

IV. Utilization of Research Findings

A large number of treatments, mainly physical or chemical, have been tried for improving the digestibility of crop residues. Physical treatments sometimes require special equipment and considerable power and are not applicable to many situations in India. The chemical methods primarily utilize alkali and steam for improving the feeding values of poor quality roughages.

V. Alkali Treatments

The most effective chemical method used in India is sodium hydroxide, applied at the rate of 4 per cent by weight of the straw. It works rapidly in increasing

144 Feed Resources and Utilization in India the digestibility and palatability of straw. However, it is expensive, corrosive and its use may result in significant excretion of sodium ions with the excreta of the animals. Long-term accumulation of sodium in the soils may lead to soil fertility problems and environmental pollution. Thus its application is not popular with the farmers.

VI. Urea Treatment

More recently, urea has been utilized on moistened straw at a rate of 4 per cent of dry weight, ensiled in stacks to allow the liberated ammonia to act on the feed. The ammonia is liberated from the urea due to the action of the enzyme urease which is present in the micro-organisms on the straw. Urea treatment significantly improves both the digestibility and palatability of the straw. It has been shown that the nutritive value of urea treated, stacked straw is as good as green sorghum forage. The improvement in the nutritive value of the treated wheat straw is sufficient to support a growth rate of 300 g per day with a small quantity of by-pass proteins. It can also support the production of 3-4 1/day of milk with a small amount of green fodder. Among the various treatments available, 4 per cent urea treatment with 45 to 50 per cent moisture appears to be feasible for two reasons. Firstly, urea is a heavily subsidized item by the government and it excludes the use of molasses, being an item not easily available to the farmers. Secondly, it is a simple process and can easily be practised by the farmers. The process has immense application value particularly under the drought situation in the country wherein bagasse as well as other cellulosic materials could be utilized for feeding livestock. However, proper methodology is necessary for adoption by extension agencies and voluntary organizations to transfer the technology to the villagers.

VII. Steam Treatment

The use of steam when available such as in sugar factories can be profitably utilized in the treatment of some agricultural by-products such as bagasse. The treatment of bagasse with steam under pressure significantly increases the value of the residues as feed. The advantages here are that steam is available at the factories and no chemicals are applied.

VIII. Urea-Molasses Blocks

The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has started manufacturing urea- molasses blocks at Kanjri Cattle Feed Plant of the KAIRA Union, Anand. It produced more than 300 t in 1986. The blocks are distributed in the states of Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. The NDDP has also commissioned two such plants at Mehsana and Bangalore, in order to meet the growing demand for urea-molasses blocks. It has been planned to establish

145 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

10 more new plants in phases in various states under "Operation Flood". The urea- molasses blocks provide nitrogen to micro-organisms in the rumen and thus, improves digestion of the straw. Additionally, it can supply amino acids in a form which can by-pass fermentation in the rumen and be absorbed in the lower gut of the animal. Cattle and buffaloes fed these supplements show improved body condition, increased conception rates, shorter calving intervals, increased milk yields and milk of better quality. The blocks are simple and inexpensive, and their development has the potential to further increase milk production in India. This increased production can be achieved without any need for more expensive protein concentrates for supplementary feeding. The production and utilization of urea- molasses blocks also assume an increasingly important role in this drought prone sub-continent.

IX. Microbial Treatment

A considerable amount of development work is in progress that depends on microbial action either alone or in combination with mild chemical treatments. Certain fungi such as "white-rot" appear to be capable of destroying the chemical barriers in straw (mainly lignin) that interfere with digestion in the rumen of the ruminants. Ensilation methods should also be developed to allow the fungi to act on straw just long enough to increase its nutritional value. The experiments on treatment of cereal straws with Coprinus culture on millet along with 3 per cent urea, 1 per cent single super-phosphate and 0.1 per cent CaO, has shown a loss of about 40 per cent energy which is lost to the animal. There is also a danger of outside contamination which requires further investigations to save energy from going to waste before the technology can be transferred to the rural areas. The introduction of safe and effective methods to the small and marginal farmer for improving the nutritional quality of agricultural residues as animal feeds should be given priority. Urea treatment of cereal straws and steam treatment of bagasse are already perfected and available for application. Calculations have shown that urea treatment of rice straw can increase the margin over costs in absolute as well as in relative terms with lactating buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Treat- ment of bagasse with steam at the factory provides a reasonable feed which can be extended to farmers who bring the cane for processing. This would improve the feed situation for ruminants and at the same time diminish the waste problems now encountered with bagasse.

References

CLFMA (1986). The compound livestock feed manufacturers association of India. Ann. Rpt., pp. 6-7.

146 Feed Availability, Requirements for Animals and Current Patterns of Utilization in Nepal

N. P Joshi Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science Rampur Nepal

Abstract

Nepal has 15 million livestock which is one of the densest in terms of livestock per unit of cultivated land. Crop-livestock integrated systems are common with an average farm size of 0.85 ha. The average ruminant livestock per farm is 6.6 heads. Most of the livestock are concentrated in the hills which account for 64 per cent cattle, 70 per cent buffalo, 88 per cent sheep and 73 per cent goats. Livestock provide 47 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the mountains and 27 per cent in the hills. The total feed supply is estimated at 5.85 million tonnes TDN. The total feed requirements are estimated at 8.9 million tonnes TDN to support 8.2 x 106 livestock standard unit (LSU). This indicates a deficit of feed to supply 2.8 X 106 LSU, and is particularly critical in the hills. The major sources offeed are crop by- products, forest resources and grazing land. In general, there are adequate feed and fodders during the monsoon season (June - September) but, during the rest of the year, animals are semi-starved. The major feed resources during the eight-month long dry period are low-quality crop by-products like rice, wheat and millet straws. In the mountains, (1800 - 3000 m), the transhumane system of animal keeping is predominant, in which people move with their herd in a systematic cycle, in which there is migration to mid-hills during the winter, and to alpine pastures during the summer. In the hills (500 - 1800 m) people adopt a semi- stationary type of livestock keeping. During summer, the herds move higher to the hills and, during winter, they are kept in and around settlements. In the terai livestock are stall fed, and have access to limited grazing on fallow land.

I. Introduction

Nepal is predominantly an agricultural country. About 90 per cent of the total population of 17 million depend largely on the agriculture sector for their livelihood. Nepalese agriculture is characterized by an integrated crop-livestock farming system. The agriculture sector contributes about 60 per cent to the national

147 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues gross domestic product (GDP) and livestock sub-sector contributes 28 per cent to the GDP (Nepal, 1984). There exist 15 million livestock which, in terms of distribution, reflect one of the densest per unit of cultivated land in the world. Livestock play an important part in the rural economy and provide almost all the draught power needs, manure to field crops and a source for additional household income. Animal agriculture is the major source of the GDP in the mountain regions (47 per cent) and, in the hills, it is about 27 per cent (Chrestha and Sherchand, 1987). Despite these, the importance of this animal wealth has not been appreciated and livestock generally suffer from malnutrition. Inadequate nutrient intake has resulted in poor performance and increased susceptibility to diseases and parasites. An over population of livestock combined with decreasing feed availability is the major reason for declining productivity (Pandey, 1982; Sharma and Pradhan 1985). Increasing human and animal populations together with reduced land for grazing and fodder production is creating a serious problem. This has led to uncontrolled lopping of forest trees for fuel and fodder which has deteriorated the situation even more. Soil erosion is also evident due to cultivation of steep slopes in the hills, resulting in floods and damage to the cultivated land in the terai. The variations in production of indigenous livestock under different plans of nutrition has been reported (Shah, 1975; Shah, 1980). Until and unless the feed supplies are increased, it is impossible to maximize productivity from the indigenous animals. The mountains have limited feeds, the hills are critically short of feeds, but the terai has a balanced feed supply. There is a dearth of data on locally used feed ingredients for the non-ruminants. Pigs and poultry scavenge for feeds and commercial production is centred in and around urban centres which use compounded feeds. Some grain and grain residues and locally available oilseed meals are utilized. In this paper, emphasis is given to ruminants with reference to feed availability, feed and fodder requirements and patterns of utilization.

II. Land Use

Nepal has a total land area of 14,718,000 ha (DFAMS 1986). The land use pattern is presented in Table 1. Forests constitute 37.6 per cent which is the largest land mass. The area available for agriculture is 2,653,300 ha (18 per cent). Area covered by snow is 15.3 per cent. The area previously categorized as reclaimable land, now called pasture and grazing land constitutes 13.4 per cent. The waste land not reclaimable is now categorized in "others". Land under this category is increasing each year due to erosion (Rajbhandari and Shah, 1981). The area under rugged topography (including Himalayas, mountains and hills) occupy 85 per cent of the total land mass of Nepal (Nelson, 1980). For simplicity, the following ecological classification is presented

1. Mountain (1800 - 3000 m) 2. Hills (500 - 1800 m) 3. Terai (up to 500 m)

148 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Nepal

Table 1

Land Use Pattern by Type (DFMS, 1986)

Land use type Area (Sq. km) o

1. Agriculture 26,533 18.0 2. Forest 55,334 37.6 3. Snow 22,163 15.3 4. Pasture/grazing land 19,785 13.4 5. Settlement and Roads 1,033 0.7 6. Water 4,000 2.7 7. Others 18,033 12.3

Total 147,181 100.0

Table 2

Livestock and Poultry Population of Nepal, (103) (DFMAS, 1985)

Ecological belt Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pigs Poultry

Mountains 801 281 352 755 52 1128

Hills 3239 336 1707 2799 268 5645 Terai 2317 852 97 1328 122 2414

Total 6357 2840 785 4882 442 9187 Growth rate (%1 0.3 1.8 2.9 2.8 3.1 4.5

Table 3

Household Livestock Composition (Shrestha and Sherchand, 1987)

Mountain Hills Terai Average

Livestock 10.92 6.35 4.72 6.65 Poultry 3.86 3.76 2.25 3.12 Size of farm (ha) 0.49 0.69 1.89 0.85

III. Livestock Production

1) Livestock population

The livestock population by species and ecological zone is given in Table 2. The animal wealth constitutes 6.36 x 106 cattle, 2.84 x 106 buffalo, 0.79 x 106 sheep, 4.88 x 106 goats, 0.44 x 106 pigs and 9.19 x 106 poultry. Household livestock composition and the size of the average farm by ecological zones are presented in Table 3. The average farm size is 0.85 ha with 6.65 ruminant units and 3.12 poultry units. The cattle population is increasing at a very low rate of

149 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

0.26 per cent, compared to buffaloes at 1.78 per cent. Of the 6.36 x 106 cattle population, 2 x 106 oxen are used for draught purposes (FAO/WB, 1983). These beasts provide all the draught power needs of Nepalese farmers. The livestock population is mostly concentrated in the hills and the mountains and account for 64 per cent of cattle, 70 per cent of buffaloes, 88 per cent of sheep and 73 per cent of goat populations.

2) Livestock products

Livestock provide milk, meat, eggs and wool. Milk is the major source of animal protein to the population. Many farmers have adopted milk production and milk by-products as a secondary occupation for their livelihood. Besides providing meal, a valuable animal protein, livestock and protein droppings are a valuable source of manure for the soil. Total production of milk, meat, egg and wool are presented in Table 4. (a) Milk production Total milk production in Nepal is estimated at 755,000 tonnes, of which about 71 per cent is from buffaloes and 29 per cent from cows. It is clear that the buffalo is the major milch animal of Nepal. Average annual milk production of cows and buffaloes are estimated at 326 1 and 755 1 respectively (DFAMS, 1985). (b) Meat production Total meat production in Nepal is estimated at 130,000 tonnes. Buffaloes contribute about 67 per cent of the total meat production followed by goats, poultry and pigs. The buffalo is again the major source of animal protein. (c) Egg production Total egg production is 271 x 106, of which 96 per cent is from fowls and the rest from domesticated ducks.

Table 4 Livestock and Poultry Products (1985-86) (DFAMS, 1985, 1986)

Milk production (103 t) 755 Cows 220 Buffaloes 535 Meat production (103 t) 130 Buffaloes 87 Mutton 3 Goat 27 Pigs 7 Chicken 6 Ducks 0.2 Egg production (106 number) Fowl 260 Ducks 11 Wool (t) 670

150 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Nepal

(d) Wool production Total wool production in the country is estimated at 670 tonnes per annum.

IV. Feed Requirements

Total digestible nutrient (TDN) requirements by ecological zones and by species are presented in Table 5. The calculations of total TDN requirements were based on the data in Tables 6 and 7. The feed requirements by region are mountains 11 per cent, hills 56 per cent and the terai 33 per cent of the total feed requirements of 8.9 x 106 tonnes of TDN. Estimations of TDN requirements also involved conversions to livestock standard unit (LSU). The calculation is based on theoretical requirements for maintenance and performance (Sen et al., 1978).

V. Available Feed Resources

The TDN supply available from different sources by ecological zones is given in Table 8. Of the total available TDN supply of 5.85 x 106 tonnes, the terai

Table 5

Feed Requirements by Ecological Zones+ (103 t TDN)

Species/Region Mountain Hills Terai Total

Cattle 437 2674 1973 5084 Buffalo 283 1726 861 2870 Sheep/Goat 210 585 115 910

Total 930 4985 2949 8864

'Calculations are based on Table 6, 1 LSU = 300 kg; 1 mt TDN = 0.92 LSU (See text for explanation)

Table 6

Livestock Standard Units by Ecological Zone+ (103 LSU)++

Species/Region Mountain Hills Terai Total

Cattle 402 2460 1815 4677 Buffalo 260 1588 792 2640 Sheep/Goat 193 538 106 837

Total 855 4586 2713 8154

+ Calculations based on data in Table 2. ++ Livestock standard unit (see text for explanation)

151 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 7 TDN Requirements/year for Ruminants

Species Adult Young Male Female Feed (kg) LSU Feed (kg) LSU Feed (kg) LSU

Cattle 1031 0.95 748 0.69 407 0.38 Buffaloes 986 0.91 1083 1.0 770 0.71 Sheep/goat 274 0.25 239 0.22 73 0.07

Source: Based on live weight and performance (Sen et al., 1978)

Table 8

TDN Supply From Different Sources (1985) (103 mt TON, APROSC, 1986)

Species/Region Mountain Hills Terai Total

Grazing 510 120 40 670 Forest 120 500 390 1010 Shrubs and burnt forest 170 330 30 530 Fallow grazing 20 90 130 240 Fodder (on farm) - 50 70 120 Risers and bunds 50 210 70 330 Grains and residues - 20 - 20 Crop by-products 160 790 1980 2930

Total 1030 2100 2720 5850

Table 9 TDN Supply From Crop By-Products (103 mt APROSC, 1986; DFAMS, 1986)

Crops Production Crop TDN factor TDN

Paddy 2804.50 0.66 1848.16 Maize 873.80 0.28 244.66 Millet 137.90 0.61 84.12 Wheat 598.00 0.28 169.23 Barley 23.40 0.58 13.67 Oilseed 78.66 0.50 39.49 Pulses 146.00 0.27 39.42 Others - - 487.48

Total 2926.23

152 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Nepal produced 46 per cent, the hills 36 per cent and the mountains 18 per cent. Forest grazing land, crop by-products, grasses and fodder are the major sources of animal feeds.

1) Crop by-products

The total cultivated area is estimated at 2.6 million ha (Table 1). It supplies 2.93 X 106 tonnes TDN which accounts for 50 per cent of the total supply. About 68 per cent of the TDN supply from crop by-products is in the terai, 27 per cent in the hills and 5 per cent in the mountains. TDN supply from various crop by- products is presented in Table 9. Straws from rice, wheat, barley and millet, dry stocks and stovers from maize and residues from oilseeds and pulses are the major crop by-products fed to the livestock. Large ruminants are very dependent on crop residues, while the small ruminants get their feed mainly by grazing pasture and browsing fodder trees and bushes.

2) Risers and bunds

Risers and bunds constitute 17 per cent of the total cultivated area in the mountains and hills and 5 per cent in the terai. Each ha produces 1.44 tonnes of TDN (APROSC, 1986). About 0.34 x 106 tonnes of TDN is supplied by the grasses in risers and bunds, which constitutes 5.8 per cent of the total available TDN. About 78 per cent of the total TDN from risers and bunds is available in the hills and mountains and 22 per cent in the terai. 3) Grazing

About 1.98 x 106 ha of pasture and grazing land is available, mostly in the hills and mountains. These are classified according to altitude and are an important source of feed. About 11.5 per cent of the total TDN available is supplied by grazing. More than 93 per cent of the total TDN supplied by grazing is in the hills and the terai. There is great variation in the productivity. Alpine pastures produce 1.54 tonnes TDN/ha, whereas the hills produce 0.06 tonnes TDN/ha and the terai 0.58 tonnes (APROSC, 1986).

4) Forests

Forests provide 17 per cent of the total TDN available in the country. The supply of TDN is in the form of grazing and collection of soilage. Supply of TDN/ha depends upon the type of forest and ranges from 0.1 to 0.34 tonnes TDN/ha (APROSC, 1986). About 50 per cent of the TDN supplied by forests is in the hills, 39 per cent in the terai and 21 per cent in the mountains.

5) Shrubs and burnt forest

These supply 9 per cent of the total available TDN. Only 6 per cent of this is available in the terai, 61 per cent in the hills and 33 per cent in the mountain regions.

6) On farm fodder

Only 2 per cent of the available TDN is supplied by on-farm fodder of which 59 per cent comes from the terai and 41 per cent from the hills.

153 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

7) Fallow grazing

Fallow grazing contributes 4 per cent of the total TDN supply, of which 53 per cent is shared by the terai, 38 per cent by the hills and 9 per cent by the mountain region.

8) Grains and residues

Only limited amounts of grain and some grain residues are fed which is less than 0.5 per cent of the total TDN supply. Brans from rice, wheat, barley, maize and cakes from oilseed are fully utilized.

VI. Feed Balance

Feed balance by ecological zones are presented in Table 10. The mountains have some surplus feed (0.1 x 106 tonnes TDN), but in the hills the feed balance is 58 per cent short of the requirements of 4.99 x 106 tonnes TDN. The feed balance in the terai is only 8 per cent short of the requirements (2.95 x 106 tonnes TDN). Seasonality of feed and availability of fodders are important issues to be considered. The green fodder available during the monsoon season (June - September) could be considered adequate. However, during the long dry period from October to May, animals depend on crop residues, mainly straws, during which time there is inadequate nutrition and they are in a state of semi-starvation. It has been reported that feed requirements for the unproductive cattle is much more than for buffaloes, goats, and sheep combined together (Rajbhandari and Shah, 1981). The feed requirements for large ruminants is 89 per cent of the total feed requirement. The feed balance sheet clearly indicates that there are inadequate feeds to support 2.77 x 106 LSU.

VII. Feed Utilization

Amounts of feed available and feeding resources vary from one ecological zone to another in the upper hills and mountains. Ruminants mainly depend upon forest and shrubland and rangelands for grazing. Herds of cattle and buffaloes as well as flocks of sheep and goats are maintained in a transhumane system.

Table 10

Feed Balance Sheet by Ecological Zone + (103 t TDN)

Mountain Hills Terai Total

Feed required 930 4985 2949 8864 Feed available 1030 2100 2720 5850

Balance (+) 100 (-) 2885 (-) 229 (-) 3014

154 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Nepal

During the winter months, there is a lack of feeds and most of the herds are moved south to the mid-hills. There are systematic cycles of livestock movement suitable to a particular region. The animals are moved to the crop fields just after the harvest of summer and winter crops to utilize crop residues and manure the fields. The herds move north as spring commences and by early summer they move toward the mountain pastures. Cattle and buffaloes do not move above the upper limit of the forest line whereas sheep and goats are able to do so. In the mid-hills and lower hills, livestock are kept in a semi-stationary system. During the winter, animals are kept in and around the settlements and during the monsoon, they are taken to forest and pasture land for grazing. Forest resources, grasses from risers and bunds, on-farm fodder trees, crop residues and grazing are the major sources of feeds in this region. Terai agriculture is crop-oriented. Livestock are considered to provide draught power and manure. Crop residues are the most important feeding resources in the terai. Animals are mainly stall-fed. Limited grazing is allowed on fallow land.. Most of the rice straw (90 per cent) is used as animal feeds but only 30 per cent in respect of wheat straw. Limited quantities of sugar cane by-products like bagasse and molasses are used near the factory areas. Brewers by-products have not been effectively utilized yet. Limited canning industry by-products exist for use as animal feeds.

VIII. Conclusions and Recommendations

The following are the main conclusions concerning feed resource utilization: i) There is a feed deficit to support 2.77 x 106 LSU. The problem is more critical in the hills as most of the livestock population is concentrated there. ii) There is a deficit of 3 x 106 tonnes of TDN, mainly in the hills. iii) There are variations in feed resources and availability from one ecological region to another. iv) Buffaloes are the choice animal for milk as well as for meat purposes as there are no taboos against culling unproductive animals. v) There is a lack of appropriate technologies to conserve surplus forages during the monsoon. vi) Cropland is the major source of feeds and provide about 62 per cent of the total feed supply in the country, consisting of on-farm fodders, crop residues and fallow grazing. vii) Forest and grazing land are over-grazed and are the major cause of degrading the ecosystem in the hills.

1) Recommendations

No breed improvement plans or health care plan will yield any significant results without effective strategies to increase feed and fodder production. The productivity of livestock will continue to decline unless there are major development plans to increase feed and fodder production. Any strategy to increase feed and fodder production should be based on the specific characters of the ecological zones in terms of the climate, composition

155 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues of livestock populations and resource base. Local communities should be involved in developing strategies so that they are realistic and responsive. Appropriate extension techniques are also necessary. Currently, the institutions involved in livestock development do not have sufficient manpower to run ongoing programmes effectively and this needs to be increased. In the mountains, emphasis should be placed on increasing productivity of pasture land as it is the main resource base. Conservation of surplus feeds should be encouraged by developing appropriate technologies. This hill region is of utmost importance for livestock production. The development strategies in this zone include : (a) Increased productivity of range and pasture land; (b) Controlled use of forest resources; (c) Appropriate technologies for fodder conservation for the lean periods; (d) Improvement of nutritional quality of crop by-products; and (e) Fodder tree plantations. Since crop by-products are the major feed resource base in the Terai (73 per cent), the availability of feed and fodder depends largely on crop production. The strategies in the terai include: (a) Fodder tree plantations where crops cannot be grown or productivity is low; (b) Intensive crop production; (c) Techniques to conserve fodder during monsoon season; (d) Storage of straw and crop residues to avoid losses; (e) Improved nutritional quality of crop residues; and (f) Expanded use of agro-industrial by-products in feeding livestock wherever feasible.

Reference

APROSC, (1986). Perspective land use plan (1985-2005). Submitted to National Planning Commission. Agricultural Projects Service Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 122-136. DFAMS, (1985). Report on livestock statistics of Nepal. Agricultural Statistics Division, Department of Food and Agricultural Marketing Services, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 15-34. DFAMS, (1985). Handbook of Agricultural Statistics of Nepal. Agricultural Division, Department of Food and Agricultural Marketing Services, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 15-34. FAO/WB, (1983). Nepal Agricultural Research. Review Mission Report, No. 92/83 (Mimeograph). Nelson, D. (1980). Watershed condition in Nepal. NFP/70/020, FAO/UNDP/HMG (Mimeograph). Nepal, 1984. Economic Survey. Ministry of Finance, His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. Pandey, K.K. (1982). Fodder trees and tree fodder in Nepal. Swiss Development Cooperation, Berne, Switzerland, pp. 28-38.

156 Feed Resources and Utilization in India

Rajbhandari, H.B. and Pradhan, S.M.S. (1981). Appropriate technology for livestock development to hill farming system. Seminar on Appropriate Techno- logy for Hill Farming System, pp. 10-14. Rajbhandari, H.B. and Shah, S.G. (1981). Trends and projection of livestock production in the hills. Nepal's Experience in Hill Agricultural Development, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 43-57. Sen, K.C., Ray, S.N. and Ranjhan, S.K. (1978). Nutritive values of Indian cattle feeds and the feeding of animals. ICAR, New Delhi, India, pp. 12-19. Shah, S.G. (1975). Livestock Development Farm Report, Regional Agriculture Seminar, Pokhara, Nepal. Shah, S.G. (1980). Animal husbandry and feed resource system in the Phewatal watershed. FAO/UNDP/HMG (Mimeograph). Sharma, L.P. and Pradhan, D.R. (1985). Present fodder resources and prospects of their development in the hills of Nepal. Livestock in the Hills of Nepal, Pakhribas, Nepal. Shrestha, N.P. and Sherchand, L. (1987). Livestock in Nepalese Farming Systems. Livestock Training Manual for Peace Corps Volunteer, Pokhara, pp. 1-9.

157 Feed Availability, Requirements for Animals and Current Patterns of Utilization in Pakistan

M. Y. Malik of Animal Nutrition College of Veterinary Sciences Lahore Pakistan

Abstract

Livestock production in Pakistan depends heavily on traditional feeding methods. Due to an increasing human population, priority has been given to production of food grains and cash crops. Livestock frequently face a shortage of traditional forages and pastures. Under the circumstances, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products offer great potential for feeding livestock. Considering the feed resources available in the country, there exists an acute deficiency of nutrients. As a result, the productivity of livestock is not in accordance with their genetic potential. To overcome thefeed deficit situation, efforts are necessary to increaseforage supplies through the introduction of high yielding varieties and increased application of fertilizers. Improved feeding systems and processing of crop residues should also be developed to fulfil the feeding requirements of livestock. A large-scale national programme for the improvement of pastoral rangelands which constitute about 213 of the total area needs special attention.

1. Introduction

Livestock production in Pakistan depends heavily on traditional feeding methods. On account of the increasing human population (about 3 per cent annually), priority is attached to the production of food grains and savings in foreign exchange. The pressure on cultivable land is severe and maximum production is achieved through the use of irrigation and rainfall. The livestock owner is frequently faced with a shortage of traditional forages and pastures due to limited land. This is constrained by 72 per cent of the land area being arid, semi-arid and range lands. Reclamation of new land and the establishment of pastures or opening land for forage production are expensive undertakings. Furthermore, the introduction of new species and varieties of fodders or grasses has to be accompanied by inputs of fertilizers and management skills. Low soil fertility and lack

158 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Pakistan of water in some parts would also require expensive investments in irrigation systems. Under these circumstances, crop residues and by-products offer great potential, particularly when the approach to their use is accompanied by new feeding techniques and processing to improve their nutritive value for feeding to livestock.

II. Forage Production

Production of sufficient quality forage is basic to the development of an efficient and productive livestock industry. Forages are the cheapest feed for ruminants. The agriculture sector has been focusing on food and fibre crops to the neglect of feeds and fodders. As a result, the fodder crops production has been limited to 5-6 million acres of irrigated area with yield of 27-30 tonnes/ha as compared to 74-99 tonnes/ha of green fodder potentially feasible. Very little is being done to introduce the nutrient and high yielding varieties of fodders. Presently, the main sources of feeds in the country are green fodders, dry roughages, and rangelands and pastures.

III. Feed Resources

1) Green fodders

According to season, two types of fodder crops, namely summer crops (Kharij) and winter crops (Rabt), are grown in the areas where canal water or other water resources are available. Both crops are ready for harvesting two to three months after sowing. The early or late sown crops yield less fodder because their growth is greatly affected by climatic conditions. The scarcity of green fodder in these areas is experienced at two periods of the year, May to June and November to December.

2) Nutritive value of green fodders The chemical composition and nutritive value of green fodders are variable and depend on the species, stage of growth, soil condition, fertilizer application, availability of water and climatic conditions. At earlier stages of growth, the dry matter content is less and the digestible protein (DP) and total digestible nutrients (TDN) are higher. When plants are harvested at later stages of maturity, their DP and TDN contents decrease while the crude fibre and lignin contents increase considerably which adversely influence the digestibility of green fodders for livestock. Leguminous and non-leguminous crops differ in their nutritional value. The former are richer in protein but lower in carbohydrates, and hence mixed sowing of these crops is a common practice among farmers, resulting in fodders that are relatively balanced in nutrient content. Most of the farmers in the country do not fully realize the great difference in the nutritive value of fodders at different stages of growth and the importance of the optimum stage of cutting.

159 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 1 shows a comparison of fodder yields at the farm field and the research station.

3) Crop residues

The quality of available crop residues is large. Although crop residues are widely used by farmers, there is much scope for their more efficient utilization. The production of indigenous cereal straws and stovers and their feeding value is given in Table 2. The data indicate that cereal straws/stovers are deficient in protein and energy. The crude protein content varies considerably due to varieties used, fertilization and mineral constituents. The level of trace minerals is greatly influenced by the composition of the soil and the fertilization practices. The high mineral content of rice straw seriously limits its utilization as a feed for ruminants. Another unwanted constituent of rice straw is oxalic acid which can cause rumen disorders. Oxalic acid can however be eliminated from rice straw by alkali treatment, washing or ensiling.

4) Feeding value

The potential for feeding of cereal crop residues is comparatively high. The large volumes available, together with the availability of molasses at low cost offer an attractive means to utilize these in systems based on straw, stovers and molasses- urea. Feeding 5 per cent urea with 30 per cent wheat straw and 25 per cent molasses showed significant improvement in live weight gain as well as feed efficiency in lambs (Table 3). Straws and stovers, after processing and supplementation, could be the main ingredient of complete rations for dairy and beef cattle and buffaloes. The choice of treatment would however depend on the economic viability of the processing systems.

Table 1 Comparison of Green Fodder Yield at Farmer's Field and Research Station (Noor and Khan, 1986)

Unimproved seed and poor' Improved varieties and production production technology used technology used

Crops t/Ha t/Ha Improved Varieties

Berseem 54.83 123.50 4/11, Synthetic, P-37, L-64 + 13 Lucerne 38.28 86.45 Type 8, 9 Synthetic Sonora Oats 34.58 69.16 Avon, S-81, PD2 LV 65 Sorghum 22.85 64.22 No. 94, Hegari, No. 132 Maize 27.66 49.04 Akbar, Neelum Millet 28.65 61.75 Synthetic 1/79, D.G. Bajra, 18 BY Cowpea 17.29 30.87 P-518, P-76, TV-13 B.N. Hybrid 74.10 148.20 No. 13 S S Hybrid 58.53 127.20 R.L.A. X s.g. 1253 R.I.A. X s.g. 4158 Elephant Grass 39.52 79.04 A-146

160 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Pakistan

Table 2

Production of Cereal Crop Residues in Pakistan (1984-85) (Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan 1985)

Type of residue Quantity produced (t) TDN (t)

Wheat straw 16.38 7.86 Rice straw 3.64 1.49 Barley straw 0.15 0.07 Oats straw 1.22 0.61 Millet straw 0.51 0.23 Maize crop residue 1.38 0.69 Others 25.29 7.22

48.83 18.17

Table 3

Use of Urea with Molasses in Fattening Rations for Sheep (Malik, 1984)

Wheat Molasses Urea Average daily Feed/gain straw(%) (%) (%) gain (g) (DM)

14.5 20.0 - 123 11.5 22.0 20.0 0.5 123 11.5 27.5 20.0 1.0 114 12.3 30.0 20.0 1.5 141 9.1

Table 4

Sugar Cane Crop Residues Production (Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, 1985)

Type of Residue Quantity (t) CP (Kg) TDN (Kg)

Tops 9.64 588 1447 Leaves 1.61 91 241 Bagasse 2.09 58 418 Pith 1.05 20 209

5) Sugar cane crop residues Sugar cane crop residues are produced in large quantities. The nutritive value of sugar cane residues is approximately equal to forage of average quality. It is estimated that about four million tonnes of total digestible nutrients (TDN) are available (Table 4), and can support more than one million dairy animals and about two million heads of beef cattle. Sugar cane tops with or without leaves have good feeding value and are readily accepted by ruminants either fresh, dried

161 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues or processed when supplemented 5-20 per cent molasses, urea, and other nutrients. They could be a total substitute for forage and ensure good performance of all animal species. Bagasse is also a by-product from sugar cane and is exclusively used as a fuel for factory boilers. The digestibility of bagasse is low because it contains about 20 per cent lignin, 29 per cent pentosans and 40 per cent cellulose, mainly oc-cellulose. It can, after processing, be used as a forage substitute for animals. The processing increases the TDN value from about 28 to 45 per cent. A number of processes now exist which can separate the pith from Bagasse. Pith is also a good carrier of molasses and, when mixed with other ingredients, can make a good substitute for forage. Sugar beet is an important crop, which is rapidly increasing its popularity as a Kharif crop in the northern part of the country. Pulp and leaves are residues which can be utilized if properly supplemented with other ingredients. The annual production of this crop residue in 1984-85 from sugar beet was 129 kg which provided 81 kg TDN.

6) Leguminous crop residues

A large number of leguminous crops are cultivated in Pakistan. Guar is the main legume crop and generates residues which represent more than half of the total legume crop residues. The proximate analysis of leguminous crop residues indicate that they are a good substitute for forage in terms of proteins and energy. The production of TDN from main leguminous crops is presented in Table 5.

Table 5 TDN Production from Main Leguminous Crops (Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, 1985)

Legume Residue Quantity (Kg) TDN (Kg)

Guar Straws 608 308 Pods 202 116 Mungs Straws 97 51 Pods 41 26 Mash Straws 113 57 Pods 48 29 Masoor Straws 39 21 Pods 81 13 Mattar Straws 83 47 Pods 101 68 Groundnut Straws 121 68 Hulls 43 10 Pealings 9 6 Other Kharif Total 45 23 Pulses Residue

TOTAL 1571 843

162 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Pakistan

7) Cotton crop residues

A general feature of all the cotton residues and by-products is the high lignin content. The total production of crop residues from cotton in 1984-85 was 6.8 tonnes equivalent to 2.7 tonnes of TDN. The feeding value of all these residues except cotton fibre can be greatly improved by NaOH or NH3 treatments. An experiment on sheep fed three different levels of cotton seed hulls indicated that the incorporation of higher levels was detrimental to their performance (Table 6).

8) Treatment of crop residues

Several studies have been made in the chemical treatment of crop residues. A study on the effect of lime and sodium hydroxide treatments on the nutritive value of wheat straw indicated that 1 per cent lime water treatment and 3.3 per cent sodium hydroxide significantly improved the nutritive value of wheat straw for fattening of Sahiwal calves (Table 7). A study on the effect of ammoniation and sodium hydroxide treatment on the nutritive value of rice straw indicated that ammoniation, sodium hydroxide treatment and sodium hydroxide and ammonia

Table 6 Feedings of Different Levels of Cotton Seed Hulls in Sheep (Malik, 1960)

Cotton seed Crude TON Daily live Feed Feed cost/kg hulls (%1 protein (%) weight gain efficiency live weight (%) (g) (DM) gain

12 10.6 76.6 172 8.6 16.4 28 10.2 69.6 150 12.8 20.5 44 9.7 62.8 127 15.6 20.7

Table 7 Effect of Alkali (Lime and Sodium Hydroxide) Treatments on the Nutritive Value of Wheat Straw fed to Sahiwal Calves (Ashfaq and Malik, 1984)

Treatment Average daily Feed DIGESTION CO-EFFICIENTS % live weight efficiency DM CP EE CF gain (Kg) (DM)

Untreated 0.799 908 60.4 77.6 75.9 47.3

1 % lime water 0.864" 8.82" 62.4 79.1 77.6 49.3 treatment 3.3% NaOH 0.930*x 8.58" 64.5 80.5 79.8 50.3 treatment

.. P < 0.01

163 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues treatment improved the nutritive value of rice straw in fattening Sahiwal calves (Table 8). In another study on the effect of ammoniation on the nutritive value of wheat straw and sugar cane pith, it was observed that 3.5 per cent ammonia treatment improved the nutritive value of wheat straw for fattening of lambs (Table 9). Ensiling crop residues with non-protein nitrogenous (NPN) compounds like urea can also be used at the farm level. With 5 per cent urea-ammonia, a significant improvement in the nutritive value of treated pith with or without manure addition for fattening of calves has been noted (Table 10). At the Livestock Produc- tion Research Institute, Bahadurnagar, a wheat thresher has been developed to treat the wheat straw during wheat harvesting. This wheat thresher has been adopted by a number of commercial livestock farmers for urea-ammonia treatment of straw.

9) Concentrate feeds

These feeds are represented mainly as by-products of vegetable oil, milling, sugar, gum and starch industries. Cereal grains are not normally used for the feeding of ruminants in Pakistan. a) By-products of milling industry Wheat bran, rice bran and polishing are the main milling by-products produced. The nutritional value depends upon the nature of the milling process and also the utilization by individual species. TDN Cattle/ Sheep/ CP CF buffalo goats

Wheat bran 13.7 11.4 73 72 Rice polishing 11.45 3.85 88 91 Rice bran with germs 9.25 13.2 77 73 b) By-products of vegetable oil industry Cotton seed cake represents 78 per cent of the total protein feeds available in the country. Undecorticated cotton seed cake is commonly used for feeding, and contains about 20 per cent of crude protein and relatively higher energy levels because of the presence of residual oil. Decorticated cotton seed cake has a crude protein value of 35-40 per cent and low crude fibre content. It is generally therefore fed to poultry. Mustard and rapeseed cake contain a variety of anti-nutritional factors which limit their use for feeding ruminants. Sesame, soyabean, sunflower, safflower and linseed cake are not produced in appreciable quantities and are generally used for feeding of poultry. c) By-products of gum and starch industry Corn gluten meal containing about 60 per cent protein is entirely used for feeding of poultry. Corn gluten feed contains 20-30 per cent of crude protein and is generally fed to ruminants.

164 Table 8 Effect of Ammoniation and Sodium Hydroxide Treatment on the Nutritive Value of Rice Straw fed to Sahiwal Calves (Rehman and Malik, 1985)

Treatments Average daily Feed DIGESTIBILITY CO-EFFICIENTS % live weight efficiency gain (Kg) (DM) DM CP EE CF ASH NFE

Untreated 0.865 8.26 65.1 72,2 74.9 63.9 44.0 67.8 3.5% Ammoniated 1.005** 7.02** 70.4** 81.0** 85.1** 73.9** 41.9** 70.6 4% NaOH 0.897 7.95** 69.2** 78.3** 88.0** 70.7** 44.9 68.3 NaOH + NH3 treated 1.057** 6.71** 71.0** 79.2** 82.3** 72.5** 54.7** 71.4

** P < 0.01 Table 9 Effect of Ammoniation on the Nutritive Value of Different Roughages in the Fattening of the Lambs (Pasha and Malik, 1984) Treatments Average daily Feed DIGESTIBILITY CO-EFFICIENTS % live weight efficiency EE NFE gain (Kg) (DM) OM CP CF

Untreated wheat 0.130 14.76 70.2 70.3 73.0 72.3 76.8 straw 3.5% ammoniated 0.148** 12.98** 71.5** 73.5 78.9** 79.7 77.9** wheat straw Untreated sugar 0.123 15.55 58.7 61.2 69.3 68.7 68.4 cane pith 3.5% ammoniated 0.137** 13.40** 60.7** 69.2 59.6 57.0 71.8** sugar cane pith

** P < 0.01

Table 10

Improvement in the Nutritive Value of Sugar Cane Pith with Ammoniation using Cattle Manure as an Additive (Rehman 1985)

Treatments Average daily Feed DIGESTIBILITY CO-EFFICIENTS % live weight efficiency DM CID C C NFE gain (Kg) (DM) fat fibre

Untreated Pith 0.615 10.97 66.9 69.1 78.5 62.4 73.9 5% urea ammonia 0.721 10.61 72.7 70.1 84.9 75.1 77.9 treated pith with manure 5% urea ammonia 0.826** 9.11** 75.5** 74.8** 88.3** 70.6 79.5* treated pith with manure

** P < 0.01 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Pakistan d) By-products of sugar industry Two types of molasses, cane and beet molasses, are produced. The annual production amounts to about one million tonnes. Molasses has been shown to be very useful in rations of ruminants as a source of energy and a ruminal microbial stimulant to utilize NPN and low-quality roughages such as cotton seed hulls, maize cobs and cereal straws. It has a mild laxative effect which limits its use in various rations for livestock. Its value for feeding is dependent on the sugar content. Some of the molasses produced in the country is exported and sizeable quantities are used to produce rectified spirit and only relatively small quantities are used to feed livestock. Molasses has been proved to be a good substitute for cereal grains as a source of energy. Various experiments indicate that up to 30 per cent of molasses could be used in beef fattening rations. Up to 20 per cent can be used in fattening rations for sheep and goats, and in dairy concentrates. Cane molasses is better balanced in minerals than beet molasses.

IV. Rangelands and Pastures

Rangeland constitute about two-thirds of the total area in the country. This includes natural grasslands, canals and river banks and hilly grazing areas. The productivity and nutritive value of the forages depend on the rainfall and temperature. The availability of herbage to livestock is severely restricted during certain parts of the year. Malnutrition and very low productivity of livestock are common especially during the dry season when palatability is poor and quality of the forages is poor. These rangelands are overgrazed and, as a result, unwanted and less nutritious plants and grasses exist. Production of forage on the rangelands cannot be estimated presently due to the paucity of data, but it is estimated that 11.20 x 106 tonnes of TDN and 0.75 million tonnes of digestible protein (DP) are available annually to livestock (Table 11).

Table 11

Rangelands and Natural Pastures (Livestock Division, 1985)

TDN DP (Kg) (Kg)

1.Canal banks (121,403 ha) 500 - 2.Road sides (303,509 ha) 600 - 3.Orchards (133,544 ha) 200 - 4.Flood Plains (161,817 ha) 5,500 400 5.Rangelands (56,250,254 ha) 4,400 300

11,200 700

167 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

V. Feed Resources and Livestock Requirements

The total livestock population in Pakistan is estimated to be 88.6 x 106 tonnes of which 16.6 x 106 tonnes are cattle, 13.1 x 106 tonnes are buffaloes, 25.1 x 106 tonnes sheep and 29.7 x 103 tonnes are goats, and other livestocks are 4.2 X 106 tonnes. The equivalent estimated total animal units are 42.9 x 106 tonnes (Table 12). The total annual green fodders and dry roughages produced are estimated as 59.0 and 48.8 x 106 tonnes respectively (Table 13). Each animal unit therefore receives only 4.3 and 3.1 kg'of green fodders and dry roughages which provide 1.8 kg of TDN and 0.08 kg of DP per day respectively. An additional 0.8 kg of TDN and 0.05 kg of DP are available per animal unit daily from the rangelands and natural pastures. This shows a gross deficiency of 3.62 kg of TDN and 0.33 kg of DP compared with the recommended daily maintenance nutrient requirements of an animal unit. The availability of 0.20 kg of TDN and 0.024 kg of DP from agro-industrial by-products also does not fulfil the deficiency of recommended maintenance nutrients requirements of an animal unit. Taking into consideration the feed resources available in the country for feeding of livestock, there is a deficiency of 55.2 per cent of TDN and 66.5 per cent of DP to meet the recommended daily maintenance requirements of an animal unit. These calculations indicate that there are inadequate feeds to feed livestock in the country, as a result of which productivity cannot match the genetic potential in the animals. Under the circumstances, under-feeding of livestock is the major cause for their low animal performance and animal protein deficiency in the country (FAO, 1973).

Table 12

Livestock Population in Pakistan (106) (Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, 1985)

Species Population Animal Units

1 Cattle Adult 11.89 11.89 Young stock 4.66 2.33 2) Buffaloes Adult 7.69 11.54 Young stock 5.39 4.04 3) Sheep Adult 17.90 3.58 Young stock 7.14 0.71 4) Goats Adult 19.56 3.91 Young stock 10.17 1.02 5) Other Livestock Camels 0.92 Donkeys, Asses 2.78 Adult 3.53 Horses 0.45 Young stock 0.35 Mules 0.07

TOTAL 88.62 42.90

168 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Pakistan

Table 13 Feed Resources of Pakistan (106 t) (Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, 1985) Total TDN DP Production

Green fodders 59.01 8.18 1.06 Dry roughages 48.84 18.17 - Rangelands and natural pastures - 11.20 0.75 Agro-industrial by-products 3.15 1.97 0.37

111.00 39.52 2.18

VI. Development of Feed Resources

The following steps could be undertaken to increase feed production and improve their nutritive value:

1) Green Fodders i) Increase the production by the introduction of high yielding, good quality fodders. ii) Encourage the use of fertilizers for increased yield as green fodders respond very much to fertilizer use. iii) Conserve surplus fodders during lush seasons through hay and silage making which make them more nutritious. 2) Dry Roughages Improve the nutritive value through chemical treatments and ammoniation. An increase of 20-50 per cent in the TDN value is possible. 3) Rangelands and Pastures A large-scale national programme is necessary for the improvement of rangelands. 4) Agro-industrial By-products i) Molasses is the best source of energy and can effectively substitute cereals in various livestock feeds. It can be introduced as a liquid supplement, ammoniated molasses. Up to 20-30 per cent levels can be used in compound feeds and concentrates for fattening and for dairy animals. ii) Sugar beet pulp, sugar cane bagasse and pith, corn cobs, cotton seed hulls, rice hulls and citrus pulp can effectively be incorporated in various livestock feeds. iii) A considerable quantity of non-protein nitrogenous compounds like urea, biuret and ammonium compounds can be incorporated in various livestock feeds as partial substitutes for vegetable proteins.

5) Recycling of Organic Wastes Poultry litter and droppings represent a potential source of crude protein for livestock feeding, and a 20-30 per cent level along with molasses can effectively be used for fattening animals.

169 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

References

Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan (1985). Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives, Food and Agriculture Division (Planning Unit), Islamabad, Pakistan, 237 pp. FAO Study (1973). International scheme for the coordination of dairy development, 107 pp. Livestock Division (1982). Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, (Personnel Communication). Malik, M.Y. (1960). Feeding of different levels of cotton seed hulls in sheep. Animal Nutrition Scheme, Lahore, Veterinary College (Mimeograph, 138 pp). Muller, Z.O. (1978). Working paper on recycling of organic waste for productive purposes. In Feeding Potential of Crop Residues in Pakistan. UNDP/FAO project, Pak/74/018, 188 pp. Noor, M. and Khan, S. (1986). Fodder crops for livestock. Proc. Seminar on Appli- cation of New Technology in Livestock Nutrition, Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadur, Nagar, Okara, Pakistan, pp. 15-24. Pasha, T.N. and Malik, M.Y. (1986). Effect of ammoniation on the nutritive value of different roughages in the fattening of lambs. Pakistan Vet. J, 6: 76-79.

170 Feed Availability, Requirements for Animals and Current Patterns of Utilization in Sri Lanka

V Ravindran Department of Animal Science University of Peradeniya Peradeniya Sri Lanka

Abstract

The paper discusses the availability and utilization of animal feed resources in Sri Lanka. The country is self-sufficient in roughage requirements, but deficient in concentrates. Rice straw is the major feed resource available, but only a small proportion is utilized as feed. Other available crop residues and agro-industrial by-products are under-utilized and increasing their utilization represents the challenge for the future. The need to develop appropriate feeding systems, supported by "on farm" evaluations, is also highlighted.

1. Introduction

Sri Lanka is an island which lies between the northern latitudes 5 ° 55' and 9 ° 50' and the eastern longitudes 79' 42' and 80 ° 51'. It covers an area of 65,000 km2. The agricultural economy of the country is crop-based and consists of two distinct components, namely plantation crops (tea, rubber and coconuts which are largely export oriented) and rice and subsidiary food crops. There has been considerable attention to crop agriculture and cropping systems, but little interest has been shown to the animal component in small farms. Animal agriculture has always received low priority in government budgetary allocations, because it is viewed as technologically static and incapable of providing economic growth. The net result is that the levels of animal protein consumption continue to be far below the recommended requirements. These low levels of consumption are primarily due to an animal industry which has not kept pace with growth in human population (Table 1). This stagnancy in animal numbers is often regarded as a reflection of the status of local animal feed supplies (Shaw et al., 1979). This is not to imply that aspects such as producer prices, market network, extension services and breed improvement are unimportant. These interacting constraints must be resolved

171 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 1

Human And Animal Population Of Sri Lanka (106 1960-1983) YEAR Category % increase 1960 1970 1980 1983 1960-1983

Human 9,896 12,514 14,738 15,416 55.8 Cattle 1,562 1,596 1,227 1,700 8.8 Buffaloes 812 736 843 910 12.1 Goats 491 558 493 519 5.7 Sheep 52 27 28 27 -48.1 Pigs 76 108 71 77 1.3 Poultry 3,409 6,678 5,341 6,481 90.1

Sources : Central Bank of Ceylon (1984), Sri Lanka Livestock Statistics (1984185).

Table 2 Ecology Of The Major Agroclimatic Regions Of Sri Lanka

Region Elevation Rainfall Temperature Relative (m) (mm) (°C) humidity

Low country 0 - 450 1000 - 2500 21 - 38 75 - 90 Coconut triangle 0 - 450 1875 - 5000 24 - 29 60 - 80 Mid-country 450 - 1200 1987 - 5000 21 - 32 55 - 75 Hill-Country > 1200 1250 - 3175 10 - 29 58 - 75

if substantial changes in animal numbers and productivity are to be realized in Sri Lanka.

II. Animal Production Systems

The basis of ruminant production is grazing from natural grasslands, roadsides, waterways, unirrigable highlands, paddy bunds and stubble remaining after paddy harvest. The quantity and quality of natural grazing available fluctuate with the seasonal rainfall distribution. With the advent of North-east (October) and South- west monsoons (April), there is regrowth of nutritive grass; but the quantity and quality decline progressively as the season advances into the dry periods (February- April and July-September). Peak supplies commonly occur between October and January when they reach a volume of three to four times that which is available during the dry seasons (Appadurai, 1968). The acute shortage of grazing during these periods is reflected by poor animal performance and loss of condition. The country can be broadly divided into four agroclimatic regions (Table 2). Based on the rainfall pattern, each region may be further classified into wet

172 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Sri Lanka

(> 1875 mm) and dry (< 1750 mm) zones. Almost 70 per cent of the ruminant animals are found in the low country, 25 per cent in the coconut triangle and the remaining 10 per cent in the mid-country and hill-country regions. Because of the highly variable climatic conditions (and forage availability) and the differences in managerial skills in the different regions, diverse animal production systems exist within the country. The major characteristics of these systems have been described in detail by Shaw et al. (1979).

III. Animal Feed Requirements

The estimation of animal feed requirements involves some discussion of the type, distribution and productivity of the animal populations. The analysis presented two particular problems. Firstly, there was the difficulty of obtaining adequate, reliable livestock statistics and assumptions had to be made. Secondly, the diverse animal production systems within the country complicate the analysis. Thus, rather than attempt to critically assess the feed requirements according to animal species, this paper discusses the requirements in broader terms. It was assumed that all ruminant animals would obtain their requirements in the form of roughage. It is recognized however, that concentrates play a useful role in the nutrition of high-producing dairy animals. In the case of non-ruminant animals, it was assumed that the entire feed requirements came from concentrates. A summary of the estimated animal feed requirements in Sri Lanka is presented in Table 3. These estimates are based on the nutritional requirements suggested by Ranjhan (1980) for animals maintained under tropical conditions.

IV. Animal Feed Availability

1) Traditional concentrates

The annual availability of traditional concentrate feeds in Sri Lanka is estimated to be around 188,500 tonnes (Table 4). Coconut meal, rice bran and maize make up 95 per cent of the quantity available.

2) Green forages

The extent of natural grazing available in the country is around 900,000 ha of which only 13,000 ha are under cultivated pasture. The annual dry matter production potentially available from these grasslands is 1,210,000 tonnes (Siriwardene, 1985). The future outlook with regard to forage availability appears discourag- ing since more and more land originally under natural pastures is being alien- ated for intensive cultivation of crops. Tremendous potential exists however, for the production and harvest of herbage from tree crops and browse plants. These have not been included in the present estimations owing to practical difficulties.

173 Table 3 Estimated Feed And Nutrient Requirements For Animal Feeding In Sri Lanka

Roughage Concentrates Species Numbers DCP+ TDN (103) Dry matter DCP+ TDN++ Dry matter (103 t) (103 t) (103 t) (103 t) (103 t) (103 t)

Cattle 1,700 2,380 105 1,110 80 10 50 Buffaloes 910 1,120 50 530 - - - Goats 519 95 5 60 - - - Sheep 27 5 0.3 3 - - - Pigs 77 - - - 70 10 45 Poultry: Layers 3,600 - - - 160 25 110 Broilers 6,300 - - - 30 6 20 TOTAL 3,600 160.3 1,703 340 51 225

+ Digestible Crude Protein + + Total digestible nutrients Feed Requirements and Utilization in Sri Lanka

Table 4 Estimated Availability Of Traditional Concentrates For Animal Feed Production (Siriwardene, 1985)

Raw material Quantity (103 t)

Maize 35 Broken rice 5

Rice bran No. 1 25 Rice bran No. 2 75 Wheat flour sweeping 2 Coconut meal 40 Soyabean meal 2 Other oil cakes 2 Fish meal (local) 2 Milk powder sweepings 0.5

TOTAL 188.5

Table 5 Potential Fibrous Residues Available From Major Crops In Sri Lanka (Dept of Agriculture, 1986)

Crop residue Available residue DM (t)

Rice straw 2,329,359 Maize stover 73,114 Maize cobs 12,997 Kurakkan straw 9,121 Cowpea straw 4,307 Soyabean straw 1,832 Groundnut straw 2,456 Cassava leaves 15,092 Sweet potato vines 4,323 Sugar cane - green tops 51,600 Sugar cane - bagasse 48,146 TOTAL 2,562,446

3) Crop residues

The "green revolution" during the past two decades has resulted in an increased availability of crop residues. The potentially valuable residues available from the major crops is presented in Table 5. Among the crop residues available, rice straw and sugar cane by-products are of primary importance. Rice straw, in particular, accounts for 90 per cent of the crop residues produced.

175 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

It is pertinent to note that the amounts estimated do not represent the actual availability for feed use due to the following reasons: a) The potential availability is calculated from extrapolations based on secondary data of estimated primary production and assumed extraction rates. The extraction rates may differ from area to area. b) Many crop residues also have non-feed uses such as manures, soil conditioners, fuels and construction materials.

4) Non-traditional concentrates In the past, the compound feed industry relied heavily upon the ready availability and relative cheapness of coconut meal. For a variety of reasons, the quantities of coconut meal available are not expected to increase in the future. Several non- traditional feedstuffs have been tested as coconut meal replacements and these include rubber seed meal (Buvanendran and Siriwardene, 1970; Rajaguru, 1971; Rajaguru and Ravindran, 1979; Ravindran et al., 1987b), cassava leaf meal (Ravindran et al., 1986; Ravindran et al., 1987a), distillery by-products (Ravin- dran et al., 1984), kapok seed meal (Siriwardene and Manamperi, 1979) and biogas slurry (Ravindran et al., 1987c). The availability of some of these materials is shown in Table 6. Non-traditional energy concentrates that have been evaluated include cassava root meal (Rajaguru, 1975; Ravindran et al., 1983), sweet potato tuber meal (Rajaguru and Ravindran, 1984), colocasia corn meal (Ravindran et al., 1982, Ravindran and Rajaguru, 1983), jack seed meal (Velauther and Ravindran, 1987) and avocado seed meal (Kuruwita and Ravindran, 1987). There is no reliable data on the potential availability of these materials for animal feeding.

5) Feed balance sheet Two contrasting pictures emerge from the animal feed balance data summarized in Table 7. The situation with regard to roughage availability is positive. Although there is an acute shortage of forages, the potential role of crop residues is evident. The situation with regard to concentrate feeds is however, alarming. It highlights the urgent need for increased production and utilization of both traditional and non-traditional feed resources, if the requirements of the non-ruminant animals are to be fully met. The data are intended merely to illustrate the broad features of animal feed supply in Sri Lanka. It does not critically evaluate the feed availability on a year- round basis, due to seasonality of production. For a more efficient utilization of the resources, the feed base needs to be examined closely for the entire 12 months.

6) Current patterns of utilization

Rice straw has been used as a cattle and buffalo feed for centuries, particularly in the dry areas. Heavy feeding of rice straw to bullocks is a common practice throughout the country. In the northern peninsula, almost all the straw harvested is carefully stored and fed to cattle either alone, or mixed with small quantities of herbage and/or concentrates. In the other parts of the country, straw is not utilized to its fullest potential. Despite concerted extension efforts by the government during the last decade, a good proportion is wasted - either burnt or left

176 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Sri Lanka

Table 6 Availability Of Some Non-traditional Concentrate Feedstuffs (Ranjhan and Chadhokar, 1984)

Feed category Availability (103 t)

Rubber seed meal 36,000 Spent brewers grain 9,2000 Blood meal 400 Meal and bone meal 3,600

Total 49,200

Table 7 Animal Feed Balance Sheet Of The Animal Industry Of Sri Lanka

Feed category Dry matter DCP+ TDN+ + (103 t) (103 t) (103 t)

ROUGHAGES Availability - Green forages +++ 1210 90 670 - Crop residues* 2562 62 1150 Requirement 3600 160 1703 Surplus/deficit + 172 - 8 + 120 CONCENTRATES Availability - Traditional concentrates 185 28 130 - Non-traditional concentrates 49 16 35 Requirement 340 51 225 Deficit - 106 - 7 - 60

+ Digestible crude protein ++ Total digestible nutrients +++ Does not include forages available in the form of tree leaves, browses, etc. * Does not include residues from minor crops. to rot in the field. Rice straw has been the only crop residue that has received attention by ruminant nutritionists. Although considerable quantities of sugar cane by-products are potentially available in the country, they have never been exploited as animal feeds. Green tops are normally burnt to facilitate the cane harvest, while bagasse is used as a fuel in the factories. With the envisaged expansion of the sugar industry, increased amounts of these by-products are likely to be available. The animal industry could benefit, in particular, from the surplus molasses which has been hitherto used only for alcohol production.

177 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Table 8

Factors That Will Determine The Acceptance Of New Feed Resources By The Farmer

1. Needs of the farmer. 2. Availability and cost of traditional feedingstuffs. 3. Proximity of by-products to livestock population (transport and storage needs). 4. Processing requirements (drying or detoxification). 5. Alternative uses and the relative opportunity costs. 6. Nutritive value of the new feeds. 7. Palatability. 8. Physical characteristics. 9. Aesthetic considerations (acceptance to farmer and consumer). 10. Managerial capabilities of the farmer.

There are also other feed resources of minor importance, available in specific regions of the country, that deserve attention and include tea refuse, cocoa husk, coffee pulp and fruit processing wastes. These new feed resources could fit into location-specific animal feeding systems.

V. Conclusions

Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products could play a potentially important role to rectify prevailing animal feed deficits. For a variety of reasons (Table 8), these feed resources are grossly under-utilized at present. Ideally, these residues are best used as they become available, and at or near the point of availability. Storage and transport costs may otherwise become prohibitive. Few crop residues have the necessary nutrients to support more than the maintenance requirements of the ruminant. Their value, however, could be upgraded through chemical treatment and/or supplementation. A simple method of upgrading rice straw by urea treatment has been evolved (Schiere and Ibrahim, 1985), but the technique has found little farm-level application. The importance of on-farm programmes is stressed.

References

Appadurai, R.R. (1968). Grassland farming in Ceylon. T.B.S. Godamunne & Sons Ltd., Kandy, Sri Lanka, xi + 135 pp. Buvanendran, V. and Siriwardene, J. A. de S. (1970). Rubber seed meal in poultry diets. Ceylon Vet. J, 18 : 33-38. Central Bank of Ceylon (1984). Statistical pocket book of the Republic of Sri Lanka, Colombo, 85 pp.

178 Feed Requirements and Utilization in Sri Lanka

Department of Agriculture (1986). Crop production statistics 1985/86. Division of Agricultural Economics, Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka (unpublished data). Kuruwita, H.S. and Ravindran, V. (1987). Nutritive evaluation of avocado seed

meal. Proc. Sri Lanka Assoc. Advmt. Sci., 43 : 78 (abstr.). Rajaguru, A.S.B. (1971). Effects of rubber seed meal on the performance of mature

chicken. ,J. Nat. Agric. Soc. Ceylon, 8 : 38-47. Rajaguru, A.S.B. (1975). Problems of HCN in cassava. Agric. Research Seminar Series, No. 75-7, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sri Lanka, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 9 pp. Rajaguru, A.S.B. and Ravindran, V. (1979). Rubber seed meal as a protein supplement in growing swine rations. j Nat. Sci. Council Sri Lanka, 7: 101-104. Rajaguru, A.S.B. and Ravindran, V. (1984). Sweet potato meal as a source of energy in poultry diets. Sri Lanka j Agric. Sci., 21 : 40-47. Ranjhan, S.K. (1980). Animal Nutrition and Feeding Practices in India. Second edi- tion. Vikas Publishing House Pte Ltd., New Delhi, India, 350 pp. Ranjhan, S.K. and Chadhokar, P.A. (1984). Effective utilization of agro-industrial by-products for animal feeding in Sri Lanka. Wld. Anim. Rev. (FAO), 50 45-51. Ravindran, V. and Rajaguru, A.S.B. (1983). Effects of feeding colocasia corn meal on the growth of pigs. Proc. Sri Lankan Assoc. Advmt. Sci., 39: 26. (abstr. ) Ravindran, V., Rajaguru, A.S.B., de Silva, K.C. and Fernando, B. (1982). Taro as a feed ingredient in tropical broiler diets. J. Anim. Sci. (Supplement 1),

55 : 293 (abstr.). Ravindran, V., Kornegay, E.1'. and Rajaguru, A.S.B. (1983). Utilization of the

whole cassava plant as a swine feed. Wld. Rev. Anim. Prod. , 19 : 7-14. Ravindran, V., Sriskandarajah, N. and Rajaguru, A.S.B. (1984). Utilization of

coconut sap distillery by-products by broiler chicks. Agric. Wastes, 11 : 115-124. Ravindran, V., Kornegay, E.T., Rajaguru, A.S.B., Potter, L.M. and Cherry, J.A. (1986). Cassava leaf meal as a replacement for coconut oil meal in broiler

diets. Poult. Sci., 65 : 1720-1727. Ravindran, V., Kornegay, E.T., Rajaguru, A.S.B. and Notter, D.R. (1987a). Cassava leaf meal as a replacement for coconut oil meal in pig diets. J. Sci.

Food Agric., 41 : 45-53. Ravindran, V., Rajaguru, A.S.B. and De Silva, C. (1987b). Evaluation of rubber seed meal in White Leghorn cockerel diets. j agric. Set'. Camb., 108: 505-508. Ravindran, V., Rajaguru, A.S.B., Rajapakse, A.R.K. and Dassanayake, R.M.P.H. (1987c). Recycling of anaerobically digested pig manure in broiler

diets. Biol. Wastes, 21 : 257-265. Schiere, J.B. and Ibrahim, M.N.M. (1985). Recent research and extension on rice straw feeding in Sri Lanka: A review. The Utilization of Fibrous Agricultural Residues as Animal Feeds. (Ed. Doyle, P.T.), Canberra, Australia, pp. 116-126. Shaw, J.R., Capper, B.S. and Manser, P.J. (1979). A Strategy for the Development of the Livestock Feed Industry in Sri Lanka, Tropical Products Institute, London, England, xiv + 254 pp. Siriwardene, J.A. de S. (1985). Relevance of crop residues and non-conventional feeds in overcoming feed shortages. Potential of Rice Strata in Ruminant Feeding:

179 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Research and Field applications, (Eds. Ibrahim, M.N.M., Schiere, J.B. and Siriwardene, J.A. de S.), Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, pp. 35-54. Siriwardene, J.A. de S. and Manamperi, H.B. (1979). Effect of feeding kapok seed meal on growth of broiler chicks. Ceylon Vet. J, 27 : 26-28. Sri Lanka Livestock Statistics (1984/85). Ministry of Rural Industrial Develop- ment, Colombo, Sri Lanka, x + 147 pp. Velauther, Y. and Ravindran, V. (1987). Evidence for presence of anti-nutritional

factor(s) in raw jack seeds. Proc. Sri Lankan Assoc. Advmt, Sci., 43 : 97 (abstr.).

180 Discussion

This session involved the presentation of six country papers which focused on the prevailing circumstances in individual countries and what needs to be done in terms of research and development. The first of these was presented by Drs Tareque and Saadullah who gave a practical viewpoint of how to improve the nutritional value of rice straw with urea under rural conditions in Bangladesh. The basic problem was one of finding the feedstuff. Dr Saadullah emphasized that any transfer of technology to the rural areas was a slow process and that one should not get frustrated. He gave a step- by-step description of a process by which urea/molasses blocks can be developed. The keeping quality of these blocks is very good. The suitability of this process for wide adoption deserves wider research and development. He also stressed the importance of having government control on the exports of fish meal, some of which was critically needed to increase productivity from animals in the country. The second paper was presented by Mr Tamang from Bhutan. The main crop residues available were maize stover, wheat and rice straws and other agro- industrial by-products: cereal straws, mustard oil cake and fruit pulps. Livestock are traditionally raised through seasonal migrations from alpine meadows to lower pastures. The deficit of feeds is small and the government has, through bilateral and multilateral assistance formulated future plans and policies to upgrade and develop the feed resources for the increasing number of livestock. It was revealed during discussion that there was only one feed mill in the private sector manufacturing compound feeds for various livestock and private livestock farms. The third country paper from India was jointly presented by Drs Mudgal and Pradhan. The importance of buffaloes was highlighted as was their general neglect and the hitherto limited research. During discussion, it was revealed that about 50 per cent of the total milk and 100 per cent of the beef produced in India is contributed by this species. Buffaloes were generally kept by small farmers and the landless. It was emphasized that because of the efficient utilization of the lignocellulosic materials by buffaloes compared to other ruminants, it had great potential for milk and meat potential in India. In view of the importance of the species to the national economy, the government recently established the National Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) at Hisar, Haryana with sub-stations in south India. Government policies and support to strengthen research on animal nutrition in various parts of the country was reviewed. Particular reference was made to the All India Coordinated Research Programme (AICRP) with centres in Guwahati, Urlikanchan, Hyderabad, Ludhiana, Pantnagar, Ranchi, Trichur and

181 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Anand. It was also pointed out that work on animal nutrition involved collaboration with several international agencies. The fourth country paper was from Nepal and was presented by Dr Joshi. He described the four zones (high mountains, mid-hills, lower-hills and the terai) in Nepal where the feed resources were quite variable in each zone. The livestock population was highest in the mid-hills zone. Buffaloes make a major contribution to milk and meat production. There was a total feed deficiency of about 35 per cent in terms of total digestible nutrients (TDN), and the mid-hills region were most deficient in feed availability. This region was thus given priority in development. More efforts were needed concerning the assessment and utilization of NCFR. Pasture programmes were being implemented through the assistance of FAO. Further work was also needed on the development of forests, inventorisation of agro-industrial by-products, and improvement of nutritional quality. The fifth country paper on Pakistan was presented by Dr Malik. He stressed that there was a deficit of 55 per cent and DP of 66 per cent in terms of TDN and digestible protein (DP). The paper also referred to the results of various studies in the country, such as ammoniation of diets based on wheat and rice straw and good responses in feeding trials with lambs and calves. There was discussion on the possible benefits of urea treatment and it was suggested that the increase of manure may be responsible for the improved results. It was further suggested that there was a need for more efforts on other areas related to feeds. These included conservation of fodder, improved utilization of by-products like molasses, sugar beet pulp, bagasse pith, corn cobs, citrus pulps and organic farm wastes. Increased fodder production on available land was considered important, especially the need for introducing better varieties and seeds. Research programmes also needed to be strengthened, including a better understanding of farming system research. The last country paper, from Sri Lanka, was presented by Dr Ravindran. The paper emphasized the static situation with livestock numbers and products over the past two decades. These were attributed to a number of reasons: low productivity, poor market prices and low government priority on livestock development. The unavailability of reliable statistics on livestock and products was also pointed out. An appraisal of availability and feeding requirements for livestock with reference to cellulosic feeds indicated that the country can potentially support even larger numbers of livestock. There was a chronic shortage of concentrate feeds in the country. The major limitations to the utilization of non- conventional feed resources at the small-farm level were discussed, including application of research results.

182 Conclusions and Recommendations

This meeting on expanding the utilization of non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) and fibrous agricultural residues (FAR) by farm animals was important and timely for the countries of South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka). This consultation focused specifically on the availability of total feed resources, discussed their present utilization by ruminants (mainly buffaloes, cattle, goats, and sheep) and non-ruminants (pigs, poultry, and ducks), and identified major limitations to expanded research and development efforts concerning efficient feed utilization by animals. The consultation noted with concern the continuing magnitude of problems related to chronic feed deficits throughout South Asia and the inadequate efforts that have been made to reduce the magnitude of the problem. Deliberations centred mainly on improving the efficiency of feed utilization, on the choice of techniques that are realistic for and applicable to farming systems, and on participatory research and development with farmers in holistic situations in systems that can ensure stability and economic viability. Taking note of these issues and present circumstances, the participants attempted to formulate research and development strategies to enhance large-scale utilization in the context of maximizing productivity from the available animal genetic resources. Convening the meeting in India facilitated visits to on-going research and development projects in a number of centres. These included the Haryana Agricul- tural University, Hisar; Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB), Hisar; National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal; G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar; and National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Anand. In session 1 of the consultation, seven resource papers were presented that addressed various aspects of NCFR and FAR utilization. The topics presented ranged from types and availability of feedstuffs, patterns of utilization by ruminants and non-ruminants, the significance of nutrient balance, processing, formulation of complete diets, and possible strategies for promoting more intensive utilization. In session 2, six country papers on individual situations and prevailing issues and problems were presented. These papers were extremely useful in providing a summary of current efforts in national research programmes concerned with feed resource utilization, approaches to overcoming constraints, and envisaged future research and directions.

183 Non-conventional Feed Resources Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Against the background of all these presentations, the third session of the consultation involved a round table discussion on possible improvements to the major limitations of feed resources, feeding systems, and utilization. In turn, these discussions enabled a definition of priorities for future research. The following conclusions and recommendations were the result of the round table discussions and paper presentations.

Feed Resources

Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Throughout the South Asian region, there is a variety of NCFR and FAR with wide variations in nutritive value. The consultation recommended a more thorough inventorization of the available feeds, a determination of the amounts of feed produced and extraction rates, and a complete assessment of nutritive values. Calculations of feed availability must be precisely defined to influence the choice of primary and secondary feeds. Any assessment of nutritive value should focus on important feeds for which there is presently inadequate information. Such an assessment must also specify the breed, sex, age, and number of animals used, production objective, level of feeding, duration of individual experiments, parameters measured, and economic benefits. Given the range of feed materials available in terms of quantity and quality, it was further recommended that these feed materials be used by both ruminants and non-ruminants in South Asia. Past investments on research programmes on NCFR and FAR have been massive. The research programmes have generally tended to be fundamental, and confined to government and university stations, and a good deal of the work has been duplicated within and between countries. The consultation noted that dissemination of the available information far outweighed the need for further fundamental research. The example discussed concerned research on rice straw and urea treatment to improve feed quality. It was suggested that further work in this direction should be more selective and confined to a few topics: e.g. optimum conditions for treatment of the straw, comparative benefits of applying urea through the animal, crop residues or directly on the crops, and the development of practical and economic feeding systems suited to small farms. Taking note of historical trends, the consultation recommended a major shift in the research and development effort to on-farm application of the available information. It was also suggested that, with reference to the utilization of urea (treated) rice and wheat straws, there is an urgent need to document and widely disseminate information on specific practical steps leading to farm-level utilization. The available urea treatment technology also needs to be extended to other roughages such as sorghum straws and bagasse.

Forages

The need to produce more good quality forages for feeding ruminants was recognized. It was recommended that large-scale production of quality seeds be undertaken to support fodder production.

184 Conclusions and Recommendations

More research is required on the extension of appropriate species and cultivars of various forages and legumes for specific agroclimatic and field situations. More research is also needed on the screening of species and cultivars, agronomy, nutritional evaluation, utilization, and large-scale propagation under commercial conditions. These efforts are the joint responsibility of crop and animal scientists. Because land is a limiting factor of fodder production in South Asia, the strategy for increasing fodder production should explore the inclusion of selected forages and legumes into prevailing cropping patterns in the context of more intensive systems of land use. For example, berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) and Lucerne (Maticago saliva) can be included in irrigated areas and cowpea can be used in the non-irrigated areas. Other forages include pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and sesbania (Sesbania grandiora). Under more and conditions, drought tolerant varieties need to be assessed for a year-round fodder production (e.g., Leucaena, Acacia, Albezzia, and Atriplex). Increasing fodder production for farmers is the joint responsibility of the federal departments of agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry, and agricultural universities. It is a task that needs much more inter-agency collaboration in the future. It was recommended that the linkages between these agencies concerning all aspects of animal production be strengthened.

Fodder Conservation Inadequate attention has been given to the storage and conservation of surplus forages and crop residues. Improved methods for small-scale conservation and storage of feed materials, including hay and silage making, need to be more thoroughly investigated.

Protein Concentrates The export of valuable protein concentrates, especially from some countries, was discussed. It was recommended that measures be adopted to retain more of these protein concentrates for enhancing animal production in the country of origin. Anti-nutritional Factors

There is a wide variety of anti-nutritional factors, including various toxic compounds in NCFR and FAR. Much more information is required on the categories, content in individual feeds, and effects on animals of anti-nutritional factors. In general, non-ruminants have a lower tolerance for such factors than ruminants. Minerals Several mineral deficiencies and excesses exist throughout the South Asian region. Deficiencies refer particularly to P, Cu, Mn, I, and Zn. The mineral nutrition of farm animals has been weakly addressed in the past and a much more concerted research and development effort is required. This refers to both macro- and micro-minerals involving soil-plant-animal interrelationships.

Urea-Molasses Block Licks The beneficial uses of urea-molasses block licks were widely appreciated. Prac- tical methods to produce them at low cost and to make available energy, less

185 Non-conventional Feed Resources Fibrous Agricultural Residues degradable proteins, and medications, however, are not readily available. In addition, the response and acceptability of the blocks by large and small ruminants was unclear. All these aspects need investigation. Processing The consultation noted that processing is an important means of improving the quality of NCFR and FAR and developing complete diets. Processing is a relatively new subject that has good potential for the future. Suitable machines for chaffing, grinding, briquetting, and waffering need to be developed to support processing of both crop residues and complete diets. Simple, practical, low-cost grinders, conveyers, pelletizers, extrusion cookers, and dryers are necessary in the context of post-harvest systems. Ways and means to extend the complete diets developed need to be studied in relation to wider acceptance, issues of quality control of the formulations, and assessment of economic benefits. Studies are also required on the importance of particle size, its influence on rumen fermentation patterns, and the value of supplementing proteins for meat and milk production.

Rangelands

Concerning rangelands and wastelands, much more research and development is needed to understand the types of feed resources available, to regulate numbers in relation to feed availability, and to increase fodder production and economic use of the land for product output (mainly meat). Such studies need to be extended to include agroforestry and silvipasture systems. It was recommended that the final objective of research in the engineering aspects of processing and formulation of complete feeds is to make available small, low-cost, mobile units compressing chaffing machines and grinders for on-farm use.

Farming Systems

The consultation noted that, with one or two exceptions, there is a need for more understanding of the systems approach concerning crops and animals. Much more information is needed on prevailing patterns of feed production, systems of feeding and nutrition, the relationship between food and feed production, and the perceptions of farmers involved in crop-animal enterprises. The relative importance of crops and animals to the stability of the whole-farm system also needs analysis. In addition to mixed farmers who own land, the role of landless labourers and peasants, including women and children, also merits study. It was noted that South Asia could benefit greatly from the advances and development of appropriate methodologies for farming systems research in South-cast Asia.

Increasing the generally low level of productivity from both ruminants and non-ruminants will require much more emphasis on on-farm research and

186 Conclusions and Recommendations development. The aspects that need to be investigated thoroughly include prescreening and choice of technologies, potential success, practical acceptability by farmers, low risk and economic use of scarce resources. Particular emphasis should be given to participatory research and development with farmers and the involvement of cooperatives. The other key elements in these efforts are large-scale operations. Definite opportunities exist to stimulate more on-farm work with appropriate agencies involved with rural development. The design of the research and development effort should consider agroclimatic zone, farm size, income, type of crops, socio-economic issues, and variability between breeds and within species. The potential impact of new technologies and their technical and economic relevance for differing farming systems must be evaluated. Present linkages between research and extension agencies are inadequate and it was recommended that those institutions engaged in on-farm research be strengthened. Increased resources for logistical support, technical and field services, as well as the exchange of scientists are necessary for this effort. Additional training opportunities are necessary to increase the number of animal science personnel involved in extension work. There was complete consensus for the wider dissemination of information pertaining to NCFR and FAR. This should involve both print and non-print material relating to research, extension, and development efforts within South Asia. These efforts should be coupled to the development of more appropriate animal science curricula. The meeting also recommended that information exchange between countries be accelerated; meetings such as this one are appropriate vehicles for such information exchange and should be continued.

187 List of Participants

Name Country Address

1. Dr S H Bird Australia The University of New England Department of Biochemistry Microbiology and Nutrition Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 2. Dr M Saadullah Bangladesh Department of General Animal Science Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh 3. Dr A M M Tareque Bangladesh Department of Animal Nutrition Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh 4. Mr D B Tamang Bhutan Animal Husbandry Department P O Box 155 Thimphu 5. Prof C R Krishnamurti Canada Department of Animal Science University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada V6T 2A2 6. Dr R M Acharya India Indian Council of General Agricultural Research (ICAR) Krishi Bhawan Dr Rajendra Prasad Road New Delhi 110001 7. Dr U B Chaudhary India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana 8. Dr S S Dahiya India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana

188 Participants

9. Dr B S Gupta India Department of Animal Nutrition Birsa Agricultural University Ranchi Veterinary College Ranchi 10. Dr P C Gupte India Department of Animal Nutrition, Haryana Agriculture University Hisar 125004 Haryana It. Dr G C Jain India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana 12. Prof R Kadirvel India Department of Animal Nutrition Madras Veterinary College Vepery Madras - 600007 13. Mr Kiran Singh India Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Krishi Bhawan Dr Rajendran Prasad Road New Delhi 110001 14. Dr G Krishna India Department of Animal Nutrition Haryana Agricultural University Hisar - 123001 Haryana 15. Mr P Kumar India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana 16. Dr M P Mehta India Animal Husbandry Department Haryana Agricultural University Hisar - 125004 Haryana 17. Dr V D Mudgal India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana 18. Prof K Pradhan India Haryana Agricultural University Hisar - 125004 Haryana 19. Dr M L Punj India AICRP Agriculture By-Products National Dairy Research Institute 132001 Karnal

189 Non-conventional Feed Resources Fibrous Agricultural Residues

20. Dr A R Rao India College of Veterinary Science Haryana Agricultural University Hisar - 125004 Haryana 21. Prof M Raj Reddy India Department of Feed and Fodder Technology A.P. Agricultural University Rajendranagar Hyderabad - 500 030 22. Dr Rajan Gupta India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana 23. Dr D V Rangnekar India Bharatiya Agro-Industrial Foundation (BAIF) P B No. 2030, Asawar Road Ahmedabad - 380 016 Gujarat State 24. Dr S S Sengar India Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) Sirsa Road Hisar - 125001 Haryana 25. Prof M L Verma India Department of Animal Nutrition G B Pant University Pantnagar, 263145 26. Dr R D S Tyagi India Member Agricultural Scientist Recruitment Board K.S. Krishnan Marg New Delhi 110012 27. Dr N P Joshi Nepal Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science Rampur 28. Prof'M Y Malik Pakistan Department of Animal Nutrition College of Veterinary Science University of Agriculture Lahore 29. Prof Muhammad Anwar Pakistan University of Agriculture Faisalabad 30. Dr Talat-Naseer Pasha Pakistan College of Veterinary Science University of Agriculture Lahore 31. Dr C Devendra Singapore International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Tanglin P O Box 101 Singapore 9124

190 Participants

32. Dr V Ravindran Sri Lanka Department of Animal Science University of Peradeniya Peradeniya

191 Index

Agro-industrial by-products 1, 4, 8, Cereal straw 2, 5, 21, 22, 24, 25, 84, 13, 52, 62, 63, 95, 108, 113, 114, 94, 113, 139, 140, 146, 160, 167, 181 130, 131, 132, 137, 156, 158, 169, Chemical composition 51, 52, 63, 171, 178, 181, 182 66, 79, 80, 84, 101, 102, 159 Alkali treatment 38, 39, 144, 160, Cocoa pods 10, 52, 60 163 Complete rations 59, 94, 95, 96, 98, Ammonia 16, 21, 28, 29, 30, 36, 41, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 83, 95, 113, 145, 163, 164, 166 107, 108, 114, 115, 137, 160 Animal resources 2, 6, 14, 112 Concentrates 5, 8, 12, 21, 24, 25, 28, Animal wastes 35, 39, 95, 108, 115, 29, 33, 50, 68, 83, 95, 97, 98, 108, 132, 135 120, 122, 123, 124, 129, 134, 135, Anti-nutritional factors 164, 185 137, 139, 140, 141, 146, 167, 169, Apple waste 52, 58, 69 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 185 Bagasse 3, 5, 11, 36, 51, 54, 76, 77, Conservation 6, 79, 82, 90, 137, 156, 79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 90, 97, 99, 115, 182, 185 118, 120, 129, 140, 143, 145, 146, Constraints 14, 27, 29, 50, 72, 108, 155, 161, 162, 169, 175, 177, 182, 137,171,183 184 Conveyers 108, 115, 186 Bioavailability 34, 36, 39, 41, 113 Cotton straw 60, 97, 98, 99, 100, Blood meal 10, 71, 177 102, 104, 106, 107 Buffaloes 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, Crop residues 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14, 21, 31, 58, 63, 83, 89, 94, 95, 98, 101, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 37, 38, 102, 106, 107, 119, 125, 132, 140, 40, 50, 51, 94, 96, 99, 105, 112, 113, 143, 146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 115, 116, 118, 129, 131, 132, 137, 154, 155, 160, 164, 168, 172, 174, 140, 143, 144, 153, 154, 155, 156, 176, 181, 182, 183 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, Bulk density 29, 96 171, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181, 184, Cassava waste 68 185, 186 Castor bean meal 10, 52, 60 Deleterious principals 12, 112 Cattle 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, Development 1, 6, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 15, 39, 56, 57, 63, 79, 83, 84, 86, 27, 39, 40, 41, 77, 85, 88, 90, 108, 88, 89, 95, 98, 99, 102, 108, 114, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 129, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125, 129, 132, 137, 139, 140, 141, 144, 146, 155, 134, 135, 140, 142, 143, 146, 147, 156, 159, 169, 181, 182, 183, 184, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 160, 185, 186, 187 161, 164, 166, 168, 172, 174, 176, Ducks 5, 13, 15, 150, 183 183 Economic benefits 9, 14, 184, 186

192 Index

Economics 35, 106 Milk production 12, 21, 29, 31, 58, Extraction rate 62, 65, 176, 184 76, 89, 90, 94, 98, 99, 101, 102, 106, Fallow 120, 147, 152, 154, 155 107, 108, 113, 114, 140, 146, 150 Farming systems 17, 90, 112, 129, Minerals 3, 16, 28, 33, 36, 37, 38, 135, 137, 147, 182, 183, 186, 187 39, 40, 41, 50, 76, 79, 80, 85, 88, Fattening rations 161, 167 94, 97, 167, 185 Feed availability 2, 6, 8, 112, 116, Mixed grasses 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 131, 147, 148, 158, 171, 173, 176, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107 182, 184, 186 Molasses 4, 5, 59, 62, 68, 69, 72, 76, Feed balances 7, 116, 154, 176, 177 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, Feed formulations 9 87, 88, 89, 90, 100, 114, 120, 123, Feed resources 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 130, 145, 155, 160, 161, 162, 167, 15, 17, 21, 22, 24, 50, 51, 59, 60, 169, 177, 181, 182 62, 63, 65, 112, 113, 116, 118, 124, Niger seed cake 50, 53, 57 129, 130, 132, 134, 135, 137, 139, Non-conventional feeds 50, 60, 114, 141, 143, 144, 147, 151, 155, 158, 116, 141, 144 159, 168, 169, 171, 176, 178, 181, Non-ruminants 3, 5, 6, 7, 14, 62, 66, 182, 183, 184, 186 68, 69, 71, 114, 131, 134, 135, 148, Forests 33, 35, 65, 131, 152, 153, 173, 183, 184, 185, 186 155, 182 Nutrient balance 14, 33, 34, 36, 39, Goats 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 15, 63, 89, 95, 41, 83, 113, 183 118, 119, 125, 132, 143, 147, 149, Nutrient interactions 39 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 164, 167, Nutritive value 9, 16, 28, 34, 36, 39, 168, 172, 174, 183 41, 50, 51, 52, 76, 79, 83, 94, 96, Government policy 181 99, 101, 113, 114, 118, 143, 145, Grinders 108, 114, 115, 186 159, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, Growth 2, 3, 9, 29, 34, 36, 39, 63, 169, 178, 184 66, 69, 71, 77, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, Oil seeds 64, 66, 67, 132, 152, 153, 88, 94, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 106, 154 113, 134, 145, 159, 171 On-farm research 17, 186, 187 Herbivores 2, 3, 6, 7 Optimum levels 1, 9 Institutional requirements 17 Particle size 84, 96, 98, 114, 186 Kinetic analysis 40, 41, 113 Pelletizers 115, 186 Legumes 16, 63, 83, 84, 129, 141, Performance 1, 2, 9, 12, 14, 17, 34, 162, 185 36, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 90, 94, 96, Lime 163 98, 102, 104, 112, 128, 129, 135, Maize 24, 28, 58, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 147, 151, 152, 162, 163, 168, 172 69, 71, 86, 89, 105, 131, 132, 133, Pigs 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 15, 58, 62, 63, 135, 140, 141, 152, 153, 154, 160, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 114, 131, 132, 167, 173, 175, 181 134, 135, 143, 148, 149, 150, 172, Mango seed kernels 10, 13, 50, 53, 174, 183 56, 62, 69 Poultry 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, Meat and bone meal 177 15, 59, 60, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, Metabolism 36, 39, 40, 41, 113 70, 71, 85, 114, 118, 119, 124, 125, Metabolizable energy 6, 7, 119 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 139, 141, Microbial treatment 146 142, 144, 148, 149, 150, 164, 172, Microorganisms 12, 144, 145, 146 174, 183

193 Non-conventional Feed Resources and Fibrous Agricultural Residues

Priorities 1, 5, 13, 17, 112, 184 Spent brewers grains 58, 177 Processing machinery 108 Steam treatment 60, 76, 84, 145, 146 Processing 96, 99, 101, 102, 106, Strategies 1, 6, 13, 14, 17, 108, 112, 108, 113, 114, 115, 118, 135, 137, 137, 155, 156, 183 144, 146, 158, 159, 160, 162, 178, Sugar cane 5, 24, 27, 51, 54, 68, 76, 183, 186 77, 78, 79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, Production systems 172 89, 90, 97, 99, 100, 114, 120, 121, Protected proteins 114 129, 133, 161, 162, 164, 166, 169, Radioactivity 40, 41 175, 177 Rangelands 6, 8,137, 141, 154, 158, Sugar cane tops 51, 76, 77, 79, 80, 159, 167, 168, 169, 186 82, 83, 87, 90, 118, 125, 161 Research 98, 112, 113, 114, 125, Tamarind seed powder 57 129, 135, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, Tea waste 50, 55, 58, 69 144, 160, 181, 182,J83, 184, 185, Toxic components 9 186 Untreated straw 38, 129 Rice straw 3, 14, 15, 16, 27, 28, 29, Urea 16, 21, 28, 29, 30, 59, 80, 82, 36, 38, 97, 100, 120, 121, 128, 129, 83, 84, 85, 88, 97, 100, 106, 113, 131, 132, 133, 135, 140, 146, 155, 129, 137,139, 145,146, 160,161, 160, 161, 163, 165, 171, 175, 176, 162, 164, 166, 169, 178, 181, 182, 177, 178, 181, 182, 184, 187 184 Rubber seed cake 50, 51, 54, 124 Urea-molasses block licks 1, 14, 1.85 Sal seed cake 12, 54, 124 Utilization 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 13, 15, Sheep 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15, 36, 16, 17, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 33, 38, 59, 60, 63, 83, 94, 95, 99, 102, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 51, 62, 103, 105, 106, 118, 119, 125, 132, 63, 72, 76, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 134, 135, 143, 147, 149, 150, 151, 88, 90, 94, 95, 101, 108, 112, 113, 152, 154, 155, 161, 163, 164, 167, 114, 116, 117, 118, 124, 125, 129, 168, 172, 174, 183 131, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143, 144, Silage 169 146, 147, 148, 154, 155, 158, 160, Sodium hydroxide 28, 139, 144, 163, 161, 163, 164, 171, 176, 181, 182, 165 183, 184, 185 Sorghum 12, 24, 27, 63, 72, 89,106, Wheat straw 4, 27, 29, 37, 38, 39, 133, 141, 145, 160 97, 99,100, 102, 104, 120, 131, 132, Sorghum straw 59, 97, 99, 100, 102, 135, 145, 155, 160, 163, 164, 166, 105, 184 181, 182, 184

194 This publication presents the results of a consultation on expanding the utilization of non-conventional feed resources and fibrous agricultural residues held in March 1988. Although the meeting focussed primarily on South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka), it also discussed broader issues relevant to the rest of Asia. These Included:

Current availability of non-conventional feeds and fibrous agricultural residues. Status of utilization by ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) and non-ruminants (pigs, poultry and ducks). Prevailing situation in individual countries. Processing and formulation of complete diets. Strategies for expanding large scale and intensive on-farm application. Development issues.

These approaches are consistent with the objective of maximizing the production of meat, milk, eggs, fibre and draught power from animals in the future.

International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

ISBN 981-00-0769-8