America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja Joost R

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87686-5 - A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja Joost R. Hiltermann Index More information

INDEX

Abadan, 82, 139 Al-Bakr airbase, 179 Abassi, Mahmoud, 66 Albright, Madeleine, 243, 250n3 Abba Beileh, xxii, xxiii, 122 al-Duri, Izzat Ibrahim, 225 Abbas Video. See Akbar, Abbas al-Duri, Sabr, 133, 180, 244 Abd-al-Razzaq al-Fakhri, Hisham, 7, 37 ABC’s “Nightline,” 7, 239 al-Gailani, Yaser, 158, 167, 177, 187, 188 Abd-al-Aziz, Ali, 111, 112 Ali, Kosrat Rasoul, 114, 129, 135 Abd-al-Qader, Faridoun al-Khazraji, Nizar, 160, 179 and first Iraqi CW use against PUK, 96 acknowledging Iraqi role in Halabja and negotiations with Iranian regime, gassing, 179 90–91, 92, 111 Allawi, Iyad, 159 leading PUK negotiations with Iraqi al-Majid, Ali Hassan regime, 88–89 and fate of Anfalakan, 134, 135 Abd-al-Rahim, Mu’ath, 159 Ali Hassan al-Majid Abd-al-Rashid, Maher, 7, 37 standing trial for Anfal campaign, Aberdeen Proving Ground, 195, 196, 198, 244 263n18 and Halabja gassing, 178, 179 Abu Abbas, 214 appointment of, 13, 93 Abu Ali, 112 issuing key orders in June 1987, 99 Abu Nidal, 233 ordering chemical strikes, 180 Abu Zeinab, 112 overseeing 1987 counterinsurgency Achille Lauro hijacking, 214 campaign, 93–101, 108 Afghanistan, 23, 148 threatening Kurdish doctors, 189 aflatoxin, 194, 200 al-Naqib, Jawdat Mustafa, 178–179 Aghaei, Taghi, 70 Al-Qaeda, 242 Aghjalar, 131 Al-Qurna, 32 Ahl al-Haq, xxi Al-Rashid hospital, 159 Ahmad Awa, 122 al-Saeidy, Abd-al-Wahhab, 25, 66, 142, Ahvaz, 33 145, 159 Akbar, Abbas Abd-al-Razaq, 104–105 al-Samarra’i, Wafiq Akoyan valley, 130, 132 and alleged VX use, 141 Al-‘Amard, 32, 170 and Arabization in Kirkuk, 134 Alaan region, 88 as interlocutor with DIA, 78 al-Anbari, Abd-al-Amir, 7, 8, 173 as security advisor to Talabani, 180

293

r 294 Index

al-Samarra’i, Wafiq (cont.) in Germian, 130, 131, 133, 246 aspiring to lead opposition to Saddam, in new Iraqi constitution, 226 180 in Qaradagh, 130, 131, 173 denying role in Anfal killings, 133 in Smaquli, Balisan, and Akoyan mum on Anfal, 179, 180 valleys, 130, 132 not standing trial for Anfal, 244 long–term impact of, 227 on “special” strikes, 99, 176 Military Intelligence role in, 180 on alleged Iranian CW use, 157 role of jahsh in, 108, 136 on authority to order CW attacks, 180 Saddam Hussein’s rationale for, 133 on fate of Anfalakan, 134 similarities to Barzanis massacre of, 31 on Halabja attack, 180 start of, 128 on US satellite intelligence, 42 survivors from killing grounds of, xiv, questioning Iranian CW capability, xxv, 246 179–180 trials of perptrators of, 244 relations with Saddam Hussein of, 180 US knowledge of, 135–138 relationship with PUK of, 133 victims of, 132–135, 225 role at Military Intelligence of, 133, 180 Anfalakan. See Anfal campaign, victims of al-Zubeida, Muhammad Hamza, 93 Annan, Kofi, 58 Amadiya, 100 Anraat, Frans van, 62 Amin, Jamal Aziz, 189, 225 Ansar al-Islam, xxi, xxii, 255n1 Amin, Latif, 189 anthrax, 222 Amin, Neywshirwan Mustafa, 89, 92, 106, Aqaba, 49 121 Aqaba pipeline project, 50 Amn, xxii, 93, 98, 112 Arab Gulf states, 64, 107, 148, 234 Amn Qawmi, 169 protected by Iraq from Iran, 219 amyl nitrite, 67, 197 threatened by CW proliferation, 229 Anab, xxiv, 118, 121, 122 threatened by Iran, 43 Andropov, Yuri, 58 Arab League, 216 Anfal campaign, 31 Arabization, 134, 243 amnesty at end of, 133, 137, 190, 207, Arbat, 102 210, 214, 265n5 Armitage, Richard, 79, 184, 218, 239 and destruction of rural Kurdistan, 245 arsenic gas, 164 as Ali Hassan al-Majid’s brainchild, 95 Arvand river, 23, 70, 139 as counterinsurgency operation, xiv Ashkohol mountain, 121 as genocide, xiv, 17, 135, 205, 213, 227, Askar, 131, 132, 209 243 Aslani, Ja’fer, xvii, 71, 142 as killing campaign, xiv, 99, 132, 133 Aspin, Les, 75 as logical conclusion to Arabization in atropine, 3, 34, 35, 71, 120, 131, 132, 140, Kirkuk, 134 142, 170, 197, 238 CW use during, xxiii, 11, 14, 16, 17, Aun Shirikyo, 223 129–135, 173, 208, 209, 210, 224, Australia, 53 240 Australia Group, 212, 229 final stage of, 130, 133, 136, 199, 206, Aziz, Tariq, 48, 56 207, 208, 214 accusing Iran of CW use, 10, 174 fueling Kurdish quest for independence, admitting Iraqi CW use, 14, 75, 219 226–227 alleging that Iran used CW first, 261n55 glorified in Iraqi media, 18, 129, 135, and loss of Halabja, 173 136, 207 at White House ceremony (1984), 55 in Aghjalar area, 132 denouncing the UN, 73, 126

r Index 295

denying Halabja accusation, 9 Barzani, Masoud denying Iraqi CW use against Kurds, and Anfal, 136 219 as KDP leader, 29 meeting with Rumsfeld, 49, 52 as president of Kurdish region, 114 negotiating with PUK, 89 labeled “offspring of treason,” 107 pledging compliance with the Geneva reported to be included in amnesty, 207 Protocol, 209 succeeding his father, 29, 87 protesting CW allegations, 166 Barzani, Mustafa, 86 suffering politically from Iran–Contra as father of Kurdish national movement, affair, 77 86–87 threatening chemical weapons use, 9 as leader of 1970s revolt, 21, 29, 207 warning against US policy on Iraqi CW death in exile of (1979), 207 use, 54 facing leadership challenge, 87 warning of Iraq’s breakup, 236 in cahoots with Shah of Iran, 107 Azmar, 95 Barzanis 1983 disappearances of, 31, 138 Ba‘ath party in Halabja, xxii massacre of, in new Iraqi constitution, Ba‘ath party’s Northern Bureau, 93, 96 226 Ba‘ath regime, seizing power (1968), 86 rivalry with Bradostis of, 29, 32, 88 Baban, Heresh, 188 Barzinji, Ja’far, 189 Badinan, 87, 88, 97, 130, 132, 134, 206, Barzinji, Mahmoud, 86 209, 235 Basiji volunteers, 105, 109 Badr Corps and Halabja operation, 123 fighting at Faw (1988), 140 fighting at Faw (1986), 70 fighting at Haj Omran (1983), 29 fighting in Badr offensive, 65 fighting in Badr offensive (1985), 65 participating in human wave attacks, role in Halabja liberation of, xxii, 112, 25 115 Basra Baghdad as Iranian war objective, 25, 46, 69, 80, CW casualties in hospitals in, 10, 159, 109, 234 166, 174–175 battles in proximity of, 28, 166, 170 Iranian air raids on, 65 CW casualties in hospitals in, 166 struck by Iranian Scud missiles, 80, 82, Iranian artillery attack on, 65 107 oil installations of, 90 threatened by flood waters, 7 struck by Iranian Scud missiles, 80 Baghdad–Basra highway, 32, 37, 65 Bayanjan, 163, 164 Baghyatollah hospital, xvii Bayes, Miqdad, 91 Bakhtaran, 98 bin Laden, Osama, 104 Balad airbase, 177 binary chemical weapons, 221 Balagjar, 130, 131, 174 biological agent, suspected attack during Balambo mountain, xxii, 115, 117, 118, Khaybar operation with, 34 124 biological weapons, 15, 17, 152 Balisan valley, 97, 98, 130, 188, 189, Biological Weapons Convention (1972), 209 230 Bandar Khomeini, 50 Biyara, 116, 124, 191 Baneh, 83, 98, 143, 164 Biyari, Ali, 112 Barzan, 86, 87 blowback problem. See Iraqi chemical Barzani revolt, collapse of (1975), 31 casualties, from Iraq’s own CW use Barzani, Idris, 29 Boleh, 191

r 296 Index

Boteh, 132 believing “Curveball” data on Iraqi botulinum, 222 WMD programs, 183 Bradosti tribe, 29, 30, 31, 88 daily intelligence reports of, 203 Bradosti, Karim Khan, 29 dissenting from 1990 Pentagon study, Brezhnev, Leonid, 23, 148 202 Bubiyan, 63, 217 Foreign Broadcast Information Service Burck, Gordon, 197 of, 136, 207 Bush I administration monitoring war of the cities, 144 and National Security Decision on CW as force multiplier, 13 Directive 26, 217 on cyanide as key ingredient of tabun, reaction to Kuwait invasion of, 222 198 receiving advice from Shultz, 218 on decreasing effectiveness of Iraqi CW relations with Iraqi regime of, 217 use, 236 threatening nuclear response in Gulf on importance of Iraqi CW use to War, 222, 242 world, 215 Bush II administration on Iranian aim to capture and war in Iraq (2003), xxiv, 223, 244 Darbandikhan dam, 108 canceling US signature to Rome treaty, on Iranian missile attacks on Baghdad, 244 107 gutting multilateral engagement, 244 on Iranian war strategy, 107 Bush, George H. W., 201, 217, 220 on Iraq’s blowback problem, 167 Bush, George W., 16, 56 on Iraq’s problem with leaking CW and Iraqi CW use against Kurds, 183 munitions, 169 announcing WMD find in Iraq, 224 on Khomeini, 139 on limitations of Geneva Protocol, Camp David accords, 41, 42, 232 216 Carlucci, Frank, 79, 184 on role of CW in ending Iran–Iraq war, Carter, Jimmy, 41 145 Carus, Seth on routine nature of Iraqi CW use, 181 and cyanide claim, 198 on scale of Iraqi chemical warfare, 14 as authority on Iraqi CW use, 161 on self-reliance of Iraqi CW program, Congressional testimony on Iraqi CW 237 alpha, 237 predicting chemical war of the cities, on difficulty of using hydrogen cyanide, 145 198 presence in Baghdad embassy of, 74 on Iraqi and Iranian CW use, 161 questioning efficiency of Iraqi CW use, on Iranian WMD strategy, 231 75 on US knowledge of Iraqi CW program, replaced by DIA in Baghdad, 78 239 sharing intelligence with Iraq, 42 CBS’s “60 Minutes”, 243 warning of preemptive Iraqi CW use, Central Intelligence Agency 101 alleged to be pro-Kurdish, 202 Chadergah, 118 alleging Iranian CW use, 161–162 Chemi Palania, 112 and evidence of Iraqi WMD programs, Chemical Agent Monitor, 67 183 Chemical Ali. See al-Majid, Ali Hassan and Iran–Contra affair, 76 chemical defense training, 26 aware of developments in Kurdistan, chemical weapons 100, 137 alleged use by Italy in Ethiopia, 12 aware of Iraqi CW use, 235, 238 as force multiplier, 203, 236

r Index 297

as terror weapon, 13, 16, 215, 228 alleged use by Iraq of, 67–68, 151, 161, battleﬁeld utility of, 234 228 different uses by Iraq of, 13–14 alleged use during Badr campaign of, 67, used in World War I, xvi, xvii, 12, 14, 68 30, 209, 229 alleged use near Marivan of, 144 Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), as ingredient of tabun, 197, 198 16, 161, 216, 230 causing red lips, 196, 199 challenge inspections under, 231, present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221 242 cyanosis, 195, 196, 199, 200 Iranian declarations under, 153 cyclosarin, 221 signed by Iran, 230, 231 trampling of, 242 Daei, Ali, xvi violations by Clinton administration of, Dara Rash, 118 242 Daratu, 190 chemical weapons proliferation, 75, 152, Darbandi Bazian, 111 229 Darbandikhan, 102, 111, 113, 120 China Darbandikhan dam, xxi, xxiii, 7, 111, 197 as Security Council member staying on as Iranian target, 108–110 sidelines on Iraq, 43, 57 Darbandikhan tunnel, 110 chemical weapons arsenal of, 230 Dastani Rezgari, battle of, 95 Chuarta, 95, 110 Defense Intelligence Agency Clinton administration alleging Iranian CW use, 161 and Kurdistan airlift (1996), 245 and cyanide claim, 200–204 and position on Chemical Weapons and Iraqi CW use at Faw (1988), 139, Convention, 242 140 and reconstruction of Kurdistan in and photographic evidence from 1990s, 245 Halabja, 198 evacuating witnesses of genocide, 246 and relations with Iraqi military signing Rome treaty, 244 intelligence, 78, 137, 139, 191, 195 Clinton, Bill, 242 as having best analysis of Iran–Iraq war, Cold War, 148 202 collateral damage, 243 assessment of Iranian CW use of, 202 comint. See communications intelligence claiming Iranian culpability in Halabja, Committee for the Defense of Anfal 186, 202, 204 Victims’ Rights, 134 ignorance of Anfal of, 137 Commodity Credit Corporation, 45 on developments in Kurdistan, 137 communications intelligence, 187 on Iran’s CW capability, 162 constructive engagement, 217, 218 opposing CW use against civilians, 184 Contras, 76 predicting continued Iraqi CW use, 63 Cordesman, Anthony, 162 presence in Baghdad embassy of, 74 crimes against humanity, 4, 124, 151, providing satellite intelligence to Iraq, 243 79, 139 CS tear gas, 27, 28, 161 replacing CIA in Baghdad, 78 alleged use at Faw of (1988), 140 supporting Iraqi war effort, 140, 201 Curveball, 183 taking Iraqi CW use for granted, 74 cyanide gas Defense Policy Board, 81 alleged use at Faw of (1986), 71 Delamar, xxii, xxiii, 112, 113, 118, 123 alleged use at Halabja of, 5, 6, 8, 185, Denmark, 160 186, 193–201, 205 Dibs, 133

r 298 Index

Diyala river, xxi, 7, 109 Foroutan, Abbas, 30 Dizli, 110, 114, 117, 122, 143 and cyanide claim, 6, 194, 196, 199 Dohuk, 87, 100, 225 and Haj Omran CW victims, 28, 30 Dojeileh, 5, 192, 193 and Penjwin CW victims, 32 Domınguez´ Carmona, Manuel, 174 and VX claim, 142 Draper, Morris, 41, 42 at Faw (1986), 70–72 Drumheller, Tyler, 183 at Halabja, 122 Du Awa, 117 claiming Iraq used tear gas in 1980, 28 dual containment policy, 234 in Badr campaign, 66–67 Dukan, 96, 132 in Khaybar campaign, 33, 34–35 Dukan dam, 108, 111, 132 on Iraqi CW attacks near Marivan, Dukan lake, 96 143–144 on Iraqi CW use in 1984–85, 62 Eagleburger, Lawrence, 47 writing book about Iraqi CW use, 250n7 Eagleton, William, 42, 50, 51 France Effendi, Hamid, 112 and negotiations with Iran over Egypt uranium enrichment, 231 allied with US, 217 as post-Ottoman power, 85 suspected of CW capability, 228 opposing UN CW investigation, 125 electronic intelligence, 187 possessing nerve gas stockpiles, 64 electronic intercepts, 185, 186–188 supporting Iraq, 24, 41, 45 elint. See electronic intelligence Francona, Rick, 263n18 Erbil, 31, 87, 98, 100, 111, 123, 132, 134, and Anfal, 137 178, 225 and battleﬁeld intercepts, 187, 188 capture by Iraqi forces of (1996), 245 and CW use at Faw (1988), 139–140 Estrella rockets, 91 and cyanide claim, 195 Euphrates river, 70 on alleged Iranian CW use, 161 European Community, 53, 127 present at Faw (1988), 238 Exocet missiles, 45, 46 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 3, 19, 20, 248n3 Fakeh, Najmaddin, 132 Ft. Detrick, 195, 263n18 Farajvand, Hadi, 66, 109 Fursan, xxii, 87 Fathi, Munqedh, 28, 33, 158 Fatma e-Zahra hospital, 71, 73 Galbraith, Peter, 101 Fattah, Omar, 121 and attempt to prevent genocide, 214 Faw and Halabja claim, 205 Iranian capture of (1986), 69–72, 73, and Iraq sanctions debate, 213 75, 77, 80, 92, 165, 167, 176, 197 as author of Prevention of Genocide Iraqi CW use at (1986), xvii, 69–72 Act, 213 Iraqi CW use at (1988), 11, 139–142, reporting on Iraqi CW use, 211 238 visiting Kurdistan in September 1988, Iraqi recapture of (1988), 138, 139, 145, 211 169, 238 Gali, Hamid Haji, 111, 112, 113, 120, 121, Fayli Kurds, 226 122 Finally Evaluated Intelligence, 21 Gemayel, Amin, 241 Fish lake, 141, 142, 264n32 Geneva Conventions (1949), 81, 155, Ford, Gerald, 49 156, 212, 235 Foreign Broadcast Information Service trampling of, 242 (FBIS), 136, 207 Geneva Protocol (1925), 15

r Index 299

and lack of investigations, 58, 59 requesting clarification on Halabja from and UN failure to enforce, 60, 152 US, 126 applicability in Iran–Iraq war of, 98, 212 supporting Iraq, 24 arising from CW experience in World Guam, 246 War I, 12, 229 Gulf Cooperation Council, 45 as human rights convention, 52 Gulf War (1991), 138 Iran’s registering temporary reservation Gulf War Syndrome, 248n3 to, 152 Gulflink, 248n3 Iran’s invocation of, 56, 149, 150 Iraqi pledge to comply with, 209 Haass, Richard, 218 Iraqi violation of, 212 Haig, Alexander, 42, 43 Iraqi violation of, at Halabja, 7 Haj Omran, xvi, 28, 33, 88, 96, 111 lacking mechanism to investigate Halabja, 104 alleged CW use, 252n46 Iranian capture of, xxi, xxii, 1, 5, lacking provisions governing internal 106–120, 123–124, 143, 178, 185 armed conflict, 98 Iranian looting of, 122, 123 need for Iraqi compliance with, 48 liberation by Kurdish rebels of, xv, xx, receiving international support, 229 xxiii, 5, 6, 106–120, 123–124, 185 right of retaliation under, 171, 216 Halabja chemical attack, 149, 150, 209, signed by Iran and Iraq, 126 235 trampling of, 242 acknowledged by Iraq, 175 violation of, as grave infringement of aftermath of, xxiv, 2, 6, 105, 122–123, international norms, 15 224 violation of, by targeting civilians, 126 alleged Iranian role in, 4, 7, 8–12, 106, Gera, Gideon, 228 126–128, 172–181, 183–205, 236, Germany 237–240 and negotiations with Iran over alleged Iraqi role in, 6, 176, 177, 181, uranium enrichment, 231 185, 192 as source of precursor chemicals, 235 antecedents in 1984 of, 64 Germian, 105, 109, 130, 131, 133, 136, antecedents in 1987 of, 84, 92 174, 246 as act of genocide, 151 Ghotsian, Yaghoub, 84 as confirmed by CIA, 162 Glaspie, April, 208, 214, 217 as crime against humanity, 124, 243 meeting with Saddam Hussein, as dangerous precedent, 15 219–220 as pretext for 2003 Iraq invasion, 183 Goktapa, 131, 132, 209 as turning point in escalating CW use, Golan, 132 230 Goldblat, Jozef, 64 as witnessed by Ahmad Nateghi, 1–3 Golpy, Faiq, xxiii, 130–132, 173 as witnessed by Kurdish rebels, 113, Gorbachev, Mikhail, 148 120–122 Gowra Deh, 163 compared with Serdasht attack, 84, 85 GRAD rockets, 91 fueling Kurdish quest for independence, Great Britain 226–227 and negotiations with Iran over in new Iraqi constitution, 226 uranium enrichment, 231 instilling deep fear, 224 and relations with Iraq after 1967, 41 Iranians’ awareness of, 139 as post-Ottoman power, 85 Iraqi culpability of, 178–179, 180 banning presursor exports to Iraq, 53 Kurdish survivors of, 2, 6, 104, 114, 122, developing VX in 1950s, 141 123

r 300 Index

Halabja chemical attack (cont.) Hughes helicopters, 45 long-term impact of, 227 Hughes, John, 53 media reporting on, xiii–xiv, 172, 180, human intelligence, 21 190, 193 Human Rights Watch, xiv trial against perpetrators of, 244 Anfal study of, xiv victims of, xiii, 2, 5, 126, 176, 184, 186, determining Anfal to be genocide, 189, 194 135 Halabja demonstration effect, 17, 215, 240 estimating number of Anfal victims, and Anfal, 129–130, 135 134 and Kurds in 1991 and 2003, 224–225 estimating number of CW victims in and threat to gas Tehran, 144 Badinan, 210 Halabja monument, 226 evacuating eyewitnesses to genocide, Halabja–Suleimaniyeh road, 112, 178 246 Hama Saleh, Omar, xxii interviewing Halabjans, 117, 119 Hamdoon, Nizar, 39, 45, 54, 55, 61, 74, 77 interviewing Kurdish rebels, 188 Hammadi, Sa’doun, 42, 45, 209 on Balisan valley gassing, 97 Hanon, Mohamad, 142, 159 on village destruction campaign, 94 Hashim, Ahmed, 161 researching Iraqi secret police Hassan Awa, 118 documents, xiv, 247n1 Hawar, 112, 190 humint. See human intelligence Hawara Kon, 118, 122 Hunta, Bareq al-Haj, 91 Hawargey Boynian, 118 Husein, Muhammad Ali, 29 Hawayza marshes, 33, 65, 170 Hussein, Saddam, 50, 93 Hawk anti-aircraft missiles, 77, 166, 168 affected by loss of Halabja, 178 Hay, Alastair, 172, 196, 239 and alleged Iranian CW use, 158 Haybat Sultan, 110, 111 and fate of Anfalakan, 134 Helaleh, Ahmad Shaker Ahmad, 262n75 and Halabja gassing, 178 hemo-perfusion, 200 and human-wave assaults, 25 Hersh, Seymour, 55 and Mehran debacle, 75 Heyndrickx, Aubin, 68 and possible CW use in, 145, 223 and cyanide claim, 194–195, 199–200 appointing Ali Hassan al-Majid as and photographic evidence, 196 overlord of Kurdistan, 13 visiting Halabja, 194 as man who gassed his own people, 16, Hezbollah, 41, 57, 148, 149 183, 243 attacking US Marine barracks in Beirut, as target of war on terrorism, 81 240, 241 as Wahington’s friend, 183 choice of methods of, 241 building WMD arsenals, 218 Hiroshima, 15, 51, 64, 84, 152, 219, 243 challenged over Iran invasion setbacks, Hirst, David, 6 24 Hirweh, 117 criticized over loss of Faw, 72 Hollen, Christopher van, 211 decision to invade Iran of (1980), 22 Hosseini, Ghoncheh, xviii–xix decision to invade Kuwait of (1990), 17, Hosseini, Sheveen, xviii–xix 220, 222 House Armed Services Committee, 75 delegating war strategy to military Hoveyza, 33 commanders, 79 Howe, Jonathan, 47 demonization of, 202 Howeizi, Sherdel Abdullah, 90, 91, 96, 97, deterred from using CW in Gulf War, 118 242 Howramani, Nader Ali, 112 killing of Barzanis of (1983), 31

r Index 301

late 1988 perception in Washington of, International Criminal Court, 244 218 International Crisis Group, xxv losing Washington’s support with international humanitarian law, 149, 150, Kuwait invasion, xiv 152, 154, 155, 156, 203 manipulating CW evidence, 167 international prohibition on targeting meeting with April Glaspie, 219–220 civilians, 242, 243 meeting with Rumsfeld, 49–50, 241 Iran meeting with Talabani, 89 admitting CW program, 231 on Kirkuk, 89 biological weapons program of, 152 on trial for crimes, 246 commitment to multilateral ordering chemical strikes, 179, 180 non-proliferation conventions of, 230 overthrow of, as Iranian war objective, Kurdish population of, 86 24 nuclear quest of, 227–232 political survival of, thanks to Iranian receiving Kurdish refugees, 225 offensives, 24 Iran–Contra affair, 6, 76–77, 78, 80, 166, proclaiming amnesty at end of Anfal, 219, 220, 234, 238 207 Iranian chemical attacks, 18 rationale for Anfal of, 133 alleged by Iraq, 9, 10, 157, 165, 166, regional ambitions of, 215 167, 171, 261n55 relations with Bush I administration of, alleged by Iraqi officers, 159, 160 217 alleged by Kurdish rebels, 162–165 relations with Reagan administration of, alleged by US government, 7, 165 56 alleged by US intelligence agencies, relationship with Mukarram Talabani 161, 162 of, 158 alleged by US military experts, 162 relationship with Wafiq al-Samarra’i of, alleged by US officials, 160, 161, 264n32 133, 180 doubted by UN, 172 seizing power (1979), 41 lack of evidence of, 157–159 sentenced to death in Dujeil trial, scepticism about, 157, 181–182 244 Iranian chemical casualties, 142 sounding conciliatory on Middle East as live laboratory for study of chemical peace, 43 warfare, xvi threatening to attack Israel with CW, at Faw (1986), 72 184 from mustard gas, 228 threatening to attack Tehran with CW, in European hospitals, 67, 200 10 in Tehran hospitals, xv, xviii, 56 threatening to use insecticide, 39, 235 numbers of, 13, 228 using CW against Kurds, 214 visited by UN, 59 hydrocyanide. See cyanide gas Iranian chemical defense, 82, 162 hydrogen cyanide. See cyanide gas involvement of doctors in, xvi, 31, 67, 98, 143, 200 Imam Riza, 114 Iranian chemical weapons program, 152, Imam Zamen, 191 153, 161, 172, 203, 230 International Atomic Energy Agency as legacy of Iran–Iraq war, 231 (IAEA), 231, 232 suspected illegal existence of, 231 International Committee of the Red Cross Iranian Kurdish rebels (ICRC), 36 attacked by Iran, 110, 124, 163, 190 position on CW of, 56 attacked by Iraq, 132 International Court of Justice, xiv Iraqi intelligence files on, 122

r 302 Index

Iranian Kurdish rebels (cont.) as necessary in war, 157 questioning an Iranian role in gassing as proven by UN, 172 Halabja, 192 at Faw (1986), 70–72 role in Halabja of, 190–193 at Faw (1988), 139, 203, 238 Iranian Kurdistan, as site of chemical at Haj Omran, xvii, 12, 29–31, 32, attacks, 83 150 Iranian military campaigns, 24, 25 at Khurmal, 116 Badr (1985), 65–67, 196 at Majnoun, 33–34, 35 failure of, 146 at Penjwin, 32, 46 Fatah I (1986), 91 at Serdasht, xviii–xix, 83–85, 150, 152 Karbala V, 264n32 awareness by US intelligence of, 14–15, Khaybar (1984), 33, 37–38, 51, 67, 47, 53 89 confirmed by State Department, 208 Val-Fajr IV (1983), 32, 164 contributing to end of war, 145, 146, Val-Fajr VIII (1986), 69–73 147, 221 Val-Fajr X (1988), 4, 5, 111, 114, during Anfal, 4, 130–132, 135, 174, 115–117, 203 204, 224, 240 Zafar VII (1988), 115 during Badr, 66–67, 196 Iranian military forces, treating chemical during Khaybar, 33–35, 259n21 casualties, 3 during Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah, 139–143, Iranian nuclear program, 152, 228, 153 231–232 during Val-Fajr II, 29, 30 following Japanese model, 232 during Val-Fajr IV, 32 inspired by Iran–Iraq war experience, during Val-Fajr X, 5 231 ensuring Iraq’s survival, 234 Iranian POWs, 140 expected in 1991 Gulf War, 221, 222 Iran–Iraq war, 1, 18, 58 ignored by Reagan administration, 233 aftermath of, 201 in 1983, 46 and attacks against civilians, 81–82 in Badinan, 204, 206, 208, 209, 210, as imposed war, 227 235 ceasefire in, 11, 78, 147, 170, 207 in experimental stage, 27, 28, 51, 63, fueling international debate on CW 235 proliferation, 230 in Iranian Kurdistan, 143–144 human-wave assaults in, 12, 25, 26, 27, in Iraqi Kurdistan, 94–99, 100–101, 52, 215, 219 145 Iran’s prolongation of, 228 in Qaradagh, 261n59 start of (1980), xvi, 12, 22, 87 involving “special” munitions, 96, 99, Iraqi Armed Forces Chemical Corps 129, 169, 175, 188 Directorate, 26 mentioned by Rumsfeld to Saddam, 50 Iraqi census (1987), 100 objective of, 12–13, 14 Iraqi chemical attacks, 25, 28, 75 operational detail about, xxv acknowledged by Iraqi officers, 159, pivotal role of, 18 160 psychological impact of, 13 admitted by Iraq, 14 referred to as “special” strikes, 73, 99, airforce involvement in, 1, 5, 83, 121, 168, 175, 176, 178 131, 132, 164, 167, 168, 177, 179, sporadic use of, between Khaybar and 180, 181, 210, 221 Badr, 61 and international community’s silence, spurring proliferation, 229 228, 229, 231 targeting civilians, 82

r Index 303

use of helicopters in, 141, 197, 221 Islamic Unity Movement of Kurdistan use of Ilyushin cargo aircraft in, 141 (IUMK), xxi, xxiv, 87, 111 weakening US policy on CW, 229 role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 115, Iraqi chemical casualties, 10, 72, 142, 159, 176 166, 171, 181, 182, 254n5 Israel, 53, 76, 103, 165, 215 from Iraq’s own CW use, 72, 140, 160, alleged to have downplayed Iranian CW 165, 166–168, 174–175, 178, 182, use, 203 262n75 and Iran–Contra affair, 45, 76 from leaking munitions, 168–170 and Palestine conflict, 43, 49, 148, 242, Iraqi chemical defense, 143 243 Iraqi chemical warfare capability, 26, 27, and restoration of US–Iraqi diplomatic 47, 62, 141, 153, 162, 218, 221, 237 relations, 55 as justification for 2003 war, 223 as US strategic asset, 40, 232 initial dependence on Soviet Union of, Egypt’s peace treaty with, 41 230 enjoying Western support, 41 Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), 23 invading Lebanon (1982), 148 Iraqi constitution, 226 Iron Fist policy of (1985), 148 Iraqi High Tribunal, 244 killing civilians, 242 Iraqi Interests Section in Washington, 41, policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 76 45 striking Osirak nuclear reactor (1981), Iraqi Military Intelligence Directorate, 42, 42 133, 137, 139, 141, 157, 176, 179 suspected of CW capability, 26, 228 admitting chemical attack, 131 suspected of planning military strike and relations with DIA, 78, 191 against Iraqi CW facilities, 54 presence in Halabja of, xxii, 112 targeted by Scud missiles in 1991, 17, Iraqi National Accord, 159 143–144, 241 Iraqi nuclear weapons program, 216, 218, threatened by CW proliferation, 229 222 weapons of mass destruction of, 12 Iraqi oil fields, 33, 69, 72, 90, 91, 234 Israeli Military Intelligence, 146 Iraqi POWs, 1, 9, 56, 59, 73, 119, 156, 177 Istikhbarat, See Iraqi Military Intelligence testifying to Iraqi CW use, 262n75 Directorate Iraqi regime Italy and chemical defense training, 26 alleged to have used CW in Ethiopia, and Mullah Mustafa revolt, 21 12 condemning Soviet invasion of as source of chemical rockets, 169 Afghanistan, 23 WMD capabilities of, 248 Ja’fari, Muhammad, 90 Iraqi secret police documents, 3, 175, 176, Jabel Spi, 95 177, 180 Jafati valley, 104, 112, 121, 128, 129, 163 seized by Kurdish rebels, xiv, 247n1 and Battle of Dastani Rezgari (1987), Iraqi tribunal, 243, 246 95 Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), chemically attacked, 96 1, 5, 70, 115, 116 Iraqi assault on (1988), 95, 111, 115, Islamic revolution (1979), 12, 22, 41, 44, 209 45, 148, 201 PUK headquarters in, 14, 88, 92, 106, as target of Western containment, 110 233 PUK return to, in 1985, 89 interrupting WMD development in reconnoitered by Iranians, 90 Iran, 230 Jafeir, 33, 34

r 304 Index

jahsh Khalilzad, Zalmay, 218 as tribal regime recruits, 87 Khamene’i, Ali, 76 helping the PUK, 91 Kharrazi, Kamal, 4 in Halabja, xxii, 112, 118 Khateh, 132 participating in village destruction Khatimat al-Anfal, See Anfal campaign, campaign, 94 final stage of role in Anfal of, 130, 132, 136 Kheli Hama, 118 role in Halabja of, 190 Khomeini regime role of, played up by Iraqi media, 108, agreeing to ceasefire, 156 136 protesting Iraqi CW attacks, 36, 56, 149 under peshmerga pressure (1987), 93 relationship with PUK of, 88 witnessing Balisan CW attack, 97 standing at UN of, 149 Jalileh, xxiv stating refusal to use chemical weapons, Jalilei, Khaled, 112 152 Janbazan Bunyad, xviii taking Western hostages, 149 Japan, 53 threatening chemical retaliation, 153 Jasem river, 168 threatening Iraq, 43 Jasem, Latif, 77 Khomeini, Ruhollah, 12, 76, 145, 234 Jewish settlements, 148 agreeing to ceasefire, 146 Johnson, Douglas, 186, 188, 202 as target of Reagan administration, 40 Joint Chiefs of Staff death of (1989), 25 aware of events in Kurdistan, 100 denying permission to blow up on CW use at Halabja, 181 Darbandikhan dam, 109 on fate of Anfal detainees, 136 invoked by Pasdaran entering Halabja, Jordan, 69, 136 119 allied with US, 217 keeping low profile after loss of Faw supporting Iraqi war effort, 23 (1988), 139 Jwan Roh, 113 rise to power of (1979), 22 seeking international response to Iraqi Kaka’i, xxi CW use, 57 Kam, Ephraim, 146 Khorramshahr, 82 Kani Ashqan, xxii, 108 Khoshnaw, 188 Kani Dinar, 144 Khurmal, 5, 112, 117, 118, 122, 191, 193 Kani Khiyaran, 117 alleged Iranian CW attack on, 192 Karargeh Ramazan, 90, 109, 117, 118 Iranian capture of, xxii, 115–116, 123, Karbala, 119 173 Karim, Jamal Hama, 95 Iranian looting of, 122, 123 Karimi Vahed, Pervin, xviii–xix Iraqi CW attack on, 116, 175 Karimi, Hashemi, 163, 192 Kurdish liberation of, 112, 124 Karoun river, 168 victims from CW attack on, 5, 193 Katyusha rockets, 91 Khuzestan, 23, 24 KDP-PUK rivalry, 31–32, 87–88, 245 King Hussein of Jordan, 26 Kermanshah. See Bakhtaran,p.295 Kirkpatrick, Jeanne, 60, 61 Khabur river, 245 Kirkuk, 102, 105, 130, 132, 133 Khairallah Tulfah, Adnan and the prospect of civl strife, 227 acknowledging Iraqi role in Halabja Arabization of, 134 gassing, 179 as key point of contention, 32, 86, 89, comparing Iraq to US in WWII, 219 109 ordering chemical strikes, 179 as seat of Northern Bureau, 93, 99

r Index 305

as target of Kurdish territorial headquarters of, attacked with chemical ambitions, 90, 93, 100, 111, 227 weapons, 13 Iranian–PUK attack on (1986), 90–92 role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 115, oil fields of, 90, 91, 109, 227 117, 122, 123 Kirkuk airbase, xxiii, 173, 177, 179 siding with Saddam Hussein regime Kittani, Ismat against PUK, xx, 245 admitting Iraqi CW use, 51, 60 Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran alleging Iranian CW use, 158 (KDP-I), 88, 163 and restoration of US–Iraqi diplomatic and Anfal, 136 relations, 55 claiming Iranian CW attacks, 163, 164, introducing Hamdoon to official 165 Washington, 45 office in Baghdad of, 192 meeting with Shultz, 52 presence in Nowsud of, 116 swearing in Javier Perez´ de Cuellar,´ 57 targeted in Haj Omran battle (1983), KLM, 53 29 Komala, 92, 110, 122, 132 targeted in Halabja battle (1988), 110, targeted in Halabja battle (1988), 190, 122, 190, 191–193 191 targeted in Penjwin battle (1983), 32 Koppel, Ted, 7, 173, 239 ties with PUK of, 31, 88, 92 Koysanjaq, 188 Kurdistan Front, 92, 111 Kurdish army deserters, 93, 99 Kurdistan Popular Democratic Party Kurdish autonomous region, 89 (KPDP), 87 Kurdish backing forces, 93 Kurdistan Socialist Party (KSP), 87, 109, Kurdish chemical casualties, xvi, 32, 84, 111 98, 131, 132, 143 role in Halabja liberation of, 112, 120, denied medical care, 189 122, 123 in Iranian Kurdistan, 163, 164 Kurmanji dialect, 87 Kurdish chemical defense, 97 Kuwait Kurdish draft dodgers, 93, 99 accused of aggression, 220 Kurdish insurgency, 4, 13, 18, 21 as ally of the West, 232 Kurdish national movement, 85–87, 138 as US proxy, 220 quest for independence of, 226–227 facing Iranian onslaught, 69, 72 Kurdish rebels, xxii, 13, 87 facing Iraqi pressure, 184 accusing Iran of gassing Halabja, 185, facing Iraqi territorial claims, 63, 217 188–193 Iraqi invasion of (1990), xiv, 17, 19, 56, Kurdish uprising (1991), xiv, 247n1 78, 102, 152, 155, 183, 201, 202, 214, Kurdish Workers Party (PKK), 210 216, 218, 220, 222, 240 Kurdistan Communist Party (KCP), 87 liberation of (1991), 14, 221, 243 Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), 107, protected by Iraq from Iran, 233 111, 136 ships of, attacked by Iran, 80 as a Barzani family affair, 87 supporting Iraqi war effort, 23, 24, 63 bases in Badinan of, 130, 132, 210 Kuzlu, 131 breakup of (1976), 87 during Final Anfal, 206 Lang, Walter P., 187 founded by Mullah Mustafa Barzani, and Anfal, 137 86 and Iraqi CW use at Faw (1988), growing revolt of, 100 139 guiding Iranian forces in Haj Omran and use of VX, 141 battle (1983), xvi, 29 as source of Halabja claim, 203

r 306 Index

Lang, Walter P., (cont.) Minoui, Delphine, 254n6 claiming Iraq could win battles without miosis, 197 using CW, 236 Mirawa, 163 justifying Iraqi CW use, 184 Mitterand, Franc¸ois, 229 on Iraqi capabilities, 146 Mohammadian, Hossein, 255n9 on Stephen Pelletiere,` 202 Mohtashemi, Ali Akbar, 122 opposing CW use against civilians, 203 Moreels, Reginald,´ 199 pressing Iranian culpability in Halabja, and cyanide claim, 194 186, 202–204 Mossad, 228 talking to media, 202, 203 Mosul, 133 laws of war. See international Mowlani, Ali, 111 humanitarian law Muhammad, Barzan Qader, 98 Lebanon Muhammara, 168 bombings in (1983), 41, 65, 233, 240 Mujahedin Khalq, 122 multinational peacekeeping force in, mujamma’at, 89, 99, 102, 133 241 Murphy, Richard, 47, 50, 68, 76, 78, 210, US military presence in, 241 218 Western hostages in, 233 Mushir, Shawqat Haji, 111 Lesser Zab, 96, 131 and ambition to create free Kurdish Libya area, 111 as potential CW user, 211 and Iranian designs on Darbandikhan facing US pressure, 217 dam, 109 suspected of CW capability, 228 and KDP-I in Halabja, 190, 191 and Komala in Halabja, 191 Mafarez Khaseh, 177 and written agreement with Iran to Mahabad Republic, xix, 86 liberate Suleimaniyeh region, 110 Mahmoud Beg, Hassan, 112 justifying his actions in Halabja, 106, Mahmoud, Muhammad Haji, 109, 111, 120–124 112, 120 killed by Ansar al-Islam, 255n1 Majnoun islands, 33–34, 63, 65, 141, 142, on Iranian role in Halabja, 113, 114 194 role in Halabja liberation of, 118, 119, malband, 97 120–124 Mam Hadi, xxi, xxii, 117, 118, 124 mustard gas, 26, 131, 141, 142, 151, 161, Mam Jalal. See Talabani, Jalal 162 Mama Risha, 89 alleged Iranian use of, 165, 170, 171, Mamanda mountain, 83 175, 261n55, 264n32 Mared, 82 as persistent agent, 27 Marivan, 110, 113, 143, 144 civilian casualties of, 83 Mawat, 95, 163 description in literature of, xvii McFarlane, Robert, 76 early use of, 28 Medecins´ sans Frontieres` (MSF), 194, early use of, in artillery shells, 26 199 early use of, in RPGs, 29 Medical Association for Victims of Iranian victims of, 13, 69, 200, 228 Chemical Warfare, 28 Iraqi casualties of, 159, 166, 174 Mehran, 75, 79, 92, 141, 142 long–term effects of exposure to, xvi, Mergasur, 110 xvii, 13, 15, 226 Mikulak, Robert, 161 nonlethality of, 13 Milliano, Jacques de, 199 present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221 and cyanide claim, 194 purchase from Soviet Union of, 27

r Index 307

reducing Iranian mobility, 27 as quick–acting highly lethal agent, requiring full bodysuits, 167 178 routine use of, 56 causing blue lips, 196 used against Iranian Kurdish civilians, first recorded battlefield use of, 12, 14, 164 15, 32–36 used against Iranian staging areas, 35, Iranian victims of, 228 67, 167 Iraqi casualties of, 174 used against PUK (1987), 96 quickly dissipating character of, 151 used at Faw (1986), 72 requiring gas masks, 167 used at Faw (1988), 140 search for precursors of, 27, 53 used at Serdasht (1987), 84 use of, marking escalation in Iran–Iraq used during Khaybar operation, 33, 59, war, 56 89 used along front lines, 167 used during Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah used at Faw (1986), 71 operations, 168 used at Faw (1988), 140 used in 1983, 32, 40 used during Anfal, 131 used in Haj Omran, 12 used during Badr operation, 65 used in Halabja, 5, 11, 104, 194, used during Khaybar operation, 89 195 used in Halabja, 5, 11, 195, 196, 199 used in World War I, xvi, xvii, 12, 30 victims of, treated with atropine, 3, used to counter Iranian human-wave 140 assaults, 31 New Zealand, 53 mustashars, 29, 87, 93, 95, 112 Newton, David mutually assured destruction paradigm, alleging Iranian CW use, 158, 160 230 aware of Anfal, 136 mycotoxins, 194, 200 aware of Iraqi counterinsurgency alleged use in Halabja of, 195 campaign, 102, 138 myosis, 34 meeting with KDP-I, 136 on courting Iraq, 233 Nagasaki, 15, 51, 84, 152, 219 on CW discussions with Iraqi regime, Najaf, 119 55, 74 Namdar, Hama Reza, 112 on Iran–Contra fallout, 77, 78 napalm, 164, 167 on Iranian threat to Kurdish dams, 108 Naser al-Din, Ibrahim, 112 on travel restrictions for diplomats in Nateghi, Ahmad, 1–3, 70 Iraq, 19 National Defense University, 161, 198 reporting disappearance of anti-US National Security Agency (NSA), 20, floats in Baghdad, 51 187 Nijmar, 144 National Security Archive, 248n3 Nowroli, 118 National Security Decision Directive 114 Nowsud, 113, 114, 116, 124 (1983), 48 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), National Security Decision Directive 139 230, 231 (1984), 52 nuclear weapons, 17, 18, 51, 63, 75, 152, National Security Decision Directive 26 228 (1989), 217 Nugrat Salman, 132 Nazanin, 132 nerve gas, 64, 67, 141, 142, 144, 151, 152, Oberdorfer, Don, 38, 39 161, 210 Oil Protection Forces, 91 alleged use at Serdasht of (1987), 84 Operation Staunch, 44, 50, 76, 78, 79

r 308 Index

Organization for Defending the Victims of role in saving KDP-I of, 191, 192 Chemical Weapons in Serdasht, urban base of, 87, 88 255n9 Paveh, 113 Organization for the Prohibition of Pell, Claiborne, 101, 211, 219 Chemical Weapons, 231 Pelletiere,` Stephen, 137, 139 Orumiyeh, 30 and US Army War College study, 188 Oshnaviyeh, 143 on Walter P. Lang, 202, 204 Osirak nuclear reactor, 42, 55 pressing Iranian culpability in Halabja, Ottoman Empire, 85 185, 186, 202–203 Penjwin, 32, 46, 83, 96, 110, 114, 164 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Pentagon. See US Department of Defense 148 Peres, Shimon, 55 Palestine question, 217 Perez´ de Cuellar,´ Javier, 57, 236 Palme, Olof, 59 and Anfal, 136 Paris Conference on the Prohibition of brokering ceasefire in Iran–Iraq war, 125 Chemical Weapons (1989), 216, identifying Iraq as aggressor in war, 155 229 incurring Iraq’s wrath, 126, 155 Pasdaran. See Revolutionary Guard Corps on Halabja, 8 Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), 4, ordering investigation of CW 129, 207 allegations, 9, 15, 58, 73, 82, 125, and Anfal dead, 134 150, 155 and Komala in Halabja, 190–191 receptive to Iranian complaints, 154 attacked in Anfal, 136 saving UN’s reputation, 149 bases in Qaradagh of, 121, 130, 174 visiting Iran and Iraq (1985), 68 bases of, attacked with chemical Perle, Richard, 81 weapons, 13, 130, 131 Perry Robinson, Julian, 32, 64, 172, 230 called “Iranian agents,” 107, 175 Persian Gulf, 100 defeat of (1988), 129, 132 peshmergas. See Kurdish rebels fighting Iraqi troops near Jafati valley, Phalange militia, 241 89, 95 Phantom bombers, 76 fighting KDP in internecine conflict, xx, phosgene, 166, 170 245 alleged Iranian use of, 165, 261n55, fighting near Serdasht in 1987, 83, 144 264n32 founding of (1976), 87 alleged Iraqi casualties of, 166 growing revolt of, 89, 100 alleged use in Halabja of, 195 headquarters of, 14, 95, 97, 106, 110, present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221 129, 173 used in World War I, 165 intercepting battlefield phosphorus, 71, 96, 164, 225 communications, 188 Picco, Giandomenico,´ 58, 61, 100 losing men in Halabja, 129, 175 Pilatus planes, 91 negotiations with Saddam Hussein of, Piranshahr, xvi, 163 88–89 Placke, James, 61 regional command in Erbil region of, 97 and export ban on precursor chemicals, relations with Bradostis of, 31, 88 54, 61 relations with Iran of, 88, 90–92 and Operation Staunch, 44 relations with Iranian Kurdish parties and tilt toward Iraq, 43, 54 of, 31, 190 on alleged Iranian CW use, 160 role in Halabja liberation of, xxii, on Iraqi need for CW to win war, 236 106–124 poison gas. See chemical weapons

r Index 309

Popular Army, 132 and Iraq sanctions debate, 211–214, Portugal, 127 217, 229 potassium ﬂuoride, 53 and Iraq’s counterinsurgency campaign, Powell, Colin, 183, 184 103, 206–208 precursor chemicals and norm against CW use, 237 export restrictions on, 53, 54 anti-Iranian animus of, 234 sale of, banned to Iran and Iraq, 229, concerned about CW proliferation, 62, 236, 237 211, 215, 216 supplied by East Bloc, 236 concerned about Halabja fallout, 239 supplied by Western companies, 16, 27, demarches to Western allies of, 236 39, 47, 48, 53, 62, 219, 222, 230, 235, opposing CW investigation by UN, 125 236, 237 organizing the Paris Conference (1989), Prees, 118 229 Prevention of Genocide Act, 213 policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 40, 41, prisoners of war (POWs), 59, 155 42, 43, 76, 79, 100, 204, 239 pro-Iran lobby, 204 policy toward Iraqi CW use of, 39, 63, 206–218, 234–240, 241, 243 Qader Karam, 131 policy toward revolutionary Iran of, 234 Qal’a Saleh, 170 position on Halabja attack of, 7, 8, 126, Qala Dizeh, 110, 111, 191 128, 181, 205, 237–239 Qala’ji, 143 restoring diplomatic relations with Iraq, Qalaga, 143 45, 51–56, 74, 237, 241 Qandil mountain, 130, 132, 191 sharing intelligence with Iraq, 43, 79, Qaradagh, xxiii, 109, 121, 130, 131, 135, 238, 239 173, 174, 175 siding with Phalangists in Lebanon, 241 Qasemlou, Abd-al-Rahman, 29, 31, 88 silence on Iraqi CW use of, enabling alleging Iranian CW attacks, 163, 165 genocide, 17 assassination of, 163 strategic objectives in Gulf of, 234 residence in Baghdad of, 89 tilting toward Iraq, 6, 39, 40–46, 74, 80, Qasr al-Shirin, xix 128, 138, 201, 206, 208, 214–218, 232, 233 Radio Free Iraq, 178 understanding of Anfal of, 135–138, Radio Monte Carlo, 173 206, 207 Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 40, 76, Reagan, Ronald, 41, 49, 56, 240 92 meeting with Kittani, 45 advocating chemical and biological Redman, Charles, 7, 173, 201 weapons, 230 Republican Palace, 178 Rajaie Khorassani, Sa’id, 57–58, 61, 63, Revolutionary Command Council, 93, 156 265n5 rajima, 141 Revolutionary Guard Corps (Pasdaran), Ramadan, Taha Yasin, 77 105 Rankin, Haywood, 101 and Halabja operation, 6, 109, 111, 115, Ranya, 111 116, 118, 119, 121, 123 Rassam, Omar, 105 and Karargeh Ramazan, 90 Reagan administration ﬁghting in Badr offensive, 65 and cyanide claim, 200–201 founding of, 23 and information about Iraqi CW use, involved in Kirkuk attack (1986), 90–91 238 participating in human–wave attacks, 25 and Iran–Contra affair, 77 subject to chemical attacks, 141

r 310 Index

Reza, Ali, 113, 122 harboring territorial designs, 63, 217 Reza’ie, Mahmoud, 113 launching Anfal campaign, xiv Reza’ie, Mohsen, 109, 111, 116 negotiations with PUK of, 32, 88–89 Ricciardone, Francis, 250n3 ouster of (2003), xiv, xxiv, 240 and policy toward Iraqi CW use, 39, quest for power in Gulf of, 41 47–48, 55, 61 relations with Arab Gulf states of, 64 on alleged Iranian CW use, 161 relations with Reagan administration of, on arms transfers to Iran and Iraq, 45 78, 201, 206, 214, 219, 220 Riza, Iqbal responsibility for Halabja CW attack of, and UN CW investigations, 58–59, 177 172 restoring diplomatic relations with US, informing Jeanne Kirkpatrick of Iraqi 51–56 CW use evidence, 60 strengthened by Iran–Iraq war, 25 on Iraqi response to US pressure to halt threatened by Iranian capture of CW use, 62 Darbandikhan dam, 108 on victims of Balisan attack, 98 threatening to attack Iranian cities with Romberg, Alan, 39 CW, 9, 14, 144, 145, 146 Rome treaty, 244 threatening to attack Tehran with CW, Rostam Beg, xxv, 65, 112, 240 144–145, 153, 241 Rumsfeld, Donald WMD programs of, 52 and Lebanon bombings Salamiyeh, 133 and war on terrorism, 240–242 Salih, Barham, xxi announcing alleged WMD find in Iraq, Salim Pirak, 108 224 SAM rockets, 91 expressing concern over potential Iraqi Samawa, 133 CW use in, 104, 125, 145 Sandinista government, 76 first Baghdad visit of (1983), 49–51, Saqqez, 163 237, 241 sarin, 64 second Baghdad visit of (1984), 51–52, alleged use at Faw of (1986), 71 237 alleged use in Halabja of, 195, 199 Russell, Mark, 224 characteristics of, 71, 199 destructive potential of, 64 Sa’id, Hama Hama, xxii, xxiii, 83, 109, found in Iraqi soil samples, 199, 210 110, 117, 118 greater lethality than tabun of, 71 offering Halabja interpretation, precursor chemicals of, 53 120–124 present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 74, 199, Saddam airbase, 179 221 Saddam Hussein regime unlikely Iranian production of, 199 accused of wanting to annihilate Kurds, used along front lines, 12 129 used at Faw (1988), 140 acknowledging Anfal, 136 used in Tokyo subway attack, 223 admitting chemical attacks, 38, 60, 75 Saudi Arabia, 69, 136 and human-wave assaults, 26 allied with US, 217 and Iranian capture of Halabja, 7 as ally of the West, 232 biological weapons program of, 183, facing Iranian onslaught, 69, 72 216, 218, 221, 222 protected by Iraq from Iran, 219, concessions on the Israeli–Arab conflict 233 of, 233 supporting Iraqi war effort, 23, 24

r Index 311

targeted by Scud missiles in, 17, and US tilt toward Iraq, 44, 215, 218 143–144 and Zalmay Khalilzad, 218 threatened by CW proliferation, aware of Iraqi CW use, 22, 46, 215 229 condemning Iraqi CW use, 209, 215 Sayed Sadeq, xxi, 113, 114, 120, 191 extracting Iraqi pledge to halt CW use, Schifter, Richard, 211 209 Scowcroft, Brent, 217 meeting with Iraqi ofﬁcials, 45, 52 Scud missiles, 17, 80, 144, 146, 241 on Halabja, 127 Seif Sa’at, 159 on restoring diplomatic relations with Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 101, Iraq, 55, 56 211, 247n1 view of Iraqi regime of, 206, 214, 215 Sengaw, 131 Sick, Gary, 204 September 11 attacks, 227, 240 Sidell, Frederick, 196, 198 Serdasht, xviii, 83–85, 88, 143, 150, 163, sigint, See signals intelligence 254n6 signals intelligence, 186 commemorating chemical attack, 255n9 Sirwan, 115, 116, 192, 193 Seyw Senan, 130, 131 Sirwan lake, xxi, xxii, 1, 7, 108, 114, 115, Shah of Iran, 21, 22, 40, 44, 86, 107 190, 191 as West’s guardian of Gulf wealth, Sirwan river, xxi, 122 232 Slivana, 87 overthrow of, 234 Smaquli valley, 130, 132 starting WMD research, 230 Sohrabpour, Hamid, xvi, xvii, xix, 6, 28, Shakala, 163 145 Shaker, Ahmad, 177 soman, 64 Shakh Shemiran, 109, 112, 197 alleged use in Halabja of, 195 Shamir, Yitzhak, 55 Sosan hospital, xvi, xvii, xviii Shamkhani, Ali, 113 Soviet Union, 62 Shaqlawa, 132 Afghanistan invasion by, 23, 41 Shatt al-Arab, 23, 70, 168 aiding Iraqi CW program, 16, 26, 230 Shatt-e Ali, 33 and Afghanistan quagmire, 148 Shaweis, Tahsin, 89 and threatened arms embargo against Sheikh Mowla, 109, 140 Iran, 125 Sheikh Wasanan, 97, 104, 188, 189 and Treaty of Friendship and Shinirweh mountain, xxii, xxiii, 117, 118, Cooperation with Iraq, 41 124, 192 as Iraqi ally, 24, 41, 42, 43, 54, 77, 233 Shirawandi, Shirwan, 111 chemical weapons arsenal of, 230 Shouf mountains, 241 possessing nerve gas stockpiles, 64 Shultz, George possible use of mycotoxins in Cambodia accusing both Iran and Iraq of CW use, of, 194 103 relations with Iraq of, 23 advising Bush I administration on Iraq, Stahl, Leslie, 243 218 Studeman, William O., 20 alleging Iranian CW use, 165, 171 Suleimaniyeh, 32, 88, 89, 97, 100, 105, and CW proliferation, 241 110, 173 and US policy on Iraqi CW use, 56, arrival of Balisan victims in, 189 208, 214–218 as base of Kurdish national movement, and US policy toward Iran–Iraq war, 43, 86 44, 79 as post-1991 oasis of tranquility, xx

r 312 Index

Suleimaniyeh (cont.) challenging Mustafa Barzani’s as PUK domain, 87 leadership, 87 set to be liberated by Kurdish rebels and claiming 2,000 dead in Halabja, 5 Iranians, 110, 111 claiming Iraqi CW attacks, 135 threatened with destruction, 129 collaborating with Iran, 7 Suleimaniyeh Health Department, 189 excluded from amnesty at end of Anfal, Suleimaniyeh–Baghdad road, xxiii, 102, 207, 265 109, 110 friendship with Qasemlou of, 88 Suleimaniyeh–Dukan road, 95 leadership of PUK of, undisputed, 87 Suleimaniyeh–Erbil road, 110 meeting with Iranians, 90, 92 Suleimaniyeh–Kirkuk road, 102, 111, 131 negotiating with Saddam Hussein, 32, Sultani, Bahman, 143 89 Supreme Council for the Islamic present at CW attack on headquarters, Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI), xxii, 29, 96 110, 111 pressed by Iran to fight KDP-I, 88, 92 role in Halabja liberation of, 112, traveling in Europe at time of Halabja 115 attack, 4, 106 subjected to chemical attack, 197 Talabani, Mukarram, 158, 193 Suran, 87 Tallil airbase, 238 Surani dialect, 87 Tanjro river, xxi Swara, Mowloud, 163 tanker wars, 25 Syria targeted assassinations, 242 facing US pressure, 217 Tawakkulna ‘ala Allah campaign (1988), Kurdish population of, 86 128, 139, 158, 159, 160, 169, 236 suspected of CW capability, 228 Tawela, 112, 116, 122, 124 Tazashar, 131 Tabatabaei, S. R., 153 Tehran, 59, 82 tabun, 67, 71, 162, 197 Tehrani, Muhammad, 113, 121, 122 alleged use in Halabja of, 195 thio-sulphate, 84, 197 containing cyanide as key ingredient, Tigris river, xxi, 7, 70, 96 197 Tokyo subway attack, 71, 223 description in literature of, 34, 35 Topzawa, 132 first recorded battlefield use of, 12, TOW missiles, 76, 77 32–36, 64 Trainor, Bernard, 222 greater lethality than mustard gas of, 67 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation Iraqi rationale for use of, 35 (1972), 23, 41 Iraqi use of, confirmed by UN, 34 Turkey, 17, 69, 88, 130, 132 potential blowback effects from use of, as US ally, 210 35 assisting US in Kurdistan, 246 precursor chemicals of, 53 blocking access to refugees, 211 present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 221 denying Iraqi CW use, 210 production in World War II of, 35 Kurdish population of, 86 used during Badr operation, 66 policy toward its Kurdish population of, used during Khaybar operation, 59, 210 259n21 receiving Kurdish refugees (1988), 206, victims of, 34, 35 207, 208, 210, 211, 213 Takiyeh, 174 receiving Kurdish refugees (1991), 225 Talabani, Jalal, 15, 180, 207 Tuz Khurmatu, 131 calling for talks with Iraqi regime, 96 Tyler, Patrick, 184

r Index 313

and Pentagon study on Halabja, tilting toward Iraq, 58, 73, 151, 154 185–186, 202 tolerating Iraq’s CW use, 156 casting doubt on Iraqi CW use at UN Special Commission on Iraq Halabja, 184 (UNSCOM), 102, 198, 199, 218, claiming Iraq accused Iran of CW use in 228 Halabja, 10 dismantlement of Iraq’s WMD programs covering Halabja story, 184 by questioning evidence of August 1988 United Arab Emirates, 220 CW use, 209 United Nations visiting Halabja in March, 1988, 144, championing human rights, 149 184 credibility of, 17 CW expert reports of, 3, 11, 15, 59–61, Um Rsas, 168 73, 83, 98, 125, 143, 150, 166, UN Charter, 154, 155, 156 170–171, 172, 175, 176, 181, 197 UN Committee on Disarmament, 62 CW experts teams of, See, 9, 10, 11, 15, UN Conference on Disarmament, 230 33, 34, 57, 58–59, 67, 73, 82, 98, 142, UN General Assembly, 252n46 150, 151, 155, 156, 166, 171, 174, UN General Secretariat, 98 195, 212 UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 225 experts team of (1983), 81 UN Human Rights Commission, 52 failure to halt Iraqi CW use of, 149 UN Security Council, 98 position on CW use of, 60, 61, 68–69 and investigations of CW claims, 58, undermining of, 242 59 United States and Resolution (1987), 43, 78, 80, 100, accused of using gas in Vietnam, 219 103, 125, 127, 128 as guarantor of Kurdish rights and calling for ceaseﬁre, 72 security, 226 condemning CW use, 53, 83 declaiming virtues of democracy and condemning targeting of civilians, 46 human rights, 243 considering arms embargo against Iran, developing VX in 1950s, 141 6, 78, 107, 125, 152 hostages in Lebanon of, 76 deaf to Iranian protests, 149, 150, 151, Interests Section in Baghdad of, 41, 42 154 invading Iraq (2003), 223 distrusted by Iranian regime, 57, 58 killing civilians, 241, 242 failure to condemn Iraqi CW use of, 82, possessing nerve agent stockpiles, 64 84, 151 promoting comprehensive chemical Halabja resolution of, 4, 11, 128, 148, weapons ban, 230 204 propping up authoritarian regimes, 243 identifying aggressor in Iran–Iraq war, supporting Iraq, 24 155 supporting Israeli military occupation, policy on Iran–Iraq war of, 23, 41 243 position on Iraqi CW use of, 16, 156 Tehran embassy seizure of, 36, 40 presidential statements of, 61, 69, 73, war on terrorism of, 240–244 127, 128 University of Ghent, 194 receiving CW report, 11, 60 uranium enrichment, 231 resolutions of, 73, 154, 156 US Air Force Intelligence Agency, 175 resolutions of, favoring Iraq, 154 US Army Medical Research Institute, resolutions of, ignored by Iran, 149 196 role in international armed conﬂicts of, US Army War College, 137, 202, 207 154 study of Iran–Iraq war of, 185, 186, 202

r 314 Index

US Congress, 17 village destruction campaign, 93, 100, 101, US Department of Agriculture, 45, 233 102, 106, 108, 111, 136, 138, 205, US Department of Commerce, 53, 78 211, 213 US Department of Defense Viorst, Milton, 209 and attempt to frame Iran for Halabja VX, 64 gas attack, 183–205 alleged use in 1988 of, 141–143 response to Halabja attack by, 4 alleged use in Iranian Kurdistan of, 144 study of Iran–Iraq war of, 185 alleged use of, 15 US Department of State, 7, 17 as a quick–acting highly lethal agent, accusing Iran of CW use, 204 141 acknowledging Iraqi CW use, 39, 208, predicted Iraqi use of, 101 211 present in Iraqi CW arsenal, 152, 221 alleged to be pro-Kurdish, 202 present in Western arsenals, 141 analyzing Barzani revolt, 21 annual human rights report of, 102 war crimes, 4, 15, 59, 81, 82, 151, 155, 243 Bureau of Intelligence and Research of, Warba, 63, 217 208 Wareh, 132 calling Iraqi CW use against Kurds wars of the cities, 25, 26, 59, 80, 107, 144, “convenience use,” 212 145, 150, 173 claiming CW key to Iraq’s survival, Warta, 132 236 weapons of mass destruction, 17, 26, 223, determining Anfal to be genocide, 213 224, 231 interest in Kurds of, 137 Weinberger, Caspar, 139 interest–based argument against CW Weizman Institute of Science, 165 use of, 235 West Germany, 62 labeling the PKK a terrorist Willems, Jan, 200 organization, 210 WMD proliferation, 17, 39, 75, 153 Legal Ofﬁce of, 135 and international efforts to combat, on CW proliferation, 229 229–230 on export ban on precursor chemicals, in the Middle East, 228 49, 62 Wolfowitz, Paul, 79, 239 policy on Iraqi CW use of, 39, 46–49, World War I, 85 51, 53, 54, 56, 217 CW use in, xvi, xvii, 30, 38, 165, 209 policy toward Iran–Iraq war of, 44 World War II, 35 referring to Anfal, 136 as impetus for human rights norms, 244 response to Halabja attack by, 3, 126–129 yellow rain, 194 reviewing Iraq policy before Saddam yperite. See mustard gas trial, 243 US Export Import Bank, 45, 50, 78, 217 Zahidi, Muhammad, 114, 124 US National Archives, 247n1 Zalm bridge, 112, 114, 116, 118, 122, 123 US National Security Council (NSC), 20, Zalm river, xxi, xxiii, 1, 114, 115, 118, 122 47, 76, 78, 235 Zammaki, 112, 116 US New Jersey, 241 Zarif, Javad, 231 Zarza, Sadeq, 163 Valley of the Parties. See Jafati valley Zeibari, Babaker, 111 Velayati, Ali Akbar, 82, 84 Zerda mountain, 174 on Iranian chemical casualties, 228 Ziveh, 87