Biocontrol News and Information 29(4), 49N–72N pestscience.com General News

Weed Biocontrol in Europe: End of the says that although more famous for its ‘concrete- Wilderness Years? cracking’ ability, its impacts on Britain’s natural habitats are severe, crowding out native plants and A milestone was reached this October when CABI seriously reducing opportunities for native wildlife. submitted an application to the UK Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) for per- It thrives on disturbance and has been spread by nat- mission to release an exotic psyllid (Aphalara ural means, for instance along waterways, and by itadori) for the biological control of Japanese knot- human activity such as fly-tipping. It has now colo- weed (Fallopia japonica) in the UK. If approval is nized almost all regions of the UK; it thrives equally given, it will pave the way for the first official release well in towns and the countryside, and is a particular of an exotic biological control agent for weed control problem in parts of Cornwall and Wales in the south- anywhere in Europe. This potential ‘first’ may seem west of the UK. It has become a pervasive and extraordinary to readers almost anywhere else in the insidious weed that costs the UK millions in control world, but Europe can be hostile to novel technology efforts. A Defra working group estimated that the (as the biotechnology sector learnt to its cost) and the cost to control it across the UK using traditional general public remains largely unaware of the bene- methods would be UK£1.56 billion. This is economi- fits of biological weed control (though surprisingly cally and environmentally unsustainable but, knowledgeable about the cane toad; see ‘Beyond the according to Shaw, doing nothing is not an option. cane toad’, this issue). What has been frustrating for weed biocontrol scien- The last weed to come under serious consideration in tists like him is that, whereas in countries like the the UK for biological control by exotic agents was USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, research bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), a native species now into biological control is the first port of call when a a major weed of marginal and hill land in western new alien pest species is identified as an apparently and northern regions. A paper written 20 years ago unmanageable problem, this is not the case in noted that although biological and technical obsta- Europe. Shaw, together with his colleagues working cles had been largely overcome, there was “a host of on other weeds in Europe, hopes that the Japanese political, legal, environmental and socio-economic knotweed application will prove to be a watershed. problems that must be confronted before biological 1 control of bracken in Britain can be attempted.” The UK is leading the way in Europe in strategic Confronted they were, but not overcome, and biolog- invasive species management, thanks to Defra’s non- ical control of bracken in the UK was abandoned – native species policy, and also in researching alter- but not forgotten since a paper entitled ‘Whatever native weed control measures which can be happened to bracken biocontrol?’ was presented by integrated with traditional methods. Since 2000 Djami Djeddour and Dick Shaw (CABI Europe – UK) CABI has been working to stop the spread of Japa- at the EWRS (European Weed Research Society) nese knotweed with funding from a consortium of International Symposium, ‘Intractable Weeds and sponsors: Defra, the Environment Agency, Network Plant Invaders’ in the Azores in July 2006. Rail, the South West Regional Development Agency, the Welsh Assembly Government and British Water- Japanese knotweed has urban and rural impacts. ways, all coordinated through Cornwall County Introduced in the 1820s as an ornamental garden Council. plant, it can grow as much as three metres in as many months. Its extraordinarily strong growth, The plant has no significant natural enemies in the which allows it to grow through tarmac and causes UK. CABI’s Japanese knotweed research project has serious damage to buildings, paving, drainage and involved the collection, identification and selection of archaeological sites, has given it a ‘concrete-busting’ natural enemies from Japan with potential as con- reputation. It can add more than 10% to the total trol agents. Over 200 species of insects and costs of developing a building site – and in that con- pathogens have been recorded. Safety has been the text is impacting on the 2012 Olympics site. From priority, and five years of testing has seen the most time to time newspapers carry photos of Japanese promising natural enemies tested against 79 related knotweed plants growing up through tarmac, plant species to determine host specificity. These through stone walls, and even appearing in living safety tests have led to all but two species being rooms as it emerges through the floors of houses. It rejected. has less-publicized but serious impacts in natural habitats: Shaw, who has been leading CABI’s Japa- The two species identified as potential agents for nese knotweed classical biological control project, release in the UK are the psyllid A. itadori and a

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Mycosphaerella leafspot fungus. So far they are both control agent against a plant in Europe (see: ‘Weed proving to be highly specific to Japanese knotweed biocontrol in Europe: end of the wilderness years?’, and pose no direct threat to important native species this issue), led UK journalists and the general public or crops. The fungus’ complicated life-cycle presented to develop the dreaded ‘cane toad syndrome’ once practical difficulties, while work on the psyllid pro- again. gressed more quickly to completion, and is the subject of the current application to Defra and its This latest attack occurred on 13 October 2008 when expert review process. the BBC ran a story, and an interview with Dick Shaw (CABI Europe – UK) (see: http:// Although permission to release would be a landmark news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7531221.stm) who leads in weed biological control in Europe, CABI does not CABI’s Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) bio- want to raise expectations about the impact the control programme. Television, radio and local and psyllid would have: it is unlikely to be the end of Jap- national newspapers ran stories on the potential anese knotweeed in the UK. Successful biological release of the sap-sucking psyllid Aphalara itadori control will not eradicate the weed, but it should against the UK’s most pernicious and expensive bring the population to a more acceptable level, weed. On the whole the publicity was positive: most where it will become more susceptible to traditional articles detailed the impacts of Japanese knotweed control methods. This view is supported by John in the UK, and went some way to explaining the Bailey at the University of Leicester, who also cau- screening methods used to determine the biocontrol tions against over-hyping the prospects for control. agent’s host specificity and therefore safety. How- He has been researching the weed since the 1980s ever, during the media flurry the cane toad reared its and his team was responsible for the molecular work very ugly head again with many articles featuring its establishing that Japanese knotweed in the UK was devastating impact in Australia after its release in a single clone, and identifying where in Japan this the 1930s. had come from and thus where CABI’s natural enemy collections were subsequently focused. The comments from the public on the BBC website Pointing out that a biological control agent is rarely following the story’s airing indicate how successful a ‘silver bullet’, he says that although its release the press has been in educating the public on this would weaken existing plants and slow down or dark event in classical biological control (CBC) his- hamper range extension, and may even ultimately tory. Comments like “Oh no, not another cane toad” reduce the amount of hybrid seed produced, the bio- and “When will these scientists learn – remember the control agent should be viewed as “an invaluable aid cane toad”, highlight the need to provide the public to levelling the playfield in the fight against this with a history of past and present biological control alien plant, rather than as a ‘mission achieved’.” He programmes which detail successes as well as fail- suggests that if it is released, this should be as part ures if weed biological control is going to get the of a coordinated campaign, involving both public edu- backing it needs at this early stage in Europe. cation on the dangers of inadvertently spreading the plant, and a redoubling of the use of more conven- If approved, the release of A. itadori against Japa- tional control methods, and that, “to sit back and let nese knotweed will be the first official release of a [the biocontrol agent] do its work would lead to little biocontrol agent against a weed in Europe. The reduction in the occurrence of the plant.” stakes are high in that, if successful, the knotweed biocontrol programme could be a showcase and plat- Further information: form for further research into weed biocontrol control 1 www.cabi.org/japaneseknotweedalliance in Europe. Sheppard et al. have shown there is no shortage of European targets, and with climate 1Lawton, J. (1988) Biological control of bracken in change and the relaxing of European borders, the Britain: constraints and opportunities. Philosophical numbers of invasive species having a detrimental Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B impact in the UK and mainland Europe will surely 318, 335–355. increase. European biocontrol practitioners already have their work cut out educating the general public Contact: Dick Shaw, CABI Europe – UK, on the concept and principles of biological control and Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, TW20 9TY, UK. the scientific methodology to determine whether a Email: [email protected] potential control agent is safe. Having the cane toad Fax: +44 1491 829123 cited as the sole example of biological control is unhelpful – there are more appropriate good and bad John Bailey, University of Leicester, UK. examples to help the public understand the issues. Email: [email protected] So why does the media, and general public, have such a fixation on the cane toad? As acknowledged in Beyond the Cane Toad a previous issue of [BNI 27(4), 67N (December 2006), ‘The still-controversial cane toad’] the cane toad is A recent flurry of media interest in the UK, brought “hideously photogenic”. What better way of high- on by the news of the potential first release of a bio- lighting agents that have ‘gone wrong’ than by a News 51N photo of a toxic warty toad with a large gaping Changes in regulations on host-specificity testing mouth. It was perhaps its starring role in a BBC aside, there are other reasons why the cane toad nature documentary in the 1980s that alerted the would not be introduced today, and these relate to media and their audience to the spreading menace changes in societal values. Another relevant example and cemented it in our collective consciousness. No for the current debate about CBC is one that has one denies the impacts the cane toad has on the bio- fuelled controversy among conservation and biocon- diversity of Australia, especially the herpetofauna, trol scientists for the last decade: the non-target but when the cane toad was released in Australia in impacts of the European weevil Rhinocyllus conicus the 1930s, it was not just on a whim of Australian sci- on native thistles in the USA. Following its introduc- entists; it was based on evidence that it had achieved tion into the USA in the late 1960s as a biocontrol a reasonable amount of control of sugar cane pests in agent against the highly invasive Eurasian musk Barbados and Jamaica. What is not mentioned in the thistle, Carduus nutans, Rhinocyllus was found media is that this introduction was against the feeding and inflicting damage on native Cirsium advice of some entomologists, and there was little sci- thistles. While the damage inflicted on the native entific testing on the toad’s breadth of diet before it thistles was worrying and its ultimate impact unpre- was done. The science and practice of CBC has pro- dictable, the likelihood that Rhinocyllus would gressed immeasurably since then, which is what we attack them had been predicted by the scientists need to get across to the European public. involved in the pre-release host-range testing proce- dure, yet permission to introduce Rhinocyllus was What is curious is that the media and the public have still given – why? At the time of its release, native continued to focus on the cane toad as the reason for thistles were believed abundant and their habitat being cautious about – or opposing – the introduction not seriously threatened. However, more significant of an exotic agent for biological control of Japanese is the fact that native species or ‘biodiversity’ was not knotweed, when there is an on-going biological con- considered as valuable as it became after the Con- trol disaster much closer to home (at home in some vention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was drafted in cases) that could justifiably be cited to greater effect: 1995. Biodiversity was certainly not prioritized by the harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis. With a the government officials given the task of halting the native range extending through eastern Asia loss of large swathes of grazing pasture. The eco- (including Japan), the harlequin ladybird was sold nomic benefits of releasing R. conicus were quite legitimately in 1990s as a greenhouse biocon- considered greater than the potential non-target trol agent in European countries for aphids and effects on what at the time were considered relatively coccids; such introductions were not subject to regu- ‘insignificant’ native plants, which in any case could lation because it was assumed that they would not be offset against the impact of the expanding musk establish outside the protected environment into thistle population on them. Today with societal which they were released. The harlequin’s establish- values shifting to a more ecological conservation per- ment in the wild, its subsequent spread throughout spective, such a release would be unlikely to be Europe, and arrival and successful establishment in allowed, although the cost of ‘doing nothing’ needs to the UK in 2004 has caused particular concern be taken into account when considering any weed because of the sheer speed of its range expansion and control strategy. its potential impact on native ladybirds – and because large swarms of harlequins have begun A sense of historical perspective also needs to be using houses in southern England as overwintering applied to the decision to introduce the cactus moth, sites. As one of the authors of this article pointed out Cactoblastis cactorum, to the Caribbean region for in a recent issue of International Pest Control [50(3) control of Opuntia ‘prickly pear’ species. In the 1920s (June 2008), ‘What chance classical biocontrol of Cactoblastis from Argentina was introduced into weeds in Europe?’] the unregulated sale and subse- Australia to control some 6.5 million hectares of quent escape of the harlequin ladybird could tarnish mainly Opuntia stricta. The introduction was one of the concept of biological control in the eyes of the gen- the first success stories for CBC and further intro- eral public. The biological control scientist’s ductions were made, with similar success, against argument in both cases, cane toad and harlequin, is introduced Opuntia spp. in Hawaii, Mauritius and the same: they were ill-judged introductions of gen- parts of South Africa. However, deviating from the eralist feeders made with insufficient regard for tried-and-tested method where Cactoblastis was environmental and non-target effects. Neither of released in countries without endemic Opuntia spp., these introductions would be allowed today under in 1957 the moth was released in Nevis in the Carib- current regulation of biological control introductions, bean where some of the native Opuntia spp. were and the extensive host-specificity testing this entails. pasture weeds. From there it spread to other Carib- The revision of the ISPM (International Standards bean islands and eventually to mainland North for Phytosanitary Measures) No. 3 Code of Conduct America in 1989. It now threatens native Opuntia of and the recent REBECA project (European Union southern USA and Mexico – in the latter case threat- Specific Support Action, ‘Regulation of Biological ening culturally important cactus species [See BNI Control Agents’) should further ensure that such 27(4), 65N–67N (December 2006), ‘Biological control mistakes do not take place again. agent turned pest insect’]. While this example again 52N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) illustrates how society’s perception of the value of (Weeds CRC) (www.weedscrc.org.au/publications/ biodiversity has changed over the last half-century, factsheets_guidelines.html) estimated that between it also highlights the necessity of a regional perspec- 1997 and 2002 the economic loss to Australian agri- tive for CBC. In the 1950s, there was less movement culture from weeds was between A$3444 million and of people and goods than today, and onward dis- $A4420 million. Environmental losses are much persal of introduced natural enemies to harder to quantify. For the Australians, biological neighbouring countries was little thought about. But control has proven to be a cost effective method of by the late 1980s, quarantine authorities in North weed management, although other methods are also America knew that the arrival of the cactus moth on used – but at considerable cost because of the vast the mainland was inevitable. From a European per- areas involved. The Weeds CRC estimated the total spective, the example highlights the need for a cost of chemicals for weed control to be between European-wide approach to host-specificity testing A$820 million and A$974 million per annum. A bio- and for including plants endemic to different regions logical control programme can involve a costly outlay in test lists. and there is no guarantee of success. However when successful, the control programme has net benefits Although the examples above may be relevant to a year on year as the successful control agent will be current debate about the safety of biological control, self-perpetuating and spread throughout the they do, of course, lend support to the persistent infested area with little to no extra cost. In a study myth, which a large sector of the public believes, that where the Weeds CRC analysed the benefit–cost most if not all natural enemy introductions have ratio of CBC programmes in Australia over the past proved disastrous in the long run. If CBC is to 100 years, they identified 14 giving a positive eco- progress, this misperception needs to be addressed nomic benefit with an average benefit–cost ratio of and one obvious way of doing this is to look to Aus- 23:1. For an average annual investment of A$4.3 mil- tralia. Despite continuing to be the victim of the cane lion, these weed biocontrol programmes have given toad invasion, the country is one of the most active in an average annual net benefit of A$95.3 million.2 biological control programmes against weeds in the world. While Europe has just started to research the One of the biggest success stories for CBC in Aus- potential for biological control as a method of weed tralia in recent years has been control of rubber vine management Australia has a long and successful his- following the release of the rust pathogen M. crypto- tory with biocontrol agents released against over 60 stegiae in 1995 [BNI 23(2), 37N–38N (June 2002), weeds during the last 90 years. So why are Austral- ‘Rubber vine in terminal decline’]. Before the release ians still practising biological control when they of the rust pathogen, rubber vine was described as continue to be the victims of the cane toad invasion? the single biggest threat to natural ecosystems in The scale of, and area covered by, some of Australia’s tropical Australia. The plant was threatening the most prolific weeds favours control on a regional or biodiversity of Australia’s unique tropical riparian national scale. Such large scale control is often flora, quite literally smothering native Eucalyptus unachievable by traditional (mechanical, chemical) forests, and severely degrading pastureland. Inter- control methods, and when it is, the costs associated estingly, it invaded areas infested or threatened by are in the A$-millions. The extent of some weed inva- the cane toad – such as the Kakadu National Park – sions in Australia is almost incomprehensible to but it did not catch Europe’s attention in the way the Europeans. In the pre-Cactoblastis days in the cane toad does. Although this made headlines in 1920s, Opuntia cactus covered an area of some 24 Australia, it followed many successes over the years, million hectares in Queensland and New South including water weeds such as salvinia (Salvinia Wales. That is almost exactly the total land area of molesta), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and the whole of the UK. More recently, before the intro- water lettuce (Pistia), rangeland weeds such as duction of the rust pathogen Maravalia cryptostegiae Paterson’s curse (Echium plantagineum), giant sen- against invasive rubber vine, Cryptostegia grandi- sitive plant (Mimosa invisa) and ragwort (Senecio flora, this non-native plant occupied some 40,000 jacobaea), and weeds of cropping systems including km2 of northern Australia. Other invasive weed tar- skeleton weed (Chondrilla juncea) which invaded gets of current CBC programmes are widespread: wheat growing regions of southeast Australia. Parkinsonia aculeata occupies a staggering 12.4% of Australia’s landmass, while brambles (Rubus fruti- Weeds are not the only invasive group targeted by cosus agg.) and Lantana camara occupy some 9% and Australian biocontrol practitioners: successful bio- 5.1%, respectively. control has been achieved against insect pests, crop diseases and vertebrate pests. Introduced mammals When these figures are considered one can under- have given Australia some of its biggest problems. stand why Australians have been quicker to explore Although in the public consciousness cane toads are alternative approaches but it is perhaps the eco- Australia’s worst pest, other vertebrates such as rab- nomics that drive things now. Weed invasions over bits do far more economic and environmental such large areas have a high impact on Australia’s damage. Rabbits have long been the target of a bio- agricultural productivity. The Cooperative Research logical control programme, beginning with the Centre for Australian Weed Management introduction of the myxomatosis virus in 1950. In the News 53N 1990s, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) Diamond Celebrations Mark Sparkling was introduced with great success and rabbit popu- Collaboration lations were reduced to some 10% of their former This October, CABI Europe – Switzerland (CABI E- levels. Even the cane toad itself could be a target for CH) and Canada celebrated 60 years of collaboration, biological control, with Australian scientists under- a relationship that has been central to the develop- taking research on a variety of approaches in recent ment of biological control in Canada and of CABI, years, including viruses and other microbial agents especially in Switzerland, although Canadian found in the toad’s native range. If a microbial agent funding has supported CABI’s biological control pro- is found, which could cause disease and death, or grammes worldwide. A symposium highlighting this reduce the toad’s resistance to other infectious dis- collaboration was held on 20 October 2008 in Ottawa eases, the cane toad’s days as Australia’s most at the Joint Annual Meeting of the Entomological famous invasive could be numbered. Societies of Canada and Ontario.

With such a long history in CBC it is then no surprise Nineteenth century North America saw an expan- that Australian biological control practitioners lead sion in planting of crops imported from Europe, some the way in most aspects of this approach. The safety of which subsequently fell prey to insect, disease and testing of the agents, and the test plant selection for weed pests inadvertently imported with them. The the Japanese knotweed project were based on the first classical biological control introductions against pioneering work of the late Tony Wapshere (the first some of these were made in Canada in the 1880s. A officer in charge of the CSIRO biological control small Natural Control Investigations Laboratory unit). The centrifugal phylogenetic method and the was established at the University of New Brunswick adaptions suggested by David Briese and team, in 1915, and after a number of moves reached its long-term home in Belleville, Ontario in 1929. Staff underpinned the test plant selection for the Japa- there were involved in most subsequent biological nese knotweed control programme. CABI scientists control introductions to Canada, along with other have tested some 90 plant species against the psyllid agencies. A key one of these was the Imperial Para- showing this potential agent is host specific to Japa- site Service, which was responsible for the greater nese knotweed. part of the work overseas. The Imperial Parasite Service was set up at Farnham Royal, UK, in 1927 by The message from this is that in Australia CBC is the Imperial Bureau of Entomology (itself housed at considered as a mainstream option in pest manage- that time at the British Museum (Natural History) ment rather than the preserve of the lunatic fringe in London). Dr W. R. Thompson became its Director and the Australians have a long and growing list of in 1928. Critically, the Imperial Parasite Service was environmental and economic successes to prove the relocated to Belleville in 1940, under Thompson’s worth of this approach. Europe can learn many les- direction, where it remained for 20 years. sons from Australia when it comes to the implementation of CBC programmes not to mention Without the hospitality and assistance of the Gov- quarantine. Many countries have used CBC as a tool ernment of Canada and its own Entomological for weed management for decades. Lessons have Service, the Imperial Parasite Service would not been learnt from past mistakes and huge sums of have survived World War II. This was acknowledged money have been saved thanks to successful CBC during the Imperial Agricultural Bureau Review programmes. In time, and with weed biocontrol suc- Conference in 1946, when it was also agreed that it cesses under our belts, the European media might should remain in Canada, initially at Belleville eventually lose its obsession with such an unrepre- although it transferred to Ottawa at the end of 1948. It became an independent bureau, changing its name sentative example as the cane toad. to the Commonwealth Bureau of Biological Control (CBBC) in April 1947, and then to the Common- 1Sheppard, A.W., Shaw, R.H. & Sforza, R. (2006) wealth Institute of Biological Control (CIBC) in 1948; Top 20 environmental weeds for classical biological from January 1948 the name of the entire organiza- control in Europe: a review of opportunities, regula- tion was changed from Imperial Agricultural Bureau tions and other barriers to adoption. Weed Research to Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, or C.A.B. 46, 1–25. (The name-changing habit thus has a long history.) 2 Page, A.R & Lacey, K.L. (2006) Economic impact The genesis of CABI’s European Station in Switzer- assessment of Australian weed biological control. land soon followed: a substation opened at CRC for Australian Weed Management Technical Feldmeilen close to Zurich in 1948 with Louis Series No 10, 151 pp. Mesnil, a well known authority on parasitic Diptera, as Entomologist-in-Charge; there were already CIBC By: Rob Tanner and Richard Shaw, CABI Europe – substations in the West Indies (Trinidad) and the UK, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, TW20 9TY, USA (Fontana, California). The station moved to UK. Delémont, at that time in canton Bern, but now in Email: [email protected] / [email protected] canton Jura, in 1958. The new European Station of 54N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4)

CIBC was purpose-built on land bought by the management, and environmental conservation. In C.A.B. Executive Council, and the access road was 2006, CABI restructured and the different divisions appropriately named ‘Chemin des Grillons’ by the of CABI were reunited under a single logo, reflecting Conseil Municipal. The building was occupied in the synergies across all our activities. As a result 1963. Hubert Pschorn-Walcher succeeded Louis CABI Bioscience Switzerland Centre became CABI Mesnil as Entomologist-in-Charge of the Station in Europe – Switzerland, or CABI E-CH. 1969; he was followed by Klaus Carl until 1996. Dieter Schroeder followed and oversaw an enlarge- Meanwhile, back in Canada, the Belleville labora- ment of the building that increased the facilities by tory morphed through several name changes: 50%. The current Regional Director, Matthew Cock, variously Dominion Parasite Laboratory, Ento- took charge in 2000. mology Research Institute for Biological Control, and Belleville Research Institute at different points Although CIBC prepared and maintained a cata- during its life. In 1936 a 40-room insectary with logue of the parasites and predators of the world’s quarantine capability was built and in 1955 a insects, its principal activity from its earliest days modern office-laboratory building replaced the orig- consisted of the supply of beneficial insects attacking inal structure. In 1972, when the Research Branch of various pests which required field collections and Agriculture Canada was reorganized, the laboratory sometimes mass rearing and the development of was closed and staff were relocated to regional shipment methods. In some cases, CIBC took com- Research Centres across Canada. plete charge of biological control projects for governments and carried out research and educa- The Insect Pathology Laboratory, later the Insect tional work. An early success of research cooperation Pathology Research Institute of the Canada Depart- was the release of the parasitoid Ascogaster quadri- ment of Forestry (now the Canadian Forest Service dentata into British Columbia in the late 1930s, of Natural Resources Canada – NRCan, CFS), which resulted in the control of the pea moth, opened in 1950 at Sault Ste. Marie in Ontario. The Laspeyresia nigricana. Another example of suc- work conducted at this facility focused on insect cessful control of an agricultural pest was the release pathogens, building on the work begun in 1940 on of the egg parasitoid Ageniaspis fuscicollis against viral diseases of the European spruce sawfly, Diprion the apple ermine moth, Yponomeuta malinellus, in hercyniae. the late 1980s, which caused the widespread collapse of populations of the introduced pest. After 1972, the Biocontrol Unit was formed in Ottawa to coordinate importations and operate what Funding from Canada for survey work by CIBC in is now called the National Arthropod Containment India and Pakistan led to the establishment of CIBC Facility located on the Central Experimental Farm. stations in these countries. Later, Canada through Focal points for biocontrol research were shifted to Colombo Plan funding and subsequently the Cana- Simon Fraser University (Burnaby, British dian International Development Agency (CIDA) Columbia), Macdonald College (Montreal, Quebec), funded totally or partly the establishment of station Forest Pest Management Institute of the Depart- buildings, starting with Pakistan in 1957, followed ment of the Environment (Sault Ste. Marie), by India, Trinidad and Kenya. The headquarters of University of Guelph (Guelph, Ontario), and Regina CIBC moved from Ottawa to Trinidad in 1959. Sub- Research Station of Agriculture Canada (Regina, sequently, Canada’s International Development Saskatchewan). Today, biocontrol research is con- Research Centre (IDRC) and CIDA funded CABI to ducted at various Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada carry out a series of research and implementation (AAFC) and CFS locations, and at several universi- programmes against a range of pests in tropical ties. Furthermore, two Biocontrol Research Chairs countries, notably cassava mealybug, cassava green have been created, one at Simon Fraser University mite, tsetse flies, conifer aphids and locusts in Africa. and another at the Université de Montréal.

The Review Conference in September 1985 saw the Collaboration between Canada and what is now member countries of C.A.B. agree to seek full inter- CABI E-CH has strengthened during the last 60 national status and adopt a new title for the years and is essential to fulfill Canada’s needs for for- organization – CAB International (CABI). CIBC was eign exploration, research on the target pests and renamed the CAB International Institute of Biolog- their natural enemies, and for developing new ical Control but the acronym CIBC was retained. methods for ensuring the safety of candidate agents. CIBC headquarters moved from Trinidad to Silwood Throughout the history of classical biological control Park, Ascot, UK. In 1990 the four scientific institutes in Canada a close link has existed between CABI in of CAB International again changed their names and Switzerland and AAFC and CFS. Despite declining CIBC became the International Institute of Biolog- funding over the last two decades this close collabo- ical Control, with the acronym IIBC. In 1998, the ration continues, particularly with AAFC. Emphasis four scientific institutes of CABI were integrated into has shifted from a focus on mainly forest pests in the CABI Bioscience, which merged CABI’s worldwide early years to almost exclusive emphasis on weeds scientific activities in the characterization and utili- and agricultural pests. For example, releases of the zation of biodiversity for pest and disease weed biological control agents Mecinus janthinus News 55N against Dalmatian toadflax, Linaria dalmatica, and iour. Gary was particular interested to meet Mogulones cruciger against houndstongue, Canadian students involved in international student Cynoglossum officinale, resulted in successful con- placements at CABI E-CH during the summer field trol of these weeds in British Columbia. Biological season. At the end of his visit Gary said he felt control research collaborations with Canada are now morale and motivation at the Centre were good, conducted primarily with AAFC centres in Saint excellent science was being conducted and the Cana- John, Newfoundland; St. Jean sur Richlieu, Quebec; dian students were really enjoying their time at Ottawa and London, Ontario; Saskatoon, Saskatch- CABI as well as benefiting academically. Overall his ewan; Lethbridge and Beaverlodge, Alberta; and view was that Canada was getting superb value for Agassiz and Summerland, British Columbia. Agri- money from the work it contracts to CABI. culture Canada and CFS set up working groups in 1990 in order to set priorities for the collaborative Compiled by Ulli Kuhlmann, Peter G. Mason, projects. This role is now held exclusively by AAFC Tim Haye & Matthew J.W. Cock who meet annually to discuss all aspects of invasive species control including what collaborative projects For further information on CABI-Canadian CABI should focus on. collaboration, see the CABI E-CH webpage: www.cabi.org/Switzerland Currently, joint research is focused on biological con- trol options for the agricultural pests cabbage seedpod weevil, Ceutorhynchus obstrictus, root mag- Boneseed Biocontrol Proving a Tough Nut to gots, Delia radicum, swede midge, Contarinia Crack nasturtii, leek moth, Acrolepiopsis assectella, and the invasive weeds common tansy, Tanacetum vulgare, Boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monil- tansy ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, hawkweeds, Hier- ifera), a woody evergreen shrub that forms a dense acium spp., swallow-worts, Vincetoxicum spp., canopy, is invasive in southeastern Australia. Japanese knotweed, Fallopia japonica, and oxeye Improving the effectiveness of the biological control daisy, Leucanthemum vulgare. programme against this weed is a high research pri- ority, as none of the six insect agents released in Collaboration with CABI on publishing projects has previous years has established in the field, and it is seen the publication of the Biological Control Pro- too early to know if the recently released leaf buckle grammes in Canada series. Furthermore, Canadian mite (Aceria sp.) will establish. and CABI scientists made a significant contribution to the CABI book Environmental impact of inverte- The systemic South African rust fungus, Endo- brates for biological control of arthropods. phyllum osteospermi, is a promising biological control agent for boneseed because it reduces growth The last decade has seen a new initiative: training of and reproduction of plants by causing extensive Canadian undergraduate and graduate students has deformation of infected branches (witches’ brooms). become an important part of Canada–CABI collabo- However, the rust develops visible symptoms, in the ration. Each year, CABI E-CH offers placements to form of witches’ brooms, only 1–3 years after infec- allow undergraduate students of biology and agricul- tion of its host, which has made host specificity ture and post-graduate researchers to assist CABI E- testing a challenge, and presents challenges in terms CH staff with high impact practical projects and of a release strategy should it be approved for receive hands-on training in practical aspects of introduction. applied biological control research. This has led to excellent relationships being developed with many A recent two-year project led by Dr Louise Morin Canadian universities, a total of 90 student place- (CSIRO Entomology), in collaboration with Dr Alan ments, and many research papers. A number of the Wood (Agricultural Research Council – Plant Protec- students have subsequently won prizes and prestig- tion Research Institute, Stellenbosch, South Africa), ious scholarships on the basis of work undertaken in has built on research conducted in South Africa in collaboration with CABI. the mid 1990s to progress work on this candidate agent. Its aim was to complete the testing phase for Canadian–CABI collaboration came under the spot- the rust fungus, which would provide data to assess light in 2007 when the current Chairman of CABI’s risks and, if these proved acceptable, support an Executive Council, Dr Gary Whitfield (Science application for its release in Australia. The project Director with AAFC), visited Delémont in late June. has reached some stalemates but also seen some He met with scientists of the Agricultural Pest breakthroughs. Research and Weed Biological Control Research Sec- tions working on projects funded or co-funded by Because of the slow appearance of symptoms, a novel AAFC, in order to review the results achieved. Their approach based on a three-tier system was developed work, as when the Station was first founded, back in the 1990s to test the host specificity of the includes exploration for natural enemies of desig- rust against a test plant list that includes the target nated targets, followed by characterization of their weeds (boneseed and the closely related bitou bush, identity, life history parameters, ecology and behav- C. monilifera spp. rotundata, which is invasive in 56N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) coastal habitats of eastern Australia), 29 taxa were inoculated with the rust in December 2007 and related to the target species, and five species of eco- since maintained under quarantine conditions. It logical importance where Chrysanthemoides are has yet to be seen whether the fruiting bodies on found in Australia. these witches’ brooms will mature and produce viable spores, but the prospects of being able to one • Tier 1: Detached-leaf test. Can the fungus pene- day release this fungus in Australia are slowly trate leaves? Tests were performed on all species on brightening. the test list in South Africa in the late 1990s, using microscopy techniques to determine whether the If the rust passes Tier 3 testing and is eventually rust had penetrated leaves. Results indicated the approved for release, the project scientists will not rust penetrated its known hosts, boneseed and bitou want to wait for visible disease symptoms to appear, bush, and six non-target species: Osteospermum which can take more than a year, to know whether spp., Dimorphotheca jucundum, Gazania rigens, their release strategy is effective for the rust to estab- Gerbera jamesonii, Eucalyptus cladocalyx and Bed- lish. A PCR (polymerase chain reaction) based fordia arborescens1. However, penetration of epider- diagnostic tool has thus been developed by the mal cells does not necessarily imply that the project, to enable them to detect the presence of the infection process will be successful, hence the pro- rust in symptomless leaf tissue. Unfortunately this gression of testing to Tier 2. tool is not appropriate to speed up the testing regime because of possibilities of false negatives. • Tier 2: Attached-leaf test. Can the fungus colonize leaves? Frustratingly, trials performed on the target 1Wood, A.R. (2006) Preliminary host specificity and six non-target species in South Africa and in the testing of Endophyllum osteospermi (Uredinales, CSIRO Black Mountain Containment Facility in Pucciniaceae), a biological control agent against Canberra under the recent project failed to find Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera. Bio- signs of leaf colonization by the rust in any species, control Science and Technology 16, 495–507. including boneseed. Germination tests indicated that the spores used were highly viable, so their fail- Contact: Dr Louise Morin, CSIRO Entomology, ure to penetrate even the known host may relate to GPO Box 1700, Canberra ACT, Australia. slightly suboptimal conditions during testing pre- Email: [email protected] venting infection, or clearing and staining tech- Fax: +61 2 6246 4362 niques at the microscopy stage being not sensitive enough to detect early colonization. The results underline the extreme variability and technical com- plexity associated with this host–pathogen system. Climbing Fern Presents Few Biocontrol Options • Tier 3: Whole-plant test. Can the fungus develop A description of the impacts of Old World climbing witches’ brooms? Given the failure of the Tier 2 test, fern (Lygodium microphyllum) in the US state of which it was hoped would further reduce the Florida leaves little doubt that this invasive weed number of plant species needing to be tested, Tier 3 needs controlling, and that classical biological con- tests have to include all six non-target plant species trol is the best option. But the USDA-ARS (US that were successfully penetrated by the rust fungus Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research in the Tier 1 tests, together with boneseed and bitou Service) biocontrol programme against it has not found this easy going, as a paper in the October 2008 bush. These tests were established in spring 2008 in 1 South Africa, and involved repeatedly inoculating issue of Biological Control describes . plants with at least three different batches of field- First recorded naturalized on Florida’s southeastern collected spores over several weeks. It is anticipated coast in 1968, L. microphyllum is now found that plants will have to be maintained for up to throughout south and central Florida. Its rapid vine- three years to allow time for witches’ brooms to like growth habit allows it to grow over shrubs and develop. The difficulty is that annual plant species trees and smother native understorey vegetation. It are likely not to survive for that long. alters fire ecology because old rachis mats, a legacy Even if the rust passes the host specificity tests, a of its tree-climbing habit, provide a route for brush further obstacle to its release in Australia was fore- fires to reach the canopy and kill trees that would seen. Because of the rust’s long generation time, it normally survive. The weed has proven difficult to was anticipated that it would not be possible to main- control, with burning and mechanical measures tain infected plants in quarantine until F1 spores arguably providing further opportunities for it to out- were produced for release. The release of spores from compete the native flora. Herbicides, although a F1 generation is favoured by the Australian effective, are environmentally and economically authorities when an introduced pathogen is unsustainable in the long term. approved for weed biological control to ensure that unwanted exotic microorganisms are not inadvert- Climbing fern thus seemed an ideal candidate for ently introduced. Against expectations, small biological control. The catch was that as part of an witches’ brooms with developing fruiting bodies were ancient lineage of ferns it proved to have few natural recently found on five of the 42 boneseed plants that enemies, and even fewer suitable for introduction as News 57N classical biological control agents. Despite the ical control agents. They found that Lepidoptera are USDA-ARS team from Florida and collaborators the second most common order of introduced insects, overseas (including the USDA-ARS Australian Bio- after Coleoptera and ahead of Diptera and Hemi- logical Control Laboratory in Indooroopilly, ptera, but had the lowest establishment rate of the Queensland) surveying some 320 sites in 16 coun- top four (calculated by agent, programme or total tries on three continents over ten years, only 23 number of releases). Within the Lepidoptera, pyra- species were identified feeding on it, and only eight of lids were the most commonly introduced species these were deemed suitable for further consideration against weeds (25% of agents) but had the second as potential biocontrol agents. lowest rate of establishment (50% of agents) of the ‘top four’ families, after Gracillariidae and Tortri- A crambid leaf-feeding moth, Austromusotima camp- cidae and above Sesiidae. Although pyralids out- tozonale (formerly the pyralid Cataclysta performed noctuids by all measures of establishment camptozonale) was selected as the first agent for (agent, programme or total number of releases), this release under the biocontrol programme based at the was due to the many successful establishments in USDA-ARS Invasive Plant Research Laboratory many countries of just one species: the cactus moth (IPRL) in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Releases were Cactoblastis cactorum. Other published analyses made at L. microphyllum-infested sites in cypress have also identified Pyralidae as one of the top ‘poor swamps, pine flatwoods and Everglades tree islands, establishers’. representing the most commonly invaded habitats in southern Florida. Yet despite a protracted release A previous analysis by Crawley3 identified attributes programme of first adult moths (some 10,500 individ- that increase or decrease likelihood of successful uals at eight sites in 2004–05, including almost 3000 establishment. While high rates of increase, high in field cages), and then larvae (16,000 at 13 sites in voltinism, long-lived adults, and low per capita feed- 2006, and 14,000 at eight sites in 2007), A. camptozo- ings rates associated with small individual size nale has never been found established in southern increased the probability of an agent establishing, Florida. The best result was for larvae released in high powers of dispersal, low frequency of occurrence cypress swamps where they were recovered for three in the native habitat and external feeding (with asso- months after release at 71% and 83% of sites in 2006 ciated risk of predation) decreased it. Conversely and 2007, corresponding to survival into the second (and against expectations), analysis of Julien & field generation. Griffiths2 by life habit indicated that 75% of exter- nally feeding introduced pyralid weed biological Efforts to understand this failure to establish took control agents established (a higher figure than for two directions: the team looked at predation and internally feeding pyralids), and they established in parasitism in the field, and analysed the results of 75% of programmes where such introductions were other natural enemy releases against weeds, with attempted. The discrepancy may reflect differential particular reference to Pyralidae sensu lato investments of effort in the execution of release pro- (including Crambidae). grammes and subsequent monitoring.

Field studies were conducted in cypress swamps and The feeding niche issue aside, the authors of the pine flatwoods. Austromusotima camptozonale eggs climbing fern study acknowledge that the poor record and larvae were set out at and subsequently of Pyralidae sensu lato overall, together with other retrieved from sites under conditions that either characteristics of A. camptozonale, made it a less allowed all parasitoids and predators access, or pro- than ideal choice for introducing: it is large, its adults tected A. camptozonale from crawling/walking are short-lived, it has high powers of dispersal and it predators by ‘Tangle-Trap®’, or prevented all preda- occurs at low densities in its native habitat. Never- tion and parasitism through cage sleeving. Eggs theless, they argue, given the limited choice they appeared to suffer neither parasitism nor predation, had, A. camptozonale was a reasonable first choice: a although 20% mortality was recorded in pine flat- mite and a sawfly also being studied were both pre- woods which was attributed to the eggs being senting problems that delayed host-range testing, so exposed to high temperatures in these relatively A. camptozonale and another crambid, Neomusotima open environments. Clues did emerge from the conspurcatalis, by necessity became first and second results for larvae, however, because fewer were choice. While substantial progress has since been recovered from treatments in which walking preda- made with the non-lepidopteran species, N. conspur- tors had access, and trapped ants were found in catalis remains next in line to be released, but the Tangle-Trap treatments. This tied in with casual lessons learnt regarding temperature-related egg observations of ants preying on A. camptozonale mortality and ant predation with A. camptozonale larvae during releases and strongly suggested a role will be taken into account in designing the release for ant predation. programme for N. conspurcatalis. Lepidopteran agents can and do establish. The authors then conducted an analysis of past weed biological control programmes, using Julien & 1Boughton, A.J. & Pemberton, R.W. (2008) Efforts to Griffiths2, to see how Lepidoptera in general and establish a foliage-feeding moth, Austromusotima pyralids in particular have fared as classical biolog- camptozonale, against Lygodium microphyllum in 58N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4)

Florida, considered in the light of a retrospective lead scientist for the project, coordinating the review of establishment success of weed biocontrol funding, surveys, and plant DNA testing (see below). agents belonging to different arthropod taxa. Biolog- ical Control 47(1), 28–36. From some 300 insects including wasps, weevils, stem borers, sap suckers and seed eaters recovered 2Julien, M.H. & Griffiths, M.W. (eds) (1998) Biolog- during these surveys, the field of potential control ical control of weeds, a world catalogue of agents and agents has been narrowed to about 12 candidates their target weeds. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, that attack not just C. equisetifolia, but also C. UK. glauca and C. cunninghamiana. Among the top finds were the seed eating wasp Bootanelleus orientalis, 3Crawley, M.J. (1989) The successes and failures of which is host specific to C. equisetifolia, and a defoli- weed biocontrol using insects. Biocontrol News and ating moth, Zauclophora pelodes. Many more of the Information 10, 213–223. collected insects are still to be classified, and some are as yet undescribed taxa. Most of the identifica- Contact: Anthony J. Boughton, USDA-ARS Invasive tions are being made by taxonomists at various Plant Research Laboratory, 3225 College Avenue, participating institutions, with the Commonwealth Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA. Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Email: [email protected] (CSIRO) Australian National Insect Collection in Fax: +1 954 476 9169 Canberra taking the lead.

The prioritized insects are currently being tested by Seeking Biocontrol Agents for Casuarinas Purcell and colleagues in Australia to determine their suitability for biological control in the USA. Casuarinas are attractive and superficially desirable trees for coastal environments. They were intro- Sorting Out Confusing Casuarinas duced into the USA in the early 1900s as ornamental shade trees. Now three species, Casuarina equiseti- While the identity of some of the insects collected folia, C. glauca and C. cunninghamiana, have from Casuarina spp. in Australia has still to be become serious invasive weeds of coastal areas in the resolved, the identity of some of the target trees in USA especially southern Florida, the Virgin Islands, the USA is also unclear. It is often difficult to tell the Puerto Rico and Hawaii. In Florida they are a various Casuarina species and subspecies apart, and problem in the Everglades National Park and sur- there is one particularly taxing Casuarina – long rounding areas. Their rapid growth, dense coverage, suspected of being a hybrid – which has no name, and thick litter accumulation mean they inhibit and no one knows for certain what its parents were. growth of native plants. The shallow and wide- In this case morphological differences – leaf shape, spreading roots make them prone to being toppled in flower characteristics – are unable to provide clear strong winds – an additional problem in hurricane- answers. Yet it is critical to sort out the taxonomy of prone Florida and the Caribbean. The trees are also the target species in order to select best-matching very salt tolerant, which allows them to grow on biological control agents and thus maximize chances coastal dunes, increasing beach erosion and inter- of successful control. Fortunately, John Gaskin and fering with nesting by endangered crocodiles and sea his team at Sidney, Montana, have encountered and turtles. solved similar puzzles in the past (for example, Tamarix). Gary Taylor from the University of Adelaide, Aus- tralia has been conducting Australian surveys for The technique is to compare samples of DNA from insect herbivores on the Casuarinaceae since mid known species in the area of origin of the weed (in 2004 in collaboration with Matthew Purcell, Bradley this case Casuarina spp. in Australia) with DNA of Brown and John Goolsby from the US Department of the invasive plants in its introduced area (Casuarina Agriculture’s Australian Biological Control Labora- taxa in south Florida). The study is the first to use tory (USDA-ABCL) in Brisbane, Queensland. They DNA to definitively identify the Florida Casuarina have been joined on expeditions by Greg Wheeler and spp. Gaskin expects to have final results late this Ted Center from the Invasive Plant Research Labo- year. ratory (IPRL) in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. In all, the expeditions covered more than 5000 miles in The South Florida Water Management District, the northern and eastern Australia, encompassing much Florida Department of Environmental Protection, of the Northern Territory and the states of Queens- and the National Park Service have all helped in land, New South Wales and Western Australia. funding research into casuarina biological control. Given the attractive features of the trees, one of the This research is part of Crop Protection and Quaran- main thrusts behind the survey work has been tine, an ARS national programme (#304). finding seed, flower, or fruit feeders to decrease cas- uarina reproduction and spread without destroying Contact: John Gaskin, USDA-ARS Pest Manage- parent trees, thus diminishing sources of conflicts of ment Research Unit, 1500 N. Central Ave., Sidney, interest. MT 59270, USA. Email: [email protected] Taylor, Purcell and Brown, and John Gaskin, Fax +1 406 433 5038 research leader of USDA-ARS’s Pest Management Research Unit in Sidney, Montana, currently com- Gary Taylor, Earth and Environmental Sciences, prise the casuarina research team. Wheeler is the The University of Adelaide, Australia 5005. News 59N

Email: [email protected] sitic wasps of DBM, the braconids Cotesia plutellae Fax: +61 8 8303 4364 and Apanteles halfordi and the ichneumonid Diadromus collaris, on two indigenous species, Matthew Purcell & Bradley Brown, USDA-ARS Lepidium transvaalense and Lepidium africanum Australian Biological Control Laboratory, ssp. africanum, and the Mediterranean and Macaro- 120 Meiers Rd., Indooroopilly, Queensland, nesian native Lobularia maritime, all members of Australia 4068. the Brassicaceae. The relative value of these plants Email: [email protected] or in improving longevity, fecundity and searching effi- [email protected] ciency of DBM parasitoids has never been studied, Fax +61 7321 42815 and they are also embarking on a study which aims to establish the appropriate density of these floral Ted Center & Gregory S. Wheeler, USDA-ARS resources within cabbage plots. Further, they plan to Invasive Plant Research Laboratory, discover whether DBM larvae and/or moths feeding 3225 College Ave., Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA. on these plants derive benefits from having them in Email: [email protected] or the crop environment. [email protected] Fax + 1 954 476 9169 Source: Mosiane, M.S. & Nofemela, R.S. (2008) Hab- itat management to improve biological control of the Sources: Flores, A. (2008) ARS researchers search for diamondback moth in South Africa. Plant Protection Casuarina biological control agents. ARS News News No. 76, p. 7. (Newsletter of PPRI, an institute Service, 2 September 2008. within the Natural Resources and Engineering Busi- Web: www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr ness Division of ARC, South Africa.)

Marcia Wood (2008) In search of – biological control Contact: Satch Mosiane and Robert Nofemela, agents for the invasive Australian pine. Agricultural Insect Ecology Division, ARC-PPRI, Research 58(8), September 2008. Private Bag X134, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa. Web: www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/ Fax: +27 12 3293 278 Email: [email protected] or Biological control of Australian native Casuarina [email protected] species in the USA. Invasive plants – project profile. Web: www.csiro.au/science/ps334.html IPM CRSP Helps Contain New Papaya Mealybug Invasions Can Flowers Improve Biological Control of the Diamondback Moth? Thanks to efforts by scientists in IPM CRSP (Inte- grated Pest Management Collaborative Research South African biocontrol scientists in the Insect Support Program) led by Virginia Tech in the USA, Ecology Division, ARC-PPRI (Agricultural Research the latest countries to be invaded by papaya Council – Plant Protection Research Institute), have mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) – Indonesia and done a great deal of work on the importance of para- India – have been able to implement biological con- sitoids in suppressing populations of the trol swiftly, and the threat is being contained. diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, in Brassica crops. However, the fact that these crops In May, 2008, a team from IPM CRSP identified are largely grown in monocultures poses the chal- papaya mealybug at the Bogor Botanical Gardens in lenge to foraging parasitoids of balancing West Java, Indonesia. Identification was confirmed reproductive and nutritional requirements. Because by the California Department of Food and Agricul- parasitoid fecundity is generally linked to longevity, ture. This was the first reported occurrence of laboratory studies have shown that parasitoids pro- papaya mealybug in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. vided with honey and water lived significantly longer Two months later, on a trip to Tamil Nadu Agricul- and were more fecund than individuals with no tural University in Coimbatore, India, Muni access to these resources. In monocrop habitats, par- Muniappan, Director of IPM CRSP at Virginia Tech, asitoids have to leave the crop habitat frequently to recognized telltale sticky residue on papayas as search for food sources such as nectar and pollen. papaya mealybug. In each case, government author- ities were alerted and advised on appropriate actions The provisioning of appropriate floral resources has to take; the sooner authorities can arrest the spread been shown to improve parasitism levels of various of the papaya mealybug, the better their chances of insect pests through attraction and retention of par- saving this lucrative tropical crop. asitoids in the crop habitat, a practice referred to as conservation biological control. Moreover, studies Papaya is perhaps best known as an exotic fruit, but have shown that the additional labour costs of it is also the source of papain, which is used in the sowing annual flowering plants in the crop environ- production of chewing gum and shampoo, toothpaste ment can be offset where planting a particular and tooth whiteners, as a meat tenderizer, and in the flowering plant enhances biological control of target brewing and textile industries. In many tropical insect pests. countries, papaya is an important commercial crop and a key component of the daily diet. For this During visits to cabbage growers in various parts of reason, papaya mealybug is a serious threat. In Indo- the country, Morake Mosiane and Robert Nofemela nesia, India, countries in the Caribbean and South collected many individuals of the three major para- America, and the US states of Hawaii and Florida, 60N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) papaya is worth millions of dollars for farmers, mid- Principal Investigator: S.K. De Datta, dlemen and processors. In West Java, it has wiped (Associate Vice President for International Affairs, out most of the papaya plantations. and Director), OIRED, Virginia Tech, 236 Burruss Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA. It is a particularly devastating pest because it is Email: [email protected] polyphagous, with a host range of over 60 species of Fax: +1 540 231 5750 plants including important horticultural crops and Web: www.oired.vt.edu ornamental species. On papaya plants, the mealybug infests all parts of the young leaves and fruits, Main source: Rich, M. (2008) Invasive papaya pest mostly along the veins and midrib of the older leaves. discovered by IPM CRSP in Asia. IPM CRSP Success Young leaves become crinkly, and older leaves turn Story. yellow and dry up. Terminal shoots become bunchy Web: www.vt.edu and distorted. Affected trees drop flowers and fruits. In addition, the mealybug’s honeydew promotes sooty mould growth, making the fruit inedible and Landcare Research Eyes Dung Beetles for New also unusable for the production of papain. Zealand New Zealand lacks native pastoral dung-burying Papaya mealybug originates from Mexico, where it beetles. To put it another way, it has mountains of was first identified in 1992. In 1995, it was discov- dung contaminating forage and only mainly intro- ered on the Caribbean island of St Martin. By 2000, duced pastoral earthworms active during autumn– it had spread to 13 countries in the Caribbean, to spring to remove it as part of a natural nutrient cycle Florida in the USA, and to three countries each in process. It lacks the sort of process found in environ- Central and South America. As the result of a clas- ments where the ungulates we bred our sical biological programme developed between the domesticated varieties from originated, and co- Inter-American Institute for Cooperation (IICA) and evolved with dung-burying beetles. A tropical spe- USDA-APHIS (US Department of Agriculture – cies, Copris insertus, was deliberately introduced to Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), nat- New Zealand between 1955 and 1958 but only estab- ural enemies in the form of three species of encyrtid lished at Whangarei in the North, probably due to parasitoid wasps were released, first in the Carib- poor climate matching. Two accidentally introduced bean, and later elsewhere as the pest spread to new Australian onthophagines (Onthophagus granulatus countries, and have been widely successful in con- and O. posticus) are widespread but have little taining pest populations – and therefore decreasing impact, presumably because of their small body size the likelihood of their onward spread. A rearing (5–7 mm) and low population densities, and the fact facility is maintained in Puerto Rico and the biocon- that they are faced with an estimated 113 million trol agents are offered free of charge to countries that tonnes of cattle dung dumped on pastures each year. need them. Losey and Vaughan1 formulated conservative esti- While the challenge of reclaiming the papaya planta- mates that services provided by dung beetles alone tions from the papaya mealybug seems daunting, are worth approximately US$380 million annually to Muniappan is optimistic, because the use of parasi- the US economy (to put that in context, the USA has toids has been very effective in Caribbean and Latin almost 100 million head of cattle in production per American countries and in Florida, Guam and Palau. year, while New Zealand has some ten million). But he stresses the need for vigilance. Faced with these figures, Landcare Research scien- tist Shaun Forgie has been casting calculating looks IPM CRSP is supported by a grant from USAID (US across the Tasman Sea to Australia, where CSIRO Agency for International Development) and man- (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research aged by Virginia Tech’s Office of International Organisation) undertook a successful Dung Beetle Research, Education, and Development (OIRED). Project to establish breeding populations of exotic dung beetles, mainly from southern Africa, that bury ungulate dung rapidly in order to reduce dung- Collaborators: Gerry Carner (Professor of Ento- breeding pest flies, minimize forage fouling and thus mology), Mike Hammig, Professor of Economics) and increase pasture productivity (amongst other Merle Shepard (Professor of Entomology), Clemson things). Many countries have had similar success University, South Carolina, USA; YuluXia with establishing exotic fast-burying dung beetles (Assistant Director), NSF Center for IPM, North because their native beetles are often not adapted to Carolina State University, USA; M. Murugan (Asso- either man-made pastoral environments or dung ciate Professor of Entomology) Tamil Nadu from exotic pastoral livestock. Agricultural University, India; AunuRauf (Professor of Entomology), Bogor Agricultural University in Potential environmental and economic benefits of Bogor, Indonesia. introducing a multitude of exotic fast dung-burying beetles are far wider than just removing dung. They Project Director: Muni Muniappan (Director), would include: IPM CRSP, International Affairs Offices (IAO), 526 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA. • Improved soil health and reduced runoff. Email: [email protected] Increased aeration and water penetration into the Fax: +1 540 231 3519 soil, through beetle tunnels (in addition to earth- Web: www.oired.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/ worm burrows), reduces urine and liquid dung run- News 61N off, reducing microbial contamination, leachate quantitative pre-release data so that the impact of pollution, and eutrophication of waterways. dung beetles on ecosystem processes can be assessed • Reduced nitrous oxide emissions. Herbivore after their release. An additional feature would include assessing the impact of introduced dung bee- excreta account for 50% of New Zealand’s anthropo- tles on the native dung beetles and introduced genic N2O emissions and 80% of the nitrogen con- tent of dung is lost by volatilization when dung pastoral earthworms. remains on the pasture surface, compared to only 10% following burial by dung beetles. A sheep, beef and dairy farmer community collective will apply for the importation and full release of a • Greater pasture productivity. Stock will not graze suite of exotic dung-burying beetles through the around dung pats, increasing forage foul and reduc- Environmental Risk Management Authority ing pasture productivity. Dung burial by dung bee- (ERMA) which will include full tribal Maori consul- tles reduces forage foul and enhances grass growth, tation. The collective will seek financial support from reducing reliance on fertilizer inputs. Fertilizer is the Sustainable Farming Fund for Landcare the biggest single item of working expenses on most Research, as science providers, to advise on the sheep, beef and dairy farms. application and, if the application is successful, spe- • Reduced fly pests and human disease. Nuisance cies selection, and conduct mass-rearing and flies breed in dung. New Zealand has a very high distribution of dung beetles. If all goes well and rate of seasonal, sporadic campylobacteriosis com- ERMA permission is obtained, Dr Forgie could begin pared to other OECD (Organisation of Economic Co- to fulfil his dream and import breeding stocks of the operation and Development) countries, with up to first few species and begin quarantine, mass rearing, 14,000 cases reported each year. Cattle dung and and monitored release at selected sites. flies are believed to be the main source and vector of this disease. In Hawai’i, introduced dung beetles Dr Forgie envisages that the project will take 10–15 reduced fly emergence from dung by 95%. years. From small beginnings, via funding initiatives from an end-user committee to start the project, he • Reduced infection by parasitic worms of livestock. believes that once the project is in the mass rearing Dung burial removes the infective stages of parasitic phase it will expand to a full nationwide release pro- worms of livestock. gramme with additional funding sources from Together with Landcare Research’s Hugh Gourlay, farming groups and agricultural organizations. Dr Forgie, who says he completed an MSc and PhD on dung beetle research with the express aim of 1Losey, J. & Vaughan, M. (2006) The economic value cleaning up New Zealand’s pastures one day, is pre- of ecological services provided by insects. BioScience paring an application for start-up funding for a New 56(4), 311–323. Zealand dung beetle project. The aim is to draw together a team with diverse expertise in dung beetle Contact: Dr Shaun A. Forgie, ecology, eco-climatic modelling, risk assessment, Biodiversity & Conservation, Landcare Research, nematode epidemiology and soil processes to deter- Private Bag 92170, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland mine which exotic dung beetles might be appropriate 1142, New Zealand. for introduction into New Zealand and to collect Email: [email protected] IPM Systems

This section covers integrated pest management • Excessively eutrophic waters, in which water (IPM) including biological control and biopesticides, hyacinth plants proliferate and grow at rates that and techniques that are compatible with the use of the biocontrol agents cannot match. biological control or minimize negative impact on In both circumstances, when water hyacinth escapes natural enemies. from biocontrol those charged with controlling the weed turn to herbicides. These kill the weed effi- ciently, but this causes weevil populations to crash, Glyphosate Could Help Water Hyacinth which means that when new water hyacinth plants sprout from seed, there are no weevils to exert con- Biocontrol trol, so herbicide has to be used again. To counter Despite extensive research into the biological control this problem, researchers recommend leaving sub- of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in South stantial areas of untreated weed as refuges for the weevils. This requires planning and management at Africa, attempts to use biological control against the levels not always possible in South Africa. weed remains inadequate in some circumstances. The worst problems are encountered in: Interest has therefore focused on whether sub-lethal or retardant doses of herbicide can suppress weed in • ‘Highveld’ areas, where low winter temperatures these situations while allowing biocontrol agents to slow the development of Neochetina eichhorniae and survive. Previous published work has shown that the N. bruchi weevils, the main biocontrol agents in glyphosate formulation Roundup® is neither lethal South Africa. nor a growth retardant for Neochetina weevils. A 62N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) new study reported in the November 2008 issue of Breakthrough in Metarhizium Formulation Biological Control1 describes how a 0.8% dose of the broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate retards vegeta- Scientists with the US Department of Agriculture – tive growth but allows weevil populations to be Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) have maintained. developed a method that triggers microsclerotia pro- duction in the entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae. Sclerotia – compact myce- Outdoor container experiments conducted at Wits- lial aggregations – are produced by many plant- watersrand University, Johannesburg, indicated pathogenic fungi as overwintering propagules but that 0.8% glyphosate retarded water hyacinth ramet this is the first time they have been reported in production and suppressed leaf growth, while lower Metarhizium. The advantage, from the point of view concentration had no significant effect and higher of the biopesticide manufacturer, is that this form of concentrations (1.0% or more) killed the plants. Sub- the fungus can survive drying and storage. sequent experiments demonstrated that weevils on plants sprayed with 0.8% glyphosate not only had For more than a decade, Metarhizium-based biopes- similar numbers of larvae to control (unsprayed) ticides (such as BioCane™ for control of sugarcane plants at the end of eight weeks, but their impact on grub in Australia, Destruxin™ for controlling a the plants, in terms of feeding scars and petiole variety of insects in South America, or Meta52™ for mining, was actually greater than on the unsprayed control of Coleoptera in managed turf and horticul- plants at day 60. ture in the USA) have been formulated using spores, such as conidia, produced by solid-substrate fermen- Drawing on other published work, the authors sug- tation of the fungus. The abundant conidia produced gest the increased feeding observed on the sprayed by this method are collected and dried before being plants could be related to glyphosate-related plant formulated (e.g. coated onto corn-grit granules), or changes such as inhibition of feeding deterrent pro- mixed directly into the soil. The mass-production duction, increased sugar content, or decreased leaf system is time-consuming and labour-intensive. and petiole hardness. They note that the presence of Alternatively, spent solid substrate can be saved early instar larvae mining the petioles indicates that after removal of the conidia and used directly as a the weevils’ reproductive capacity was not compro- granular carrier. However, it is often inappropriate in size and shape for use in general agriculture. mised by herbicide treatment, while the palatability Other mycopesticides based on the fungal mycelium and suitability of the sprayed plants allowed the or blastospores (hyphal bodies formed during liquid weevils to persist despite fewer oviposition sites (i.e. media) have suffered from poor shelf life and high fewer leaves owing to the herbicide’s retardant costs. effect). Microbiologist Mark Jackson (USDA-ARS National The authors say that South African ecosystems are Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Peoria, characterized by ‘boom and bust’ water hyacinth pop- Illinois) and entomologist Stefan Jaronski (USDA- ulations in which biocontrol agents are unable to ARS Northern Plains Agricultural Research Labora- build up damaging numbers. They argue that the tory, Sidney, Montana) discovered that Metarhizium integration of a retardant dose of glyphosate with could form microsclerotia in 2004 (although they biological control offers a potential tool for sustain- were unable to achieve this with other entomopatho- able control of water hyacinth at sites where neither genic fungi including Beauveria bassiana and biological control nor chemical control have so far Paecilomyces fumosoroseus). Since then they have achieved this. Low-dose herbicide treatment of a developed a patent-pending method of mass-pro- water body would suppress water hyacinth plant ducing billions of M. anisopliae microsclerotia in growth while allowing the water hyacinth mat to liquid fermentation, inside giant vats, or ‘fermen- persist as a habitat for immature and immobile tors’. They have also shown that using microsclerotia stages of the weevils. Adult populations could thus instead of conidia can cut the costs and time involved build up to levels where they could inflict damage, in preparing granules of the fungus for use against and particularly as the water hyacinth plant growth soil dwelling insects and can significantly improve its would have been retarded by the low-dose herbicide shelf life and efficacy. treatment. The next step, they say, is to try their The mode of action on the target insect remains the integrated approach under natural field conditions. same, because once in the soil the microsclerotia readily produce conidia. An insect crawling through 1Jadhav, A., Hill, M. & Byrne, M. (2008) Identifica- soil seeded with the microsclerotia will bump into tion of a retardant dose of glyphosate with potential one or more concentrations of conidia. The conidia for integrated control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia attach to the insect’s cuticle and germinate soon crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laubach. Biological Control after. The germinating fungi use a combination of 47(2), 154–158. mechanical pressure and a cocktail of enzymes to breach the cuticle and invade the insect’s circulatory Contact: Ashwini Jadhav, School of Animal, Plant system within 24 hours. The insect usually succumbs and Environmental Sciences, University of the Wit- to the fungus with a few days. watersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Private Bag 3, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa. Discovery of the fungus’ capacity to produce micro- Email: [email protected] or sclerotia came from Jaronski’s work aimed at [email protected] developing a Metarhizium-based biopesticide for con- News 63N trol of soil-dwelling insect pests. Joint research in rotia, 100% were dead in the first week. These Peoria and Sidney indicated that three US isolates observations reflect the faster and greater conidia and one Canadian isolate of M. anisopliae all pro- production by microsclerotia in soil. During 2007 and duced microsclerotia in liquid culture under certain 2008 field trials, sugarbeets in microsclerotia-treated conditions, with strain F52 producing highest con- plots also suffered fewer scars from maggot feeding. centrations. Metarhizium strain F52 is the chief active ingredient in four US-registered mycoinsecti- The development of a liquid culture method for pro- cide products for controlling soft-bodied ticks and ducing high concentrations of microsclerotia certain beetles/weevils. provides a novel approach for the control of soil- dwelling insects using microsclerotial preparations Experiments using the sugarbeet root maggot of M. anisopliae. The technique is applicable not just (Tetanops myopaeformis) as a model system revealed to sugarbeet root maggots, but to any soil-dwelling clear superiority of the microsclerotial granules over pest attacked by M. anisopliae, so has great potential conventional granules (conidia on a nutritive carrier for this sector of the biopesticide market. such as corn grits or spent solid substrate). The microsclerotia have several advantages. Commercial This research is part of the ARS national pro- quantities of microsclerotia can be produced in about grammes Crop Protection and Quarantine (#304) four days, while it takes at least two weeks to pro- and Quality and Utilization of Agricultural Products duce equivalent quantities of conidia plus time to (#306). formulate them as granules. The microsclerotia can be simply air dried; expensive processes such as Contact: Mark A. Jackson, USDA-ARS Crop Biopro- freeze drying are not required. Metarhizium on tection Research Unit, National Center for nutritive granules or spent solid substrate from Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. Univer- conidia production typically takes 7–10 days to grow sity St., Peoria, IL 61604, USA. and resporulate after being applied to soil, while air- Email: [email protected] dried granular microsclerotia-based formulations Fax+ +1 309 681 6693 germinated within four days and produced greater numbers of spores. In addition microsclerotia can Stefan Jaronski, USDA-ARS Pest Management hydrate and produce conidia at lower soil moistures Research Unit, Northern Plains Agricultural than the other two formulations. Another factor may Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 463, Sidney, MT be the large numbers of microsclerotia that can be 59270, USA. produced and applied to the soil. Email: [email protected] Fax: +1 406 433 5038 A big advantage of microsclerotia formulations over conidia-based formulations is that they can be for- Main source: Suszkiw, J. (2008) Multiplying mulated into granules sized to be readily compatible Metarhizium. Agricultural Research 58(8), with farmers’ seed planters and pesticide granule September 2008. applicators (spent substrate granules, for example, Web: www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/ are the wrong size and shape and must be pulverized before most farmers’ use; this process often severely Also see: damages the fungus). Microsclerotial granules also www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=10525 qualify more readily for the organic crop market, whereas many binders used with conventional gran- ular carriers disqualify them or cause short shelf life. Invasive Mosquito Targeted by IPM Project The microsclerotial preparation retained viability for at least one year at 20–25°C when stored dry and in A new project in the USA is targeting the Asian tiger vacuo. mosquito (Aedes albopictus), an invasive pest and potential health risk. The project is funded by the Jaronski has been working with North Dakota State Northeastern IPM Center, which is jointly adminis- University scientists in Fargo since 2004 to assess tered by Pennsylvania State University (lead the field efficacy of conidia-coated corn-grit granules institution) and Cornell University. of M. anisopliae strain F52 against the sugarbeet root maggot, which is the biggest pest of this crop in The Asian tiger mosquito first appeared in the USA the USA. Results have been encouraging. At low pest in Texas in 1985 on a shipment of tyres from Japan. pressure, the biopesticide was able to control maggot Within a decade, it had spread to 30 states and pests as effectively as the synthetic insecticide ter- across the northeast of the country. Easily identifi- bufos. At higher pest pressure it was effective when able by its black body with distinctive white stripes, used as part of an IPM strategy in combination with the invasive species differs from most/other nuisance oat or rye cover crops. mosquitoes in the USA in being a day-biting mos- quito, which puts limitations on control measures In 2006, Jaronski began comparing the conidia-on- that target the adult (effectively ruling out synthetic corn-grit granules with microsclerotia-based ones insecticides). Its spread is causing particular alarm derived from the liquid-culture method, for which because it has the potential to spread human dis- USDA-ARS filed a patent in September 2007. In lab- eases such as West Nile virus, dengue fever and oratory assays, some 25% of sugarbeet root maggots chikungunya fever, and heartworm in dogs. exposed to the spores produced on corn-grit granules in non-sterile clay soils routinely die by the third The IPM project will include low volume (LV), or week. In soil treated with a like weight of microscle- area-wide spraying of Bti (Bacillus thuringiensis var. 64N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) israelensis) against larval stages of the mosquito. versity of Warwick, Department of Politics and Although Bti has been widely deployed against mos- International Studies, as part of the Rural Economy quitoes, it is applied directly to water bodies where and Land Use (RELU) programme. larvae are/may be found in a liquid, briquette or granular formulation, by hand or via aerial drop/ The researchers interviewed regulators, biopesticide spray over large areas. However, it is difficult if not manufacturers, farmers, retailers, European Union impossible to identify and treat all A. albopictus’ (EU) officials and environmental groups, while soil breeding sites. The Asian tiger mosquito will develop samples were collected from eight English counties in almost any container that holds standing water: to assess the biological diversity and biogeography of piles of tyres and discarded household items such as natural populations of insect pathogens in the soil. cans, as well as permanent urban/home features The study brought together team members from dif- such as storm drains and catch basins, ponds, water ferent disciplines. Attendees at two one-day butts, bird baths, flowerpots, gutters – and even cem- conferences included an American biopesticides etery urns. George Hamilton, Professor of manufacturer, an environmental group, a leading Entomology at Rutgers University (New Jersey) and UK food retailer and the Pesticides Safety Directo- project coordinator, says they are hoping LV delivery rate (PSD). will allow the Bti to drift and settle into sites where larvae reside, providing a quick, efficient and cost The study found that biopesticides can play a signif- effective control icant role in a more sustainable food chain at a time when chemical pesticides are being withdrawn Hamilton and his colleagues plan to use truck- owing to resistance problems or because they are no mounted ULV equipment typically used by mosquito longer commercially viable. Chemicals also endanger control programmes to apply synthetic insecticides workers’ health and can contaminate groundwater. in urban residential settings against adult mosqui- The bar for chemical pesticide registration looks toes. This approach, he says, should reduce the likely to be raised further within the EU with revi- abundance of the Asian tiger mosquito, the depend- sions to Directive 91/414 threatening to severely ence on broad-spectrum pesticides, non-target limit agrochemicals permitted for use in EU coun- impacts, and pesticide resistance. They are currently tries, and with Regulation EC/396/2005 and its testing Bti’s effectiveness in both field trials and ‘real annexes coming into force in September 2008, which world’ conditions. First trials have given excellent places strict limits on maximum residue levels for results and they are now tweaking the equipment to pesticides in food for human or animal consumption. maximize the area they can cover. Lead researcher Professor Wyn Grant described the Hamilton says they will also prepare workshops and potentially important contribution biopesticides print and web-based materials to train mosquito con- could make to a competitive agriculture industry. He trol personnel throughout the region and beyond in pointed out that they have the potential to increase the use of the technology. All training materials will consumer confidence in fruit and vegetables whilst be made available on the Rutgers Center for Vector moving away from a polarized and over-simplified Biology’s website (see below). choice between conventional and organic modes of production. The research suggests that consumer Contact: George Hamilton, Department of concerns about toxic residues could undermine the Entomology, 93, Lipman Drive, Rutgers University, recommended ‘five a day’ target for the consumption New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA. of fresh fruit and vegetables. Supermarkets have Email: NJAES.rutgers.edu responded to consumer pressure by banning some Web: http://vectorbio.rutgers.edu/index.php approved pesticides, but have been slow to embrace biopesticides.

Role for Biopesticides in Promoting Healthy Biopesticides are applied in much the same way as Eating chemical pesticides to fight insect pests, but have advantages over them: they have few non-target With increasing consumer pressure on both farmers impacts, are compatible with other natural enemies, and supermarkets to minimize the use of chemical do not leave toxic residues and are relatively cheap to pesticides in fruit and vegetables, a newly published develop. As these benefits outweigh their disadvan- study funded by the UK Economic and Social tages – lower effectiveness and a shorter shelf life – Research Council (ESRC) explains some reasons why why has there been poor uptake of biopesticides in there is currently little use of biological alternatives Britain? in the UK. It also points out how biopesticides, by improving consumer confidence in food, could pro- Because the regulatory system in the UK was devel- mote healthy eating. oped with chemical pesticides in mind, which does not encourage the development of biopesticides, the The three-year study ‘Biological alternatives to chem- regulator – the PSD – lowered registration fees and ical pesticide inputs on the food chain: an assessment created a Biopesticides Champion in 2006. The study of sustainability’ was conducted by Professor Wyn found that this has led to a modest increase in the Grant, Dr David Chandler, Professor Mark Tatchell, number of biological products being registered, with Dr Justin Greaves and Gillian Davidson at the Uni- others in the pipeline. News 65N

The researchers pinpointed a lack of mutual recogni- Innovations (MOI; California, USA). Reynoutria tion between EU member states as a key reason why sachalinensis is native to eastern Asia, and was the USA has a much higher rate of biopesticide use. introduced into Europe and North America in the This makes it hard for the small companies – often nineteenth century for growing as cattle fodder. start-ups – that usually develop biopesticides to obtain economies of scale. These issues were The origins of the new product lie in an initiative addressed by the EU Policy Support Action REBECA launched by the German company BASF in the early (Regulation of Biological Control Agents), which 1990s, under which large numbers of plant extracts reported earlier this year with proposals for improve- were screened for fungicidal properties. The most ments in the registration process for biological promising was a dried extract of R. sachalinensis, control agents in Europe (see: www.rebeca-net.de). which was developed in the USA by North Carolina- based KHH Biosci Inc. as Milsana®. The product New chemical formulations could be used to solve was approved by the US Environmental Protection problems with biopesticide storage and efficacy and Agency (EPA) for use on ornamental plants grown in this might lead to greater interest from large busi- greenhouses. nesses, the study says. Biopesticides need to be fitted into current environmental stewardship schemes to In early 2008, MOI bought the assets of KHH, provide incentives for their use. Moreover, con- including patents, trademarks, EPA registrations, sumers need to be educated about biopesticides – and formulation and manufacturing technology, and field they should be given a different name with less neg- trial data. This allowed it to develop a new R. sacha- ative connotations; ‘Natural Controls’ is one linensis product, which it is marketing as Regalia® suggestion. The researchers also suggested pro- SC and was launched at the annual convention of the viding an ethical marque for products. Florida Fruit and Vegetable Association in Sep- tember. MOI say that the new biopesticide is a Importantly, risks, costs and benefits need to be powerful control tool for both fungal and bacterial shared out between the manufacturer, regulator, disease in a wide range of fruit, ornamental and veg- government and consumers. The researchers also etable crops. In developing the new product, they propose a framework to promote innovation within have made it more flexible for tank mixes and added the regulator, including pressure from central gov- more crops to the label, particularly for California ernment, the appointment of key individuals to drive (pepper, tomato, grape Botrytis) and Florida (citrus). through change, the need for regulators to develop MOI also have an organic formulation pending with their expertise, and commercial or financial EPA. pressure. The mode of action involves induced resistance: The researchers noted that the absence of a Europe- Regalia elicits activation of the sprayed plant’s wide market for biopesticides is a significant obstacle internal defence system, inducing the following to their wider commercial availability, though moves responses: (a) an increase in the production of reac- are underway to remedy this. They also pointed to tive oxygen species, (b) an increase in the production ‘patchy’ interaction between the regulator and of enzymes of the phenolic pathway, (c) promotion of retailers, and a lack of involvement of environmental lignification of cell walls (strengthening/hardening), groups, which they put down to indifference rather (d) inhibition of papilla formation, and (e) an increase than hostility. in the production of phytoalexins. Together these At European level, the project was presented to a inhibit development of fungal and bacterial disease- steering group of the European Commission. The causing organisms. findings will be published as a book by CABI. According to MOI, Regalia’s unique mode of action Contact: Professor Wyn Grant, Department of provides the same level of control expected from con- Politics and International Studies, University ventional fungicides and fits well into disease of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. management strategies. The company cites the Email: [email protected] results of more than 100 trials that have shown its efficacy against crop diseases such as powdery mildew, bacterial diseases, rusts, grey mould and Biopesticide from Knotweed Launched other crop diseases. Initially, Regalia is available for use on vegetables and ornamentals, but for 2009 While research is making progress on the classical MOI are focusing on introducing it for grapes, tree biological control of Japanese knotweed (see ‘Weed fruits and other crops. biocontrol in Europe: end of the wilderness years?’, this issue), another knotweed, Fallopia sachalin- Contact: Marrone Organic Innovations, 2121 ensis (formerly Reynoutria sachalinensis) or giant Second St., Suites B-107, Davis, CA 95618, USA. knotweed, is the source of a biopesticide for crop dis- Email: [email protected] eases recently launched by Marrone Organic Web: www.marroneorganicinnovations.com 66N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) Training News

In this section we welcome articles about your experiences Strawberry was an interesting crop to investigate for in working directly with the end-users of arthropod and at least two reasons: it has the highest value per hec- tare of any outdoor horticultural crop, and it has also microbial biocontrol agents or in educational activities on been rated as one of the six crops most tainted by pes- natural enemies aimed at students, farmers, extension staff ticides. Strawberry is indeed attacked by a long list or policymakers. of pests and pathogens, and two dozen BCAs have been commercialized for use on the crop.

The survey investigated the level of knowledge of Farmer Attitudes to Biocontrol in Strawberry BCAs and factors influencing growers’ confidence in IPM them, their use in current IPM programmes and problems encountered, and strategies that could Although the importance of knowing the target increase the adoption of BCAs in IPM programmes. market is a critical element in new product design, this has not, in general, been recognized by scientists developing pest management programmes centered Level of Knowledge on the use of biological control agents (BCAs). Yet, as Growers in all three regions identified some common a study published in the November 2008 issue of Bio- features of BCAs in strawberry IPM: less environ- logical Control indicates, consideration of the mental impact, but also higher crop monitoring costs, socioeconomic environment and understanding greater sensitivity to weather conditions, and slower farmer attitudes can help identify problems and and weaker impacts than synthetic pesticides. Both needs to be addressed – and perhaps predict in which Israeli and Italian growers thought BCAs were safer systems adoption of BCAs is likely to be most 1 for growers to apply and gave a healthier product, successful . but were more costly, either in direct costs, or indi- rectly in terms of labour for monitoring and/or The team, from Italy and Israel, used a semi-struc- release. However, even though the Italians recog- tured questionnaire, with closed- and open-ended nized positive health aspects of BCAs for growers, questions (translated into local languages) to investi- they did not correlate these with absence of pesticide gate farmer perceptions and experiences about BCAs residues. Conversely, German growers recognized in strawberry IPM programmes in three regions: the absence of chemical residues but did not recog- nize the product as healthier as a consequence; in • Trentino Province, Italy (in autumn 2004): Farm- fact, the Germans did not equate BCAs with any ers have the longest experience of using IPM in impacts on their own health, possibly because the strawberry among the groups in this study. Farms safety regulations applied in Germany are strict tend to be small (50% are <0.5 ha) but few are enough that farmers do not consider pesticides to be devoted solely to strawberries, and most farmers are linked with human harm. Israeli growers, on the organized in cooperatives. Almost all strawberries other hand, did link absence of pesticide residues are grown in soil-less substrate in high polyethyl- with a healthier product, probably because their pro- ene-tunnels in April–October for the domestic mar- duction is exported to the UK and detection of ket. The most important pest/disease problems are chemical residues can result in product rejection. Of powdery mildew (Podosphaera aphanis), Phytoph- the three groups, Italian growers were most risk thora and mites (Tetranychus spp.). averse, and were alone in expressing concern about a • Sharon area, Israel (in spring 2006): Farmers shorter product shelf-life. have experience of strawberry production but IPM has been introduced relatively recently. Farms are The main sources of information identified were larger than in Italy (67% are 2–5 ha) and farmers other growers, extension agents and agricultural tend to be affiliated with growers’ associations and journals, followed by the popular media. In Italy and through them with marketing companies. Most Germany, predators and nematodes were the best strawberries are grown in low polyethylene-tunnels known BCAs (along with pheromones), while preda- and harvested in late winter for the export market. tors and bioinsecticides were best known in Israel. The most important pest/disease problems are pow- dery mildew, then Colletotrichum and mites. Confidence in BCAs • North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany (in spring Confidence was higher in Israeli growers than in 2007): Farmers have long experience of IPM in other either of the other groups, and more Germans than crops but are relatively new to strawberry growing. Italians mistrusted BCAs. Nonetheless, many scep- Farmers are not organized into cooperatives but sell tical growers used them in all three countries. In direct to consumers/wholesalers. Strawberries are Italy and Israel, growers’ own experience and sug- almost all grown in open fields in spring and sum- gestions from cooperatives/growers’ associations had mer, and for the domestic market. The most impor- most influence on confidence in BCAs, while in Ger- tant pest/disease problems are Botrytis cinerea, many word-of-mouth and advertising had most Phytophthora and mites. impact. News 67N The high confidence in Israeli growers was linked to Strategies to Increase Use positive efforts by extension services and the growers’ association to involve growers via demon- Strategies aimed at increasing adoption varied stration projects, sharing positive experiences, etc. between the three countries as a result of socioeco- nomic conditions, farm management and Relative lack of confidence in Germany was linked to organizational structures, and the presence/absence lack of experience and fear of losses related to low of cooperatives. Israel has introduced IPM in straw- efficacy; other minor factors included belief that berries most recently, and has had marked success chemicals are better, limited promotion of BCAs, and with use of BCAs increasing on an area basis from negative personal experiences. <1% in 1997 to 67% in 2003, coupled with a 30% reduction in insecticide applications over this period, A statistical analysis of responses regarding growers’ and increased fruit consumption and farmer confidence suggested that this was significantly incomes. Several strategies were used, but ones per- influenced by media as an information source, years ceived as most important by growers were of farming experience (which showed a modest nega- advertising that highlighted differences in the BCA- tive effect in decreasing the probability of trust in treated product to consumers, and government inter- BCAs: experienced IPM growers were less likely to vention in the form of a subsidy that helped reduce trust an ‘experimental’ approach than an alternative costs and risks to growers from changing pest control tried-and-tested IPM technology), and, most impor- methods, together with free technical support (which tantly, the recognition of the positive characteristics the government later began to charge for); these of BCAs regardless of the negative characteristics. allowed an increase in the price of strawberries and The authors suggest this latter feature is perhaps guaranteed a fair profit. because growers perceive that social and environ- mental benefits outweigh such negative aspects as In Italy strawberries were already produced under higher costs and risk of yield loss, but say it needs IPM so introduction of additional BCAs did not pro- more investigation. duce any perceivable difference for consumers. So Italian growers felt subsidies to cover additional The authors argue that lack of confidence, where it costs was by far the most important strategy for pro- moting expansion, with free technical support existed, stemmed at least partly from limited promo- coming next. In Germany, lack of a growers’ associa- tion of BCAs by research centres and biocontrol tion may explain low uptake of BCAs. German companies, which is itself a reflection of the fact that growers felt an increase in product price would most most companies producing BCAs are small-to help adoption, followed by subsidies and free tech- medium-sized enterprises not in a position to fund nical support. market development. Conclusions Current Use of BCAs The authors conclude that the agricultural system Growers used BCAs to control similar problems in all had a marked effect on attitudes, with a strong infra- three countries although the relative usage varied. structure in the form of growers’ organizations and In Italy, weevils (Otiorhynchus) were the commonest expert advisers, a well-planned pest control pro- target with mites and thrips second; in Germany gramme and a network for disseminating trial mites and thrips were the main targets, with weevils results all likely to increase growers’ knowledge of second (but BCAs were used only in protected culti- BCAs and facilitate their use in IPM programmes. vation, which is a minor part of the overall They argue that better results in terms of spreading production); and in Israel all surveyed farmers used the use of sustainable practices are obtained when BCAs for mites, and a very high proportion used government actively promotes adoption of BCAs by them for aphids and thrips. Satisfaction, however, providing and disseminating information and expert was different in the three regions, with significant advice rather than providing subsidies. differences between Israel (positive) and Italy (less Notwithstanding the generally good levels of satis- so), with Germany intermediate between them. faction encountered during the study, the authors end the paper by identifying areas for improvement Problems Encountered if BCAs are to be better integrated into IPM pro- Practical problems with the use of BCAs included grammes in strawberries, including increasing the failure to achieve total control, their sensitivity to efficacy of the BCAs, and improving dissemination of information among growers and consumers. weather conditions, the need to apply them at a spe- cific time and to monitor pest and crop, and higher 1Moser, R., Pertot, I., Elad Y. & Raffaelli, R. (2008) costs. While these problems were common to all Farmers’ attitudes toward the use of biocontrol regions, their relative importance varied. Italians agents in IPM strawberry production in three coun- complained most about time for monitoring, which tries. Biological Control 47(2), 125–132. they consider as “wasted” (attributed to the fact that they work only part-time on their farms); Israelis Contact: Riccarda Moser & Ilaria Pertot, complained about lack of total control of problems, SafeCrop Centre, IASMA, Via Mach 1, and also effects of weather on efficacy; and Germans San Michele all’Adige, Trento 38010, Italy. gave equal weight to effects of weather, incomplete Email: [email protected] or control, higher costs, and absence of product [email protected] warranty. Fax: +39 0461 615500 68N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4)

Yigal Elad, Department of Plant Pathology and Roberta Raffaelli, Department of Economics, Weed Research, ARO, The Volcani Center, University of Trento, Via Inama 5, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel. Trento 38100, Italy. Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Announcements

Are you producing a newsletter or website, holding a Microbials in Temperature Orchard IPM meeting, running an organization or rearing a nat- ural enemy that you want biocontrol workers to know The note above gives us a belated opportunity to about? Send us the details and we will announce it highlight the excellent review of the potential for here. microbial control agents (MCAs) in temperate orchard IPM, which appeared in this year’s Annual Review of Entomology. The authors review briefly the groups (viruses, bacteria, fungi and entomopath- Montpellier ISBCW Proceedings ogenic nematodes) and the main taxa within them that are used in orchard IPM, and then tackle the The Proceedings of the XII International Symposium topic on a crop and target pest basis. on Biological Control of Weeds have been published. The volume contains over 250 papers and abstracts They summarize the use of the granulovirus against presented at the symposium, under the following codling moth, referred to above, in organic apple and themes: ‘Ecology and modelling in biocontrol of pear orchards and note that interest in the tech- weeds’, ‘Benefit/risk and cost analyses’, ‘Target and nology is growing amongst conventional growers. agent selection’, ‘Pre-release specificity and efficacy However, they say that Bacillus thuringiensis is the testing’, ‘Regulations and public awareness’, ‘Evolu- most extensively used MCA for control of lepidop- tionary processes’, ‘Opportunities and constraints for teran orchard pests. Among other groups, they point the biological control of weeds in Europe’, Release to the significant use of nematodes in citrus for con- activities and post-release evaluations’, and ‘Man- trol of root weevils. Nonetheless, they find that agement specifics, integration, restoration and despite these successes, in most orchard systems implementation’. MCAs account for a relatively small proportion of the pest control tactics employed, and in some systems Julien, M.H., Sforza, R., Bon, M.C., et al. Proceedings they are not used at all. They identify two important of the XII International Symposium on Biological factors for improving use of MCAs: (a) selecting the Control of Weeds. CABI, Wallingford, UK, 768 pp. most effective MCA for a given pest and habitat Price: UK£75/US$150/€100. ISBN: 978 1 84593 506 relies on thorough understanding of the biology and 1 ecology of pest and pathogen and the orchard agroe- cosystem into which it will be applied, and (b) MCA efficacy is likely to be enhanced through formulation and optimum timing of applications, but orchard Codling Moth Granulovirus Review redesign to improve activity and persistence of MCAs Codling moth, Cydia pomonella, is regarded as the may also increase efficacy. most serious insect pest of apple worldwide. A review Lacey, L.A. & Shapiro-Ilan, D.I. (2008) Microbial of a biopesticide widely used against it has been pub- control of insect pests in temperate orchard systems: lished in Biocontrol Science and Technology. potential for incorporation into IPM. Annual Review of Entomology 53, 121–44. Most growers use broad-spectrum insecticides to con- trol codling moth, but alternatives are being developed as part of the drive to reduce synthetic pesticide use. One of the most effective non-chemical ISBCA 2009 Approaches means of control is a virus that is specific for codling Hard to believe, the time has flown, but the Third moth and closely related pest species, codling moth International Symposium on Biological Control of granulovirus (CpGV). The virus was first isolated in Arthropods is almost upon us. It is being held in Mexico and subsequently studied and evaluated in Christchurch, New Zealand on 8–13 February 2009 Europe and North America. Commercial products of with the theme ‘Maximising success while mini- CpGV are now produced in Europe and North mising risk’. Sessions will cover: ‘New and emerging America and used by growers worldwide. The successes in biological control: has theory improved authors of this paper reviewed world literature on practice?’, ‘Biocontrol and environmental/climate research and use of the virus to produce an organized change’, ‘Exploring biological control to manage new and extensive source of information on CpGV and its or potential invasive alien pests’, ‘Molecular tools in role in integrated pest management. biological control of arthropods’, GMOs and biolog- ical control’, ‘Impact of landscape composition and Lacey, L.A., Thomson, D., Vincent, C. & Arthurs, structure on natural enemies’, ‘Recent advances in S.P. (2008) Codling moth granulovirus: a comprehen- conservation biological control’, ‘Omnivory in biocon- sive review. Biocontrol Science and Technology 18(7), trol’, ‘The role of theory in greenhouse control’, 639–663. ‘Biological control of phytophagous mites – theory News 69N and practice’, ‘Attributes of exotic biological control is being held just before it, on 8 February. One-day agents: good and bad’, ‘Inducible plant responses and registration for the IBG workshop is available for their impact on biological control of plant pests’, those who cannot participate in the full conference ‘Food web interactions and impact on biocontrol’, (US$100) with a biocontrol field trip at an extra cost ‘Progress and prospects to assess predation’, and ($25). lastly ‘Capacity building through action learning in region-wide biological control’. The meeting brochure contains a condensed programme plus meeting information: The symposium will host a closing debate on the last http://wssa.net/Meetings/WSSAAnnual/2009/ day, Friday 13 February entitled, ‘Genetically modi- WSSABrochure.pdf fied organisms should have no role in biological control’. The debate leaders will be Prof. Miguel Contact: Joseph C. Neal, Department of Altieri, University of California, Berkeley, USA and Horticultural Science, 262 Kilgore Hall, Prof. Tony Shelton, Cornell University, USA. (And Box 7609, NCSU, Raleigh, NC 27695-7609, USA. this leads neatly to the next announcement.) Email: [email protected] Fax: +1 919 515 7747 However, before moving on, a mention for a post-con- ference workshop on vinecology (16–17 February) at Lincoln University near Christchurch, led by Steve Wratten of Lincoln University, New Zealand and Integrated Control of Plant-feeding Mites Miguel Altieri. Worldwide, vineyards occur largely in The IOBC/WPRS (International Organization for Mediterranean biomes, which are biodiversity-rich. Biological Control – Western Palaearctic Regional Vineyards are traditionally monocultures and Section) Working Group ‘Integrated Control of Plant- destroy most original diversity, especially that asso- feeding Mites’, is holding its next meeting at the ciated with the ecosystem service which is biocontrol. Experimental Institute for Agricultural Zoology There is a current trend for many vineyards to extend onto hillsides, increasing biodiversity loss. (ISZA) in the Italian city of Florence on 12–13 March This workshop will explore how ecosystem services 2009. can be restored to and integrated into working viti- cultural landscapes. Invited speakers and topics for presentations include: Carlo Duso and colleagues (University of Further details on the conference website: Padua, Italy) speaking on ‘Mite-fungi relationships Web: www.isbca09.com in vineyards: implications for IPM’; Jim McMurtry (University of California, Riverside, USA), on ‘The Phytoseiidae in biological control: relevance of taxo- nomic classification and life style categorization’; Ecological Impact of Genetically Modified Jorge E. Peña (University of Florida, USA) on ‘Pred- Organisms ator–prey dynamics and strategies for control of the The Fourth Meeting of the IOBC/WPRS (Interna- red palm mite (Raoiella indica) in areas of invasion tional Organization for Biological Control – West in the Neotropics’; and Maurice W. Sabelis (Institute Palaearctic Regional Section) Working Group, for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED) ‘GMOs in Integrated Plant Production’ takes place in Amsterdam, The Netherlands) on ‘Intraguild preda- Rostock, Germany on 14–15 May 2008, organized by tion, displacement and biological control’. BTL Bio-Test Laboratory (Sagerheide), BioOK (Ros- tock) and institutes of the University of Rostock. Contact: Sauro Simoni, ISZA, Firenze, Italy. Email: [email protected] Contact: Thomas Thieme, BTL Bio-Test Laboratory, Sagerheide, Germany. Eric Palevsky, Department of Entomology, Agricul- Email: [email protected] tural Research Organization (ARO), Israel. Email: [email protected] Kerstin Schmidt, BioOK, Rostock, Germany. Web: www.isza.it/IOBCflorence2009 Email: [email protected]

Jörg Romeis (Working Group convener), Agroscope Induced Resistance in Plants Reckenholz-Tänikon Research Station ART, Zurich, Switzerland. The IOBC/WPRS Working Group, ‘Induced Resist- Email: [email protected] ance in Plants against Insects and Diseases’, focusing on ‘Induced resistance – chances and limits’ will hold its next meeting on 12–16 May 2009 in Gra- International Bioherbicide Workshop 2009 nada, Spain. The meeting will focus on ‘chances and limits’, particularly in multitrophic interactions, You can now register online for the 2009 Weed Sci- model systems and crop protection. ence Society of America (WSSA) annual meeting and the International Bioherbicide Group (IBG) work- Contact: María José Pozo and Victor Flors. shop. The WSSA meeting is in Orlando, Florida, Email: [email protected] or [email protected] USA, on 9–13 February 2009, and the IBG workshop Web: www.fvccee.uji.es 70N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4)

Web: www.cdic.wur.nl/UK/newsagenda/agenda/ IPM and Food Safety Training Course Integrated_Pest_Management_and_food_safety.htm A course on ‘Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Contact: Huub A.I. Stoetzer, Integrated Pest Man- Food Safety’ is being organized in Wageningen, the agement & Food Safety, Wageningen International, Netherlands on 18 May – 12 June 2009. The course Wageningen University Research Centre, PO Box includes two modules: ‘Pesticides and food safety in 88, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands. IPM’, and ‘IPM policy and institutional innovations’. Email: [email protected] / [email protected] Fax: +31 317 486 801 Web: www.wi.wur.nl Conference Report

Have you held or attended a meeting that you want tical discipline and, perhaps, a feeling that other biocontrol workers to know about? Send us a biopesticides are not living up to their potential and report and we will include it here. should sink further back into niche use. This seemed to reflect a failure to learn from previous experience. With mycoinsecticides for example, many presenta- SIP in Warwick tions were similar to those of 20 years ago, without The 41st Annual Meeting of the Society for Inverte- benefiting from the advances in recent years. brate Pathology (SIP) and the Ninth International There was an excellent symposium on ‘Regulatory Conference on Bacillus thuringiensis were held at and Market Barriers for Approval of Microbial Con- the University of Warwick, UK, on 3–7 August 2008. trol Products’, unfortunately in the graveyard shift This conference follows a pretty fixed pattern. After just before the banquet. This innovative session had the opening ceremony a Founders Lecture honours a stimulating presentations on ‘Regulatory innovation pioneer in the discipline of invertebrate pathology. and biopesticide commercialisation’, ‘Microbial con- This year it was André Paillot (1885–1944), with the trol products: the regulatory challenge’, lecture delivered by Johannes Jehle. Paillot was a ‘Commercialisation of microbial control products: the scientist with broad interests, working with a range industry perspective’ and ‘Understanding the adop- of pathogenic agents. He wrote various books, such tion of alternative pest management strategies: an as L’Abeille – anatomie-maladies-ennemis (very economist’s view’. Mixing presentations from aca- appropriate for this conference which focussed signif- demics, regulators, the industry and an economist icantly on bee diseases), ‘L’Infection – immunité et viewing from outside the discipline made, for me, the symbiose and Les insectes nuisibles – des vergers & de best symposium of the conference. It made up for la vigne’. This was followed by a Plenary Session on what should have been a valuable symposium on ‘Honey Bee Colony Collapse Disorder’. ‘Biological Solutions to Pest Control’ which promised insights into commercialization from the industry. Subsequently the conference had a dozen symposia Biocontrol practitioners want their work adopted sessions covering topics as diverse as ‘Microsporidia and company presentations should show the avenues of Aquatic Arthropods’ to ‘Comparative Genomics of to collaboration; this did not happen. DNA Viruses’. There were the (usually) 15 minute contributed papers on fungi, microsporidia, nema- There were many good things to this conference; as todes, bacteria, viruses and microbial control, always there was great support and encouragement workshops, poster sessions and a student workshop for young scientists. It is small enough to keep track – ‘Spreading the Word: Skills for Communicating of people and there were many opportunities to meet Science and Getting it Funded’. Sadly the last bit did not cover how to change the mindset of donors set with the famous names. It was also surprisingly against agricultural research. This was a useful expensive; three weeks later I stayed in a luxury workshop and included an excellent presentation on, hotel in Kyoto for significantly less per night than appropriately, ‘Delivering oral presentations’. This student accommodation at the University of War- should not have been restricted to a Student Work- wick. I am not quite at the stage of feeling exploited, shop as many experienced scientists would have but not too far off so I hope SIP is careful in the benefited greatly from the advice given. Possibly con- future. That slightly sour note aside, it was a good ference organizers should restrict the number of conference and hopefully will have stimulated fur- slides per presentation. ther interest amongst the many young scientists attending for the first time. However, there were many good presentations, even if they suggested little movement within the prac- By: Dave Moore, CABI News 71N New Books

megadiverse genus of parasitoids, displaying a The US Bemisia tabaci Biocontrol Programme variety of complex biologies and morphologies and has attracted considerable attention from biologists When the B-biotype of Bemisia tabaci became a in recent decades. This chapter presents a state-of- major pest in the USA in the 1980s and early 1990s, the-art overview of the genus. The following chapter, estimates of financial losses to various crops ran to by Greg Zolnerowich and the late Mike Rose, deals billions of dollars. In Arizona, California, Texas and similarly with Eretmocerus. Mike, to whom this Florida losses during 1991 and 1992 ranged from volume is dedicated, was involved in the campaign $200 million to $500 million. The introduction to this from its outset. He was a greatly respected expert on book contains many other such staggering figures biological control using parasitoids, and pioneered highlighting the impact of one of the worst insect many laboratory techniques for rearing and main- pests in the history of agriculture. Among the rea- taining cultures of natural enemies. He was also the sons for the massive impact of B. tabaci, in particular world’s leading expert on the genus Eretmocerus. the B-biotype, is its ability to transmit more than 100 plant viruses that cause devastating losses to many The subsequent chapter (Vacek, Ruiz, Ciomperlik & crops, including cotton, tobacco, soybean, vegetable Goolsby) describes how the emergence and increased crops and ornamentals. The immediate impact of B. availability of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tech- tabaci on US agriculture prompted a concerted and nology in the 1990s coincided fortuitously with the well-funded campaign to search for effective, sus- characterization of parasitoid populations and spe- tainable control measures for the pest, including cies that were otherwise difficult or impossible to classical biological control. This volume effectively characterize using morphology. PCR and gene summarizes the history and progress of that cam- sequencing are now used almost routinely by system- paign, while saying disappointingly little about its atists to describe and diagnose Encarsia and outcome. Eretmocerus species.

The book is divided into 18 chapters by 30 authors The following three chapters deal with parasitoid from various research institutes, mostly in the USA, evaluation: in quarantine (Goolsby, Legaspi & and spanning 11 states. The states that were most Legaspi), in field cages in California (Hoelmer & badly affected by B. tabaci, Arizona, California, Roltsch) and in the field in Texas (Ciomperlik & Florida and Texas, are particularly well-represented Goolsby). In summary, the most successful species to in the authorship. emerge from these trials were Encarsia bimaculata Heraty & Polaszek, Encarsia sophia (Girault & Following the excellent introduction, which contains Dodd), the above-mentioned Eretmocerus hayati and detailed summaries of financial losses, the foreign Eretmocerus mundus Mercet. Mass-rearing of these exploration programme for natural enemies of B. and other parasitoids is dealt with in the next tabaci is described. Alan Kirk (one of the main pro- chapter (Simmons, Pickett, Goolsby, Brown, Gould, tagonists of this episode and a remarkably effective Hoelmer & Chavarria). The next four chapters cover field biologist), Lerry Lacey and John Goolsby releases and recovery of parasitoids in Texas describe how more than 235 collections from around (Goolsby & Ciomperlik), Arizona (Gould, Waldner, the world were sent in 130 shipments to what was Colletto & Merten) and California (Roltsch, Hoelmer, effectively ‘Mission Control’ for the campaign – the Simmonds & Andress; Pickett, Simmonds & Mission Biological Control Laboratory (MBCL) in Goolsby). The final three chapters provide accounts Texas. During this foreign exploration field para- of integration of classical biological control with tra- sitism, almost exclusively by Encarsia and ditional control (Simmons, Hoelmer & Natwick); Eretmocerus species, reached 44% and 67% in Spain multivariate analysis for measuring the impact of and Thailand, respectively. At this point, 13 parasi- imported parasitoids (Andress, Quinn & Gould) and toids and several predators were evaluated against indigenous parasitoids and non-target effects of B. tabaci. The authors recount how delays in ship- exotics (Hoelmer, Schuster & Ciomperlik). ping a sample of Bemisia from the cotton-growing area of Multan in Pakistan meant that by the time it The book concludes with an epilogue extolling the reached Texas three weeks later the sample con- general virtues of classical biological control, and sisted of a bag of green slime –the decomposed leaf citing in detail the success of the importation of matter. With laudable persistence and determina- Eretmocerus hayati – the species that almost didn't tion, the MBCL staff salvaged from it 20 late-instar make it – into Queensland, Australia. The summary whiteflies from which a new species of Eretmocerus, that follows emphasizes the success of the project in E. hayati Zolnerowich & Rose, eventually emerged in terms of effective interagency collaboration, but is sufficient numbers for it to be cultured and later suc- inconclusive with regard to the overall success of the cessfully released. programme. The final statement calls for detailed, quantitative evaluation of the impact of parasitoids An account of research on entomopathogenic fungi of B. tabaci in all the release areas of the USA. associated with B. tabaci (Lacey, Wraight & Kirk) is followed by two summaries on the most important The editors are to be congratulated on compiling this parasitoid genera affecting Bemisia and other white- highly instructive and comprehensive overview of flies. Encarsia (Heraty, Polaszek & Schauff) is a one of the most extensive pest control programmes 72N Biocontrol News and Information 29(4) ever undertaken. The command and coordination of of classical biological control as a possible manage- an army of 30 Bemisia specialists is a great achieve- ment technique, but who lack specialist knowledge ment. The target, B. tabaci, was particularly and may not have the time to read standard text- complicated – literally a complex of species and pop- books or scientific papers. ulations with a large network of both indigenous and exotic natural enemies. Indeed the abundance of The four Factsheets respectively deal with Agent indigenous natural enemies of B. tabaci in the USA selection, Host specificity testing, Agent release and might have suggested that classical biological control establishment, and Impact evaluation. Each briefly may not have been the best strategy for this partic- explains the particular issue, highlights core points ular pest. However, the campaign appears to have and illustrates these with an Australian case study. met with some success, despite requiring further Recent key references are listed for further reading, evaluation. Certainly Encarsia and Eretmocerus spe- and a contact email address included for more infor- cies have been highly effective in more mation on each case study. straightforward classical biological control cam- paigns, such as those against Siphoninus phillyreae The two Best Practice Guides further develop the (ash whitefly) in the USA and Aleurocanthus wog- themes of Release and establishment of weed biolog- lumi (citrus blackfly) in the Caribbean. The ical control agents and Impact evaluation of weed importance of sound taxonomy, both morphological biological control agents. and molecular, as an indispensable aspect of such programmes, is emphasized in the present volume. The Release and establishment guide outlines ways At US$179 the book is expensive, but a very useful to enhance agent establishment in order to increase addition to the series and essential for those working overall efficiency of weed biocontrol programmes. in biological control or interested in other aspects of The Impact evaluation guide highlights principles insect natural enemies. and approaches to measure the impacts of agents on target weed populations and to quantify the benefits *Gould, J., Hoelmer, K. & Goolsby, J. (2008) Clas- for associated plant communities, ecosystems, the sical biological control of Bemisia tabaci in the economy and society in general. Both guides give United States. A review of interagency research and information on the main issues and difficulties implementation. Progress in Biological Control, Vol. encountered, with examples and a case study from 4. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 343 pp. recent Australian biocontrol programmes. There is a Hbk. Price: US$179.00/UK£95.00/€119.95. short list of references for further reading. ISBN: 978 1 4020 6739 6

By: Andrew Polaszek These new publications are available as pdfs from the Weeds CRC website: www.weedscrc.org.au/pub- lications/weed_man_guides.html#bpgbio and Weeds CRC Publications on Classical Biocontrol www.weedscrc.org.au/publications/ The Cooperative Research Centre for Australian factsheets_guidelines.html Weed Management (Weeds CRC) has produced two new Best Practice Guides and four new Factsheets, The policy of the Weeds CRC is to make the results to explain the core aspects of classical biological con- of its research widely available to the community. trol against invasive plants. Users are therefore welcome to translate or adapt these publications for their own education or The new publications outline and summarize results training materials, so long as the Weeds CRC is ade- from several years of research undertaken by scien- quately acknowledged as the source. The Weeds CRC tists within the Weeds CRC. These results have been was funded from 1995 to 2008 under the Australian published in numerous scientific papers over the Government Cooperative Research Centres Pro- years, including a special issue of the Australian gramme, with additional funding from several core Journal of Entomology. However the new publica- partner organizations (see www.weedscrc.org.au for tions summarize the main issues and findings for a full list). non-specialist audience. They are intended for people with a general interest and involvement in the man- Contact: Louise Morin agement of alien invasive plants, who may be aware Email: [email protected]