NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

In closing, I would like to call attention to the editorial page of the 1992 issue (Vol. 10) of The African Archaeological Review, in which David Phillipson mentions tentative plans for the Panafrican Congress of It seems that somebody actually reads Prehistory & Quaternary Studies to meet in this page, if one may interpret the avalanche Zimbabwe in 1995. An address for enquiries of contributions received during the last half about the Congress is included in the of 1992 as a response to my request for editorial. articles in the NA 36 editorial. At any rate, I am grateful for the outpouring of submissions and apologize to authors whose articles do not appear in this issue; most of them will be included in NA 39, the June 1993 issue. I also apologize for the delay in production of the present issue, which is partly a consequence of the chaos occasioned by my move to the Northland and partly a result of the logistical difficulties that stem from my being here rather than in Iowa (e.g., the desktop production is still done in Ames and printing is now done at GainesviUe, Florida). Such problems should be substantially under control by June so I hope that NA 38 wil be mailed more or less on schedule. Continuing with my optimistic assumption about the reading of this page, and hoping that I am not pressing my luck too hard, I would like to issue yet another plea for care in the preparation of manu- script for Nyame Akuma, particularly as regards bibliography. Many articles contain references that are incomplete or obviously erroneous; such "sins of commission" are frequently matched by the other kinds of sin in the form of missing references. Given Nyama Akuma's mission to publish timely reports of ongoing work, it seems inappropriate to engage in extended author- editor communications about minor errors, so my practise has been to make the best I can of the material I receive, deleting (for example) references in the text that are not listed in the bibliography and entries in the bibliography that are not referenced in the text of an article. I suppose that my taking such editorial liberties may appear arbitrary in some cases. Two remedies are available to authors: (1) avoiding the manuscript errors that lead to my taking undue liberties in the first place or (2) submitting errata in the next issue of Nyame Akuma, which I will cheerfully include on this page. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Kutswe Pass (Segobye 1989). The present study seeks to establish the distribution of sites beyond the hills. Current land use and geographical criteria were used to divide the - -- area into three landforms. These consisted BOTSWANA oE Landform A: The grazing area south of the hills--open plains Archaeological Survey and Landform B: Limited grazing area-The Excavations in Eastern Mokgware Hills range Botswana Landform C: The cultivated area north of the hills-open plains Alinah K. Segobye The environmental features of the Department of Archaeology survey area can be summarized as follows: University of Cambridge Geology. Dolerites and granitic Downing Street CB2 302 gneisses and migmatites characterise the Cambridge, England main hill range. These comprise weathered and steep-sided hills with flat plateaux. Sandstone outcrops form the younger rocky This report summarises results of landscape. These also have weathered flat fieldwork carried out in east central plateaux where midden sites were found. Botswana between January 1991 and April Mudstone, ironstone, calcrete, marble, shale, 1992. Archaeological survey and excavations and conglomerates occur in specific isolated were undertaken in the Mokgware Hills locales. area to locate, map and describe the Terrain. The highest points occur on the distribution of sites associated with farming Mokgware range. The area is dominated by communities dating from the end of the undulating valleys and plains north and tenth to the fifteenth century A.D. Similar south of the hills. It is bordered to the west sites have been located and mapped over by the Kalahari sandveld. much of eastern Botswana (Denbow 1983; Hydrology. Surface water is scarce. The Kiyaga-Mulindwa 1992). Most of these sites plains are cross cut by intermittent streams consist of hilltop middens with ashy soils and dry deep-cut river beds which flow covered with Cenchrus ciliaris grass. They are eastwards towards the Lotsane and associated with cattle keeping, functioning Limpopo rivers. The water table is relatively as stock pens. Similar sites like close to the surface and people mainly Mapungubwe and Schroda in the northern depend on wells and boreholes for regular Transvaal (Hanisch 1981; Voigt 1983) have water supplies. been shown to have supported livestock Soils. Local soils are influenced by the based economies. Some of the hilltop sites geology with reddish soils derived from the are associated with dry stone walling. Some dolerite parent rock. Tropical ferruginous midden sites occur in the plains north and soils predominate. Claysols occur along the south of the hills therefore covering diverse river system interspersed with alluvial terrain in eastern Botswana. sands and loam soils. Fine white aeolian Kalahari sands influence the western parts The Survey fringing the sandveld. A 40 x 20 km area was chosen for study Vegetation. Acacia tree savanna covers around the Mokgware Hills. The area was most of the southern plains with woodland delimited with the aid of 1:50,000 species occurring in the hilly areas. Open topographic maps and aerial photographs. Colophosperrnurn rnopane bushveld and Acacia An earlier reconnaissance survey had spp. scrub bush dominates the plains north established the presence of sites around the of the hills. Several other species occur. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

The Kalahari land system forms the inthe middle (Fig. 1). These features occur western border of the study area. It is a large on various other sites in Botswana, like semi-arid depession with wind-blown sands Toutswemogala, Bosutswe, Lose, Letsibogo, and associated scrub vegetation. and Lower Shashe (Denbow 1983; Kiyaga- A 5% sample was used as the basis for Mulindwa 1992; Campbell 1991). They are actual coverage. A multi-stage sampling also present in the northern Transvaal on strategy was adopted to ensure Mapungubwe site (Fouche 1937) and in the representative coverage of all the landforms. Transvaal highveld and southeastern It involved the use of stratified, systematic southveld (Maggs 1976). Though a full and random sampling techniques. In regional study of these features has not been addition, some sites were surveyed on the undertaken to determine their temporal and basis of information from local residents; spatial extent, some researchers have called others had been mapped in an earlier them grain storage bases for grass or clay reconnaissance (Segobye 1989). Forty 1 km x granaries. They are thought to be similar to 1 km sampling units were randomly those used by Sotho-Tswana and Kalanga selected for ground coverage. These blocks people in the nineteenth and early twentieth were systematically traversed on foot centuries to support large grain baskets, or following linear transects where possible. sesigo (Campbell 1991). Those noted in the Field walkers were spaced about 20 metres study area must be examined in detail apart though on hilly terrain and dense before conclusive statements can be made vegetation areas the distance was less. about their function. More than 80 sites were located in the Excavations were undertaken at two surface survey. At least 60% were ash dung sites in Landform C. They have ash dung middens covered with Cenchrus ciliaris grass. middens covered with Cenchrus ciliaris and a The middens varied in diameter from 25 to fairly high artefact density per square metre. over 200 metres (Table 1). Most of the sites The excavations were carried out to obtain were not yet documented in the National material for C14 dating. A series of dates Museum sites register. They were all have been obtained which place the sites recorded on detailed record forms designed between the tenth and fifteenth centuries for this study in addition to the National A.D. (Table 2). Floral and faunal remains and Museum site register forms. The sites were other artifacts were recovered which helped sketched, photographed, and mapped on in interpreting the sites' occupation record. 1:50,000 maps cross-referenced with the aid The excavations suggest that the sites are of aerial photographs. The largest middens multi-period with several occupation levels tended to be located on the plateaux of indicated, especially at Phate Hill site. steep-sided, weathered dolerite hills. Both the hilltop and low-lying. - sites were The Excavated Sites associated with surface occurrences of Phate Hill site--Grid Reference 658929: pottery, bones (mainly on the ashy soil), iron This site is located on a low hill next to the slag, slag encrusted tuyere fragments and Kutswe river. It is a large site spread over daga, pole impressed daga, and grinding the top and gentle northern slope of the hill. stones. Pottery occurred in abundance on Extensive terracing and stone circles are most sites, and diagnostic sherds were evident on the site. The central midden is collected for ceramic analysis. Other limited more than 150 metres in diameter. It is finds included glass beads, ostrich egg shell covered with Cenchrus ciliaris and has beads, cowrie shell,' and metallic objects like vitrified slag material in places. This slag has iron rings and copper bracelets. been associated with burnt cow dung matter Stone features associated with these as these middens are thought to haie been sites include heaped stone cairns, circular livestock penning units. Residential stone enclosures, and dry stone walling. The settlement remains found on the surface stone circles varied in form. The most include daga floors with pole-impressed common form was a circle of approximately daga. 1.5 metres diameter with a single stone set NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

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Table 1. The distribution of ash dung middens by size and landform. Landform Midden Diameter (metres) A B C Total 0-50 5 7 10 22 50-100 5 4 4 13 100-150 3 1 2 6 150-200 0 0 0 0 200+ 1 1 1 3 Total 14 13 17 44

Table 2. C14 dates from Mogware Hills (age years BP). Site: Phate Hill a TO-3213 TO-3214 TO-3215 TO3211 TO-3212 b Pta-5833 Pta-5825 Pta-5826 c Beta-51090 Beta-51092 Beta-51094 Beta-51091 Beta-51095 Beta-51093 Site: BPS 52 b Pta-5827 Pta-5828 Pta-5829 c Beta-51097 Beta-51096 Beta-51098

aIsotrace Radiocarbon Laboratory b~~~~~~ -Pretoria CBetaAnalytic Laboratory, Inc. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

Five trenches of 2 x 1.5, 2 x 1, 2 x 1.5, excavations indicate dense deposits of ashy 4 x 1, and 2 x 1 metres were excavated. They burnt soil with vitrified slag recorded in were excavated to sterile levels with the subsurface strata to depths of 0.8 metre. deepest reaching 1.6 metres. The As the analyses are not completed, stratigraphy revealed several occupation conclusive remarks cannot be made about levels with three house floors identified in site distribution patterns or the settlement one of the profiles. Features like hearth and land use systems. However, preliminary remains were also found. Artifacts observations suggest that settlement location recovered included pottery, ostrich egg shell and land use strategies aimed at maximising beads, metal objects, iron slag and tuyere resource use were key in the decision- fragments, grinding stones, and some whole making process of the area's occupants pots. Good samples of charcoal were through time. The environmental recovered. A human burial was found at 1.1 reconnaissance suggests that natural metres in trench 5 but was left in situ as time resources like iron ores, clays, land, and constraints did not permit full excavation. water may have been crucial within the BPS 52 site-Grid Reference 654978: The subsistence economies and influenced the site is located on a low ridge in an open choice of settlement location. The Kalahari Colophospermum mopane bushveld. It has a land system, which is ecologically different central ash dung midden of 100 metres from the study area, may have constrained diameter. The midden has been disturbed by settlement expansion westwards for the burrowing animals. One large trench and a early farming communities. This study is test pit were sunk over an area with features aimed at contributing toward understanding and dense artifact cover. A total of thirteen 1 the long-term management of subsistence x 1 metre squares were excavated. These production systems and settlement were excavated to a depth of 0.5 metres to organization within the agro-pastoral sterile soil levels. Subsurface finds included subsistence economies of eastern Botswana. pottery, bones, charcoal, ostrich egg shell beads, iron slag, and tuyere fragments. Acknowledgements Other features recorded included hard- packed, floor-like levels with cemented This project was funded by the pottery fragments. There were also following institutions: The University of occurrences of burnt ashy soil with Botswana, The Swedish Agency for fragments of vitrified material. Samples Research Cooperation with Developing were collected for further examination. Countries (SAREC), The Smuts Foundation-Cambridge and The Boise Fund--Oxford. Their support is gratefully Discussion acknowledged. Permission to undertake this The two excavations have provided research was granted by the government of material for dating and the series of Botswana. I wish to thank my field radiocarbon dates available now place the assistants, hosts in the field, and the staff of Mokgware hills sites securely within the Khama III Memorial Museum for providing regional framework of farming communities a base for this project. Several colleagues in sites. One of the aims of the study is to the University of Botswana and Department determine whether changes in land use of Archaeology in Cambridge have helped patterns can be discerned in both time and with invaluable advice for this study; I space in the study area. From the surface thank them. Above all, I thank my survey, there seems to have been a supervisor Dr David Phillipson for his preference for hilly areas for settlement continued support during the course of this location. Where the settlements were located study. in the plains, slightly elevated ground was preferred. However, activity areas like ironworking sites seem to have been located near water sources as furnace remains were recorded mainly along river banks. The NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December '""^

Fig. 1. Stone features from Mokgware sites.

6 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

References Campbell, A. C. 1991 Distribution of prehistoric Kalanga villages in the Lower Shashe and Les Fosses d'okolo Letsibogo areas. In Van Waarden, C. (Sud du Cameroun): Fouilles (ed.), Kalanga Retrospect and Prospect. et Axes de Recherches Gaborone: Botswana Society:19-33.

Denbow, J. Christiane Atangana 17 rue du Docteur Goujon 1983 lron Age Economics: Herding Wealth and 750 1Z-Paris Politics along the Fringes of the Kalahari during the Early lron Age. Unpublished France Ph.D thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington. Les' fouilles menbes B Okolo-en aoOt Fouche, L. (ed.) 1983, sous la direction de P. de Maret et en 1937 Mapungubwe: Ancient Bantu Civilisation mai/juin 1984 par nous-interviement ?I la on the Limpopo. Cambridge: Cambridge suite des recherches entreprises ?I Obobogo University Press. en 1980, 1981, et 1983 par P. de Maret de 1'Universite Libre de Bruxelles et ?I Hanisch, E. 0. Nkometou en 1983 et 1985 par J. M. Essomba de la Facult6 des Lettres de Yaounde. La 1981 Schroda: A Zhizo site in the northern decouverte au cours des prospections Transvaal. In Voigt, E. (ed.), Guide to menees en 1983 de douze autres sites Archaeological Sites in the Northern and presentant des caracteristiques semblables- Eastern Transvaal. Pretoria: Transvaal "fosses" apparaissant sur la section Museum37-54. artificiellement cr&e de versants collinaires, ceramique d6corCe au peigne et au Kiyaga-Mulindwa, D. bbtonnet-nous imposait d'avoir une 1992 Excavations at Lose Enclosure, Central approche globale de ce corpus. Botswana. In Sinclair, P., and Pwiti, G. Ainsi, tirant parti de la relative (eds.), Urban Origins in Eastern Africa homogCn6it6 de ce corpus et de la serie de Proceedings of the 7990 Workshop, Harare datations obtenues, nous en avons extrait le and Great Zimbabwe. Paper No. 6. site d'Okolo, considere comme une partie du Stockholm: The Central Board of "substrat mat6riel" d'une soci6t6 National Antiquities. prehistorique (settlement) dont la nature reste ?I determiner. Dans le but d'emettre Maggs, T. M. questions et hypotheses sur le mode de 1976 Iron Age Communities of the Southern fonctionnement de cette soci4tC nous nous Highveld. Pietmaritzburg: Natal sommes attach& ?I comprendre certains Museum. aspects des technologies apparaissant sur ce site et le mode d'exploitation de Segobye, A. K. l'enviromement qu'elles supposent, autant 1989 Later Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in d16Mments susceptibies d'eclairer les Eastern Botswana: A Survey of the Central interrelations autant ces sites entre eux et Mokgware Hills. Unpublished MPhil. d'orienter les recherches 21 venir. Thesis, University of Cambridge. Les Fouilles a Okolo Voigt, E. Celles-ci s'inscrivent dans le cadre d'un 1983 Mapungubwe: An Archaeozoological sauvetage des vestiges situes en bordure de Interpretation of an Iron Age Community. route. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

La section du double talus pratiquke B chaque fosse ou d'ensembles plus vastes Okolo (voir Fig. I), propice B l'observation expliquant leur groupement? Le fort des vestiges, a 6te faite en fonction pendage qui affecte ce secteur nous d'impkratifs autres qu'arch~ologiqueset en amhe B laisser ce probleme en suspens. l'absence d'arch6ologues ayant pu constater + les fosses no 2 2i no 7 et les fosses no 8 et 9 les destructions occasionnees par les travaux correspondent 2i des agencements de terrassement. Ces informations ont et.6 identiques, le premier coupe completees par la fouille de "fosses"--en transversalement, le second perpendicu- 1983 fouille de la "fosse" no 3 par P. Claes lairement. De la meme facon, la fosse no (etudiant B l'Universit6 Libre de Bruxelles), 14 (sondage no 2) serait associee B la et des "fosses" no 2 et 9 par nous-memes- fosse no 15 (extrCmit6 du talus et l'implantation de sondages, dont certains superieur). Derniere precision, ces ont 6t6 progressivement agrandis-secteur de ensembles regroupent petites fosses fouille no 3, sondage no 1et 2, en 1984. ovoydes et grandes fosses pyriformes. Les donnees stratigraphiques recueillies Comme le montrent les premieres dans le secteur de fouille no 3 montrent que datations obtenues (voir plus loin), il le niveau le plus ancien correspond au serait hstif de conclure, tant B la niveau de creusement des "fosses"; il est contemporaneite de toutes les fosses recouvert par un important depi3t de d'un meme ensemble, qu' B l'installation sediments mobilises le long de la pente, lui- successive de chacun de ces ensembles. meme fossilis6 par l'implantation d'un habitat sub-actuel (non etudie). Situees sur Les Structures Excavties le versant collinaire de l'interfluve d'Okolo, ces structures excavees sont le resultat La stratification interne de ces structures conjugue &actions humaines et naturelles, se compose de trois phases de comblement. introduisant une variabilite dans leurs Le cas le plus frequemment rencontre stratification interne, et demandent que associe les phases de comblement no 1 et 2- soient prises en compte B la fois la dans les fosses no 2,3,9, et 17; la fosse no 14 singularit6 de chacune des situations ne contient que des skknents de la phase no archeologiques cr&es et la recurrence de 1 tandis que la fosse no 16 combine les trois certaines de leurs caractkristiques. phases de comblement.

L'Organisation des Vestiges lmmobiliers La Premiere Phase de Comblement A partir de l'examen du talus drOkolo et Elle se compose d'une succcession de des informations obtenues au cours des sediments meubles jaune-brun, parfois fouilles menees, il est possible de traverses de lentilles ferrallitiques rouges et comprendre l'organisation generale des vierges; elle contient un mobilier vestiges immobiliers. Comme B Obobogo, archeologique peu abondant et peu altere. celle-ci se compose d'alignements doubles D'apres les analyses sedimentologiques de fosses, orient& suivant un axe nord/sud. affectuees, la faible acidite de ces dep8ts, Ainsi: leur couleur, leur nature sablo-argileuse et la forte odeur amoniacale qui s'en degage, les fosses du secteur de fouille no 3- + indiquent que ces depbts ont evolue en fosses no 16, no 17, et no 18 (non fouillke) atmosph6re reductrice ou sous l'action d'un se situent dans l'alignement des fosses apport important de matiere organique; ceci no 12 et no 13 (talus inferieur). Celles-ci a pour consCquence la deferralisation de ces semblent associees B des trous de sols et une dispersion des argiles c'est-B-dire poteaux (par exemple le trou de poteau des processus geochimiques tels qu'une situe B proximite de la fosse no 17 est le alteration de la kaolinite et une dissociation plus nettement perceptible) ayant de ses feuillets alumino-silicat&, marquee appartenu B des structures lkgeres dont par une disparition des pseudo-particules. la fonction et le plan restent incornus. S'agit-il de structures accompagnant NYAME AKUW No. 38, December 1992 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Cette phase de comblement presente est present et aussi alter6 que dans la dans toutes les fosses et cons&utive, selon deuxieme phase de comblement. nous, B leur creusement, est B mettre en L'etude du profil general et de la relation 2I la fonction initiale de ces stratigraphie des "fosses" montre que la structures, marquk par: variabilite morphologique de ces structures + un apport important de matiere est like B la transformation progressive de organique ayant evolue en milieu leurs caracMristiques intrinseques avec le reducteur temps. Ainsi parmi les "fosses" fouill6es, + un degagement de ces depats, traverses peut-on distinguer: de lentilles ferrallitiques, notamment + les fosses ovoides, de petites dam la fosse no 16, laissant penser B une dimensions: fosse no 14, profondeur: reutilisation periodique de ces 0.90 m, diametre B la base: 1.10 m, structures diametre B l'ouverture: 0.84 m; fosse no Ces elements doivent etre mis en rapport 16, profondeur: 0.80 m, diametre 3 la avec les caracteristiques intrinseques de ces base: 0.87 m, cliamhtre B l'ouverture: 1.28 structures (voir plus loin). m (lie au surcreusement de cette fosse). + les fosses pyriformes, de grandes La Deuxieme Phase de Comblement dimensions: fosse no 2, diametre 21 la base: 1.60 m, diametre B l'ouverture: 2 m I1 s'agit de sediments ferrallitiques de (partie superieure detruite); fosse no 9, couleur rouge, contenant un important diametre B la base: 1.60 m (partie mobilier archeologique plus alter6 superieure detruite); fosse no 17, (ceramique, broyeurs, fragments de terre profondeur: 1.75 m, diametre B la base: brfilee, des noix de palmes et parfois 1.60 m, diametre B l'ouverture: 0.90 m traverses de poches de sediments (la plus complete). La fosse no 3 a subi ferrallitiques rouges vierges). d'importantes destructions et n'apporte Elle marque l'abandon de ces structures que peu &informations. s'accompagnant de l'effondrement partiel Ces premiers elements montrent que des parois, ce qui explique la presence de l'hypothhe retenue (voir plus loin), s'appuie poches de terre stbriles, et de la mobilisation exclusivement sur certaines caract6ristiques de depbts arch6ologiques, provenant des de ces vestiges irnmobiliers; les etudes B environs immkdiats de ces "fosses," qui ont venir devraient Gtre menees de facon B bouleverse le bassin d'epandage de ce surmonter le hiatus introduit entre domees secteur. Leur localisation sur un versant immobilieres et mobilieres; en effet, si la laisse supposer un comblement rapide de relative contemporaneite des dep6ts ces structures en creux et de ce fait, une renfermes par ces structures sauf dans le cas relative contemporaneitk avec les depots de surcreusements-justifie une fouille par anterieurs. Ce processus est en rapport niveau de 10 cm, leur stratification direct avec l'important phenomene de complexe, l'abondance des vestiges colluviomement occasiom~par les eaux de mobiliers et une comprehension plus ruissellement, propre aux paysages complete de la fonction de ces unites de peneplanes de la region equatoriale B stratification requierent le recours 2I des interfluves 2I versants convexes et methodes de fouille plus elaborees. polyconvexes. Mobilier Arch601ogique La Troisieme Phase de Comblement I1 se compose de cQamique, de materiel Elle intervient lorsqu'il y a eu lithique et de scories de fer: surcreusement de ces structures par l'homme, au cours de reoccupations de ce secteur; ces sediments se caracterisent par L'important fractionnement de la leur couleur rouge-brun, et l'abondance des ceramique et son alteration entrainant charbons de bois. Le mobilier archkologique 116caillage de la pellicule superficielle NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

souvent decode de nombreux tessons, 14). Les ensembles decoratifs secondaires s'expliquent par la mobilisation de ces nous semblent etre un element susceptible vestiges le long de la pente sous l'effet des d'apporter de precieuses informations dans eaux de ruissellement et du "creeping" le cadre d'une seriation chronologique des typique des paysages p6nkplan6s. vestiges ceramiques. Une premiere etude de la ceramique d'Okolo montre que celle-ci rassemble des Le Materiel Lithique recipients sans cols (les bords Cverses sont I1 se compose de deux fragments de rares; les bords inverses bien representes), meules (dont l'un provient de la fosse no 17), des recipients ti cols bas (everses, paralleles) presentant des traces d'ensellement, de et des recipients ?I cols hauts (everses, fragments de broyeurs et broyeurs, de forme parallPles ou inverse%), leurs levres, dont subcirculaire B section elliptique, l'extrkmite est arrondie, effilh, aplatie ou B subcirculaire ou plano-convexe, de forme camelure centrale sont continues laterales elliptique il section sub-trapezoidale, de (c'est-A-dire ayant une orientation differente forme sub-rectangulaire B section de celle de la paroi des recipients) B un ou quadrangulaire ou plano-convexe, et enfin deux epaississements lateraux. Les fonds de pierres B rainures et une hache polie en sont generalement plats. Les tres rares dolerite (non en place). 6Kments de prehension rassemblent des anses, des cordons ou boutons de Les materiaux utilises sont les roches prehension et des trous de prehension (ces metamorphiques (entre autres, le gneiss, derniers uniquement dans la couche l'amphibolite), le quartzite, mais egalement archeologique III). la dolerite (outre la hache polie mentionnee, une molette trouvee dans la fosse no 2). Les recipients dfOkolo ont un decor Toutes ces roches proviennent couvrant unique ou bipartite, dont le vraisemblablement des environs immediats registre inferieur utilise un d&or camel6 au du site (situe non loin d'un des rares ddmes b2tonnet B pointe mousse (ces cannelures rocheux de la dorsale Nyong-Sanaga, le sont generalement organisees en bandes massif de Yaounde), B l'exception de la parallPles ou en faisceau, plus rarement en dolerite dont les principaux gisements, reseau); dans les deux cas, ces ensembles d'aprb P. Claes, se situent au deb des decoratifs principaux (nous y englobons les fleuves Nyong et Sanaga. Sous reserve de registres superieurs des decors bipartites) l'existknce de filons isoles plus proches, on sont souvent associes B des ensembles peut y voir le temoignage d'echanges decoratifs secondaires, c'est-&dire soit des interrkgionaux. elements d'encadrement, soit des insertions. Les premiers sont faits d'impressions simples ou pivotantes au peigne ?idents Les Scories de Fer circulaires ou B la spatule. Produisant des Sur les douze scories de fer trouvees B motifs en chevrons ou des hachures Okolo, huit proviennent de la couche obliques, l'impression simple B la spatule est arch6ologique, trois de la fosse no 17 et une sur-representee dans la couche de la fosse no 9. Ces vestiges de petite taille archeologique 111 au detriment de nous r6vPlent peu d'informations sur la l'impression simple ou pivotante au peigne chahe operatoire lice B une transformation et l'impression pivotante i la spatule. du minerai de fer. Du moins, sont-ils des Pour les ensembles decoratifs indices sur la presence probable de points de secondaires, ont 6t6 utilisbs l'impression travail en rapport avec cette activite. Les continue au biitomet ?ipointe mousse (ils recentes decouvertes faites B Okolo vont consistent donc en cannelures uniques ou dans ce sens. multiples), l'impression simple ou au peigne I1 faut signaler que les scories trouvees i dents circulaires (notamment dans les dans les fosses ont et6 trouvkes dans la fosses no 2, no 9, et no 17), l'impression deuxi2me phase de comblement. simple au batonnet ou au peigne dents triangulaires (dam les fosses no 2, no 9, et no NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Datations et Premiers ~l4ments I1 serait hiitif de conclure B la stricte d'lnterprdtation sedentarite des habitants dlOkolo, c'est-2- L etude du site B Okolo se situe dans un dire B une permanence de leur lieu de contexte regional 06 se succedent, depuis residence tout au long de l'amee. L'idee de 1980, les decouvertes archeologiques, les saisomalite, associee B l'utilisation de dernieres en date etant celles du site d'Oliga structures de stockage, engage autant les par J. M. Essomba en 1989 et de Nkang par J. ressources naturelles que les activites C. Mbida en 1990. Les sites datk (Obobogo, humaines et leur localisation: trois niveaux Nkometou, Ndindan, Oliga et Okolo) &interrogation susceptibles de nous orienter appartenant B l'&e du fer, c'est-&-dire ayant sur cette question. Pour l'instant, les livre des artefacts de fer, couvrent une datations obtenues pour les sites de la periode s'etendant entre le Veme sikle B.C. region montre leur reoccupation r6@&re. et le W&mesiecle A.D. Une attention accrue aux ressources exploitees, permettrait de cemer la part qui revient B la veg6culture, l'agriculture et Table 1. Les datations obtenues l'exploitation des plantes sauvages dans pour Okolo. l'economie de la societe etudiee, ce qui eclairerait en retour les modalites Fosses Datations 14c Datations 14c d'implantation au niveau local mais aussi Non calibrees Calibres regional. A Okolo, comme B Obobogo, on trouve des fruits de Canarium scheinfitrthii et des noix de palmes (Elaeis guiniensis). Enfin le dernier point que nous souhaitons soulever, est l'h6t6rog6neite de l'espace forestier humide de cette region, h6t6rogCneit6 tenant B la diversite des 6co- S'il est B l'heure actuelle difficile df@tre systemes qui s'y catoient: vallees affirmatif sur la nature du site d'Okolo et marecageuses, versants collinaires bien des fosses qui s'y trouvent, du moins peut- drain&, mais egalement B la sylvigknGse, oit on examiner quelques hypoth&ses des facteurs comrne la lurniere, l'humidit6, susceptibles d'orienter les recherches B contribuent B faire de cet ensemble, une venir. De toute evidence, l'organisation des mosaique d'espaces B differents stades vestiges immobiliers laisse envisager d'4volution. l'existence d'ensembles B vocation domestique (et ceci au regard du mobilier Remerciements retrouve dans lequel les scories de fer sont rares); cependant, la question de la fonction L'etude du site d'Okolo a 6tC realizee premiere des structures excavees, reutilisees dam le cadre de notre these de IIIeme cycle comme depotoirs, reste entiGre: s'il etait en Ethnologie Prehistorique B l'Universit6 possible de leur attribuer, sur la base de de Paris-I. Nous tenons B remercier les leurs caracteristiques "intrins&ques," la personnes qui nous ont permis de la mener B fonction de "fosses de conservation" (terme son terme: MM J. Devisse (Paris-I), P. de generique rassemblant structures de Maret (Universitk Libre de Bruxelles), J. M. stockage proprement dites et structures Essomba (Universite de Yaounde). Nous utilisees B la fermentation des aliments), remercions Cgalement J. Polet (Paris-1). l'ubiquite de telles caracteristiques et Bibliographie l'absence de recherches palynologiques Atangana, C. venant appuyer cette hypothese nous appeilent B la prudence. Celle-ci a cependant 1989 Arch6ologie du Cameroun Mkridional: le merite d'attirer notre attention sur un Etude du Site dlOkolo. Thkse de doctorat ensemble de points qui ne trouvent reponse de IIIPme cycle en Ethnologie que dans l'avenir. Prehistorique, Universite de Paris-I Sorbonne. NYAMEAKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Essomba, J. M. exposed by the road works, the one at 1991 Le Fer dans le Passe des SociitCs du Sud- Banock, a village situated close to an Cameroun (Archeologie et Histoire). Thke affluent of the Membi river, occurred in the d'Etat en Histoire Ancienne, Universite slope of the road and was excavated in de Paris-I Sorbome.

Holl, A. 1991 Age du fer ancien. In Aux Origines de L'Afrique Centrale, R. Lanfranchi et B. Clist (ss la dir. de) CCFAC-CICIBA.

De Maret, P. 1989 Le contexte Bantu de l'expansion Bantu en Afrique Centrale. In Expansion et Identitt Bantu, T.Obenga (ss la dir. de), Colloque International du CICIBA Libreville, 1-6 avril 1985, 2 tomes, L'Harmattan.

1985 Recent archaeological research and dates from Central Africa. Journal of Ahcan History 26A29-48.

1982 New survey of archaeological research and dates for West Central and North Central Africa. Journal of African History 231-15.

De Maret, P., B. Clist, and C. Mbida. Fig. 1. Site location. 1983 Belgian archaeological mission in Cameroun. Nyame Akuma 235-6. The site, a pit of 250 crn diameter at the opening and 170 cm deep, was capped by a surface layer of about 70 cm. The excavated artefacts were limited to ceramics. Nothing remains of the part of the pit that was Excavations at Banock, disturbed during road construction. The pit Grassfields, Cameroon was dug in a red lateritic soil. The profile (Fig. 2) presents four different colours and four different degrees of induration (Table Emmanuel de Crits 1). All layers contained potsherds, except for Section de Pr6historie layer 11, which was thin and probably Musee Royal de I'Afrique Centrale represents a fire place. 3080 Tervuren Belgium Excavations Horizontal excavations allowed a lateral Site Location exposure of the layers. The shape of each layer was revealed by its colour and degree The site of Banock, Menoua of induration. The induration was calculated Department, Penka Michel district (5°21'15" by means of a standard shear device (type N and 10°11'25"E) (Fig. 1) was discovered Thorvane), and the colour was recorded during the construction of the road between according to the Munsell Soil Colour Cards. Dschang and Bafoussam. Of various pits These data were quite consistent within each NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

layer except for the indurations resulting Research from old fire places. The apparent Further analysis of data from the pit homogeneity of the layers will have to be excavation will concentrate on revealing the confirmed in textural analyses of the soil meaning of the differences in colour and samples. Charcoal was collected for each texture of the layers, and on description of layer and will be dated. the ceramics. Pottery anlysis will focus on the technical processes and decoration. This will enable comparisons with other sites Table 1. lnduration and color from the Grassfields such as the site of recorded for each layer. Mandja near Bangangte (Mbida 1992) and Layers Soils Colors Induration also with information on ceramic Wan2) manufacturing processes observed in this area (Gosselain 1991). ~ateritic 10 R 4/8 Red 41 soil As part of the pit research, I also conducted an ethnographic study of a potter LI 5 R4/6 YellowishRed 48 from Bafutchu-Mbu, a village at 14 krn to the L I1 5 YR4/4 Reddish Brown 67 southwest of Bamenda, Northwestern Province. The manufacturing process L 111 2,5 YR 4/4 Reddish Brown 50 observed is a variant of the coil technique, LIV 10 R3/3 Dusky Red 84 adding clay on a previously molded bottom. Decoration techniques are impressions made by means of a twisted string roulette, traced Archaeological Remains lines and stamped motifs. Zoomorphic applications (lizards and frogs) appear on The distribution of archaeological most of the pots. The linguistic information material is different throughout the layers. on Ngamambo (nr 868 in Dieu and Renaud Whereas layer I, the richest in material, 1983) collected during this enquiry has been contains sherds that allow the .refitting of transmitted to the Linguistic Section of the almost entire vessels, layer 111 offers much Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren more fragmented material, not allowing any (Belgium). refitting. Layer IV contained ceramics characterized by a variety of profiles and all kinds of handles. Pottery of an exceptional Conclusion thickness (3 cm) was uncovered in Layers 111 The Grassfields of Cameroon is a crucial and IV. Their decoration consists of area for African archaeology because overlapping flexible roulette impressions linguists consider it as the cradle of Bantu which are crossed by traced lines. languages. The history of the Grassfields is, Since the material is under study, however, poorly known. Recent research in information on manufacturing techniques Mbi, Shum Laka and Abeke rockshelters and decoration are still preliminary. (Asombang 1988, de Maret et a1.1987) However, it is clear that the colour and provides information on the Late Stone Age, texture of the clay varies greatly, as do and the site of Banock may-eventually do so vessel types and decorative techniques. The for the more recent neolithic period. most frequent way of decorating the pots is with twisted string roulette impressions. Acknowledgements Impressions made with a carved wooden roulette are less common. Traced lines and Field research was conducted under the incisions are often superposed on flexible direction of P.de Maret and funded by the roulette impressions. Some pots are Universit6 Libre de Bruxelles. I would like to decorated with applied and incised coils, thank the Ministry of Higher Education, festoons, and pastilles (Fig. 3). Computer Services and Scientific Research NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

NORTH PROFILE 170

Fig. 2. Banock pit, north profile.

of Cameroon for research clearances, and Dieu, M., and Rcnaud, P. (eds). also Andrk Mboko, the chief of Band for 1983 Situation Linguistique en Afrique his hospitality and Abou Monica, potter of Centmle, lnventaire Pr&liminaire: Le Bafotchu-Mbu for her cooperation. Cameroun. Atlas linguistique dc 1'Afrique Centrale (ALAC), ACCT, References CERDOTOLA-DGRST. Yaound6, Paris. Asombang, R. Gosselain, 0. P. 1988 Bamendn in Prehistory: The Evidence from 1991 Technologie ckramique et cthno- Fiye Nkwi, Mbi Crater and Shum Laka arch6omQtrie: resultat pr6liminaires dc Rockshelters. Unpublished Ph.D.thesis, la mission 1990 au Camcroun. Nsi 8- University of London. 96-15. de Maret, P., Clist, B., and van Neer, W. Mbida, C. 1987 RQsultats des premii.res fouilles dans 1992 Archaeological research in South les abris de Shum Laka et dfAbeke au Cameroon: Preliminary rcsults on thc Nord-Ouest du Cameroun. 1990 ficld season. Nyarne Akuma 37:2-4. L'Anthropologie 91:559-84 . NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 3. Pottery sherds from Banock decorated with (a) incised lines, (b) twisted string roulette (double), (c) carved wood roulette, and (dl applied and incised coil. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

Soper, R. C. Le site se localise a la cour de l'eglise A 1980 Roulette decoration on African pottery: 8 m du batiment principal. I1 est limite au Technical considerations, dating and nord par une piste, au sud par l'eglise, a Irest distribution. The African Archaeological par la case du catechiste, et B l'ouest par le Review 329-51. foyer de la paroisse. Les conditions climatiques semblent expliquer la mise au jour du si$e. En effet, c'est une region forestiere qui connait des pluies abondantes en aoQt-septembre-octobre.Elles ont aprits Identification du Site plusieurs amees erode la roche argileuse, Metallurgique de Madoumba, dont le lessivage a atteint 8 cm de profondeur. Les structures metallurgiques Centre Cameroun: Les se sont donc retrouvees en surface. Cet PremiBres Donn6es erosion du sol atteint certains endroits du Arch6ologiques site 20 cm de profondeur. Trois types de structures apparaissent en surface au niveau Jean-Paul Ossah Mvondo spatial: deux structures circulaires et un Charge de Cours creuset. Universitb de Yaoundb ENS Dkpartement dfHistoire Description Spatiale des Structures de BP 47 Yaounde Surface. Cameroun La structure A se presente comme une fosse de forme circulaire. Elle decrit sur le sol un cercle de couleur noire, alors que le sol nature1 est en argile de couleur rouge. Les Conditions de DBcouverte du Site Cette difference de coloration du sol marque de Madoumba la differenciation entre structure Malgre les resultats encourageants d6jB archeologique et les autres elements p6dologiques. Elle a un diametre de 1.5 m. obtenus, le centre et le sud du Cameroun Ses vestiges se compasent de deux scories restent des regions insuffisamment prospectees et couvertes arch6ologiquement. apparaissant en surface. La scorie A a 10 cm de longueur alors que la scorie B a 12 cm. La C'est dans ce sens qu'une mission de structure B, qui se presente aussi comme reconnaissance archeologique du site de une fosse, decrit sur le sol une forme Madoumba a eu lieu le 30/06/91. Le but de circulaire. La couleur est grise et moins noire cette operation etait de localiser, de reperer que la stucture A. Elle a un diamittre de 1 m. et d'identifier le site, puis de determiner l'importance des structures en place et la La composition des vestiges est variee. On peut distinguer des scories et des briques nature du site pour des fouilles hentuelles. rouges. Les scories de surface sont au Le village de Madoumba est situe sur nombre de trois. Elles mesurent l'axe lourd Douala Yaounde ii 60 km de respectivement 11 cm de longueur, 10 cm et Yaounde. Il appartient B l'arrondissement de 4 cm. Elles sont concentrees l'est de la Matomb dans le departement de Nyong et fosse. Les briques au nombre de trois aussi, Kelle, province du Centre Cameroun. La se concentrent ?I l'ouest de la fosse et decouverte du site a kt6 faite 2 partir de mesurent respectivement 10 cm, 13 cm, et l'observation directe du sol. En effet, devant 5 cm de longueur. La structure C est un la paroisse de l'eglise EPC de Madoumba, creuset de pr&sde 10 kg, mesurent 47 cm de apparaissent sur le sol des structures longueur sur 34 cm de largeur. Le centre noiratres de forme circulaire et des scories forme un creux, poli et profond de 5 cm, dispersees. Les indices de metallurgie de fer puis circulaire. Ce creuset est form6 dans furent port& A notre comaissance par le son assemblage de dechet de fonte. La Pasteur Song. Le site est actuellement difference geometrique des structures occupe par les populations Bassa. implique des differences fonctionnelles. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

L'observation spatiale de la repartition des restes de cases qui participaient B la vestiges offre un espace triangulaire. La production du fer. surface B est B 1.5 m de la structure A. Cette Le site de Pan Nsas, sitd au sommet de structure A est B 1.6 m de la structure C. La la colline a livre des vestiges constitues par structure A occupe le centre du triangle un foumeau de 3.8 m de hauteur et de 2.5 m spatial. On peut remarquer une equidistance de circonference. La forme est conique, la entre la disposition des deux fosses et le partie terminale arrondie. I1 est difficile de creuset. Les autres vestiges recoltes sont savoir dans l'etat actuel des travaux si B deux molettes calcides de couleur noire, la Madoumba les populations ont utilise les pierre ayant certainement brQle par le feu. mi2mes types de foumeau. Le dkpotoir de La premiere molette mesure 9 cm sur 6 cm, scories, autres vestiges de ce site, comprend la seconde 10 cm sur 6.5 cm. des fragments de scories de dimensions Ces premiers vestiges de surface du site variees, comprises entre 5 cm et 2 cm metallurgique de Madoumba peuvent d'epaisseur, puis des fragments de briques. permettre d'avancer quelques hypotheses de La particularite des vestiges de travail. La presence des scories, et leur Madoumba est la presence d'un creuset de concentration, la forme circulaire des fosses forme ovale parmi les scories. I1 pose le et la presence du creuset indiqueraient un probleme de son utilite et de sa fonction atelier de fonte. La presence des briques dam le processus technologiques dans cette constituent des elements de l'architecture du region. foumeau. Un des problemes que pose le site de Malgre la richesse des evidences Madoumba est la chronologie. Les sites arch6ologiques rCcolt6.s en surface, les voisins de Pan Mangueda et Pan Nsan sont probkmes restent po&s sur la technique de dates respectivement de 330 + 130 BP B 200 f transformation, l'architecture du foumeau, 120 BP. Ces datations font penser que la repartition du travail et l'organisation l'activite metallurgique dans l'arrondisse- fonctiomelle de l'espace. Dans le m@me ment de Matomb s'est effectuee de fason arrondissement des sites metallurgiques continue probablement du XV siecle au furent aussi decouverts. Les resultats XWII siecle de notre ere. Peutdtre que les obtenus apres l'etude du materiel peuvent resultats attendus du site de Madoumba eclairer les premieres domees de surface viendront confirmer cette dude prelevees sur le site de Madoumba. d'occupation ou alors ils apporteront de En effet, deux sites Pan Mangueda et nouvelles series chronologiques B l'iige du Pan Nsas furent identifies, sondes et trait&. fer de la region de Matomb. (Essomba 1991: 270-318). Pan Mangueda a Le probleme important que pose ces livrC parmi les vestiges de surface des vestiges de surface, est aussi celui de la scories un fourneau et deux anciens caracterisation et de la connaissance emplacements de cases. Le fourneau est physico-chimique des scories et du minerai. detruit B la partie superieure, et construit B Ces analyses sont B entreprendre. A partir l'aide de petites briques de terre cuite, des vestiges des sites de Pan Mangueda et mesurant 4 B 5 cm de longueur et 2 cm Pan-Nsan, des caracteristiques se degagent d'epaisseur. Le diametre interieur est concernant le region de Matomb. En effet, compris entre 40 cm et 60 cm. les analyses chimiques de scories de Pan On note aussi une fosse de 3 cm de Nsan montrent des scories silicieux avec largeur sur 2 cm de large, puis 2 cm de 60.86 % de S102 et des elements en etat de profondeur. Les sondages effectues B trace tels que: le barium, le cobalt, crome, l'emplacement du fourneau ont livre du cuivre, et le nickel. charbon de bois. La fouille du site de Ces analyses diffractometriques Madoumba permettra de savoir si la base de indiquent la presence du quartz, cristobalite l'emplacement du fourneau avait une fosse. et l'hkmatite. Les analyses du minerai de De plus l'extension des prospections Pan Nsas, par diffraction des rayons X, permettra peut-@trede reperer aussi des indiquent la presence de la gibbsite, du NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

quartz et du goethite, temoin d'un minerai EGYPT riche en fer. L'analyse prochaine des scories et minerai du site de Madoumba permettra d'avoir des donnees comparatives au niveau physico-chimique et compl6tera les premiers A Further Report on Farafra rksultats d4jh obtenus dans cette region. La (Western Desert, Egypt): temperature de reduction du fer h New Research and Madoumba reste B determiner, mais on peut Radiocarbon Dates avancer 11hypoth6sed'une temperature de reduction variable allant de 1200" B 1300°, cornrne l'indique les tempkratures obtenues M. Alessio dam le site voisin de Pan Nsas. Dipartimento di Fisica University of Rome "La Sapienza " Piazzale Aldo Moro 5 Perspectives 00785 Rome, ltaly L'identification du site Madoumba pose B. E. Barich beaucoup de problemes qu'il faudra rksoudre. Pour cela il faudra des fouilles Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche programmes et des sondages. L'etude du Archeologiche e Antropologiche site de Madoumba permettra d'etablir des delllAntichita : sirnilaritbs avec les sites de l'arrondissement. University of Rome "La Sapienza " I1 peut permettre de dkgager et d'etablir des Via Palestro 63 contacts culturels, des differences spatiales, 00 785 Rome, ltaly technologiques et temporelles dans G. Belluomini l'arrondissement. Les analyses permettront Centro di Studio per la Geocronologia e d'elargir le champs de connaissance de la Geochimica delle Formazioni Recenti metallurgie de fer dans le sud cameroun. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Les recherches prochaines doivent s'orienter c/ Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra

vers les fouilles, et les datations, puis la University of Rome "La Sapienza " recherche des autres elkments 00785 Rome, ltaly caractckistiques de la technologie de fer dam le Nyong et Kelle. Enfin, il est utile de F. A. Hassan proceder B une etude ethnoarcheologique Department of Anthropology sur la metallurgie de fer dans le Washington State University departement du Nyong et Kelle, afin d'avoir Pullman, WA 99 7 64 des indicateurs sur la technologie ancienne U.S.A. de fer dans le sud Cameroun. A. A. Mahmoud Department of Geology Remerciements Ain Shams University Nous remercions le Pasteur Song qui Cairo, Egypt nous avait indique le site, puis M. Akame L. Man fra avec qui, en compagnie du Pasteur, nous Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra avons fait la reconnaissance archeologique University of Rome "La Sapienza " du site de Madoumba. 00 7 85 Rome, ltaly Bibliographie A. Stoppiello Essomba, J. M. Scuola Nazionale di Archeologia 1991 Le Fer dans le Passt des Socittts du Sud Rome, ltaly Cameroun. These d'gtat, Universite Paris-I. The Research The Rome University Mission to Farafra Oasis (Fig. 1) started fieldwork in the winter NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

of 1987 and work has continued on a regular concentration of artifacts-those tradition- basis in the subsequent three years. The next ally defined as "siteso-but we have also season is planned for summer 1992. investigated their environmental setting and Preliminary results of the 1987 season have associated traces of habitation. The sites are been published in this journal (Barich and characteristically positioned in relation to Hassan 1987). Elsewhere, the methodology remnants of Holocene playas. Hassan and a more detailed account of the results (Barich and Hassan 1984-87:139-40) have been presented (Barich and Hassan identifies at least three wet phases which are 198487; 1990). linked to the wet period of the early The Archaeological Project in the Farafra Holocene (9300-8800 or 8600-7100 bp) and Oasis is directed by Barbara E. Barich in to the wet intervals of the Middle Holocene collaboration with Fekri A. Hassan. A. A. (5900-5000 and 4800-4600/4500 bp). Mahmoud assists with the geo- Remnants of the earliest playa have morphological study; G. Belluomini is in been found in the vicinity of Bir Abu Nuss. charge of radiocarbon dating; C. A. Amici is The playa is close to the centre of the oasis. responsible for the topographical study. We The archaeological remains are meagre. An acknowledge the participation in the 1987- area of debitage was also located in a more 91 field campaigns of A. A. Stoppiello, G. recent playa deposit, for which the following Catania, R. Sebastiani, A. Abderahmann, M. dates have been obtained: 6950 f 60 bp (R- Serwi, M. Bashendi, M. Said, and K. El 1894) and 6670 f 95 bp (R-1895). The Sendiouni. Mr. Sayed Yamani, to whom we radiocarbon datings are summarized in wish to express our gratitude for help and Table 1, which includes both conventional support, is a representative of the Egyptian and calendric ages. (The text gives Antiquities Organization. Geological maps conventional ages calculated on the basis of have been contributed by F. A. Hassan. Libby's (1955) half-life.) Drawings of the stone materials are by We have also identified an area C.Placidi. approximately 15 kilometres from the centre Our work sheds lights on the prehistory of the oasis where remains of open camps of a region that hitherto has been virtually occur. The area is more than 10 km long and unknown. A knowledge of the prehistory of includes Ain Kifrein, Ain e-Raml, and Abu Farafra Oasis is particularly significant Kasseb (Fig. 2). Ain e-Ram1 was examined in because of its central location in the 1988 and 1989. A systematic collection was Egyptian Sahara, as well as its intermediate made within 200 square metres subdivided position between Libya and the Nile valley. into 10 x 10 m grid units. Archaeological Following our preliminary investigations, recovery was restricted to a depth of 10-15 which revealed the importance of the cm. Hearths were located. A sample of distribution of water resources in human carbon collected from one of them provided activities, we have focused on the a date of 9650 f 190 (R-1983) radiocarbon association of settlements with potential years bp. prehistoric sources of water. We have also The debitage, which includes a large begun to examine change in economic and component of blades, is dominated by social structures related to the shift from splinters from unipolar cores. Amongst the hunting-gathering to food production. We tools may be noted denticulates, scrapers have also continued to investigate the place and pieces with foliate retouching. Of some of Farafra Oasis in the prehistory of the interest is the presence of blades with Sahara, its connection with other Egyptian backed retouch. The presence of some burin oases, and the possibility of interactions spalls is sigruficant. with the communities of the Nile valley. The lithic material collected both at Ain In order to construct a general model for e-Ram1 and at other nearby settlements is the use of the territory and its resources, and associated with pottery. The sherds, which for the distribution of settlements, we have are definitely of prehistoric date, have operated over a broad area. Not only have heavily weathered surfaces due to long we examined places with a high NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

exposure, so they cannot provide details oasis by an eolian sand sheet and is cut off about manufacturing techniques and from the Nile valley by a plateau. It lies on decoration. the caravan route which leads from Siwa, Another important center of settlement via Farafra, to Assiut in the Nile valley. has been found approximately 130 Investigations in 1988 and 1989 revealed kilometres northwest of Qasr Farafra, concentrations of artifacts associated with around Ain Dalla. The artifacts are small playas at Rajih. Of some significance is associated with sabkhas and are the presence of a blade industry which extraordinarily rich, but they differ from includes a particular type of arrowhead with those of Qasr Farafra. The raw material unifacial retouch (Ounan-Arif type). The consists of dark brown, very shiny chert. No presence of thin-walled pottery with pottery is known from Ain Dalla. A sample impressed decoration, quite different from of ostrich eggshell collected in one of the other types in the depression, is also concentrations yielded a radiocarbon date of important. Both the ceramic and lithic 7000 f 410 years bp (R-1909). industries show affinities with the Midway between Ain Dalla and Qasr archaeological complex of Bashendi in Farafra near the summit of Quss Abu Said, a Dakhla Oasis. A radiocarbon date from an major settlement was located (Fig. 3). artifact concentration investigated during Investigations at Bahr Playa began in 1988 the 1988 field campaign is 5380 f 110 (R- and are still in progress. The settlement 2006). consists of numerous concentrations and represents an ideal subject for an analysis of Radiocarbon Dates continuity and change in human occupation Seven early radiocarbon dates are during the Holocene. The playa has a available from the Farafra Depression. surface area of approximately one square (Another date, obtained on charcoal from a kilometre. Before collecting surface material, recent hearth, is 320 f 40 years bp, R-1983. A a general inspection of the playa was further six dates on samples collected undertaken: longitudinal transects during the 1991 Mission are under study.) approximately 100 metres apart were aimed The early dates are summarised in Table 1, at discovering the distribution of various which also includes details concerning concentrations of artifacts. A total of five material dated and the chronological areas of high density were recognized and sigruficance of the radiocarbon dates. mapped. Archaeological features at Bahr Playa include: manufacturing stations, The method of radiocarbon dating is alignments of hearths, possible building reported in detail by Alessio et al. (1985). foundations, dwellings, and lithic artifact Charcoal, after having been examined with a assemblages. The latter include a variety of stereoscopic microscope, was treated in an tools, such as scrapers on flakes with lateral acid-alkaline solution according to the bulbs, knives/saws, and disks with technique described by Alessio et al. (1970), marginal retouch. A tranchet with unifacial which is now generally employed. Ostrich retouch on the dorsal surface was found in eggshell fragments were processed one area (Fig. 4). Samples from two different according to Bada and Protsch's procedure areas in the playa provided two radiocarbon (1973). dates: one is on charcoal gathered from a Charcoal and ostrich eggshell hearth in area 2,8080 is 70 years bp (R-1902); transformation (as well as that of wood, the other date on ostrich eggshell, from area peat, bone etc.) into benzene is obtained 5, is 6730 + 60 years bp (R-1901). with Broecher et al.'s technique (1959) The Rajih-Bir Murr area, approximately partially modified by Belluomini et al. 80 kilometres east of Qasr Farafra, is another (1978). Measure of 14C residual activity was locus of prehistoric settlement. Situated on carried out using liquid scintillator counters. the eastern side of the depression, it Counts were taken automatically every 30 represents an outlier. Today the Rajih-Bir minutes in 20-hour periods; each benzene Murr area is separated from the center of the NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

QASR. FARAFRA

Aln lbsei OAbu Kasseb

Fig. 2. Farafra Oasis (Egypt). Archaeological sites in the Abu Nuss region. Key: 1 = Esna shale, 2 = Farafra limestone, 3 = Abdalla limestone, 4 = depression floor, Khoman chalk, 5 = playa deposit. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 3. Farafra Oasis (Egypt). Bahr playa and Ain Dalla region. Key: 1 = Khoman chalk, 2 = playa deposit, 3 = Abdalla limestone, 4 = Esna shale, 5 = Farafra limestone, 6 = Dachla shale, 7 = El-Hefuf, 8 = aeolian sand, 9 = fault. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

sample was counted for a total of 60 hours seventh millennium bp put an end to the (Alessio et al. 1970). conditions for stable settlement. Consequently, Farafra became a more Discussion frequent destination in the itineraries of pastoral nomadic groups, as documented by According to present data, the 14C the abundant remains of "fireplaces." On the datings place the occupation of the oasis in a other hand, the more stable groups were range that includes both Early and Mid- forced to spread their settlement more Holocene phases. Thus the datings support extensively inside the depression, reaching the climatic sequence put forward by its external limits, as indicated by the Rajih- Hassan and mentioned above. Our datings Bir Mum sites. also show general agreement with those We hope that the continuation of from other Egyptian oases, such as Baharia, research by the University of Rome Kharga, Siwa, and Dachla (Hassan 1978a; archaeological mission at Bahr Playa and Wendorf and Schild 1980:193; Hassan 1978b; Rajih may add further data to our McDonald in press). knowledge of the occupation of Farafra Minor occupation areas, related to point Oasis, specifying further its Holocene sources of water (outlets of wadis, spring cultural sequence. discharges, solution depressions from runoff, etc.), can be identified inside the References Farafra depression. At present the archaeological remains near the centre of the Alessio, M., Allegri, L., Bella, F., Belluomini, G., oasis are rather scant, partially because of Calderoni, G., Calderoni, G., Improta, human disturbance in recent times. For S., Manfra, L., Petrone, V., and Turi, B. example, since 1987 the area surrounding 1985 Datazioni con il Carbonio-14: risultati Qasr Farafra has undergone substantial conseguiti, attivita' recenti, futuri transformations and some of the sites we sviluppi. Contributi del Centro Linceo had previously recorded (e.g., Bir Nuss) Interdisciplinare di Scienze have disappeared. On the other hand, the Matematiche e Loro Applicazioni. most recent research (1988-91) has Giomta di Studio sul tema: Archeometria emphasized the importance of the Bahr 69:81-134. Playa-Ain Dalla archaeological unit, at the northern end of the depression. Alessio, M., Bella, F., Irnprota, S., Belluomini, G., On the basis of the 14C datings we infer Cortesi, C., and Turi,B. that the occupation at Bahr Playa started 1970 Report on the equipment and activities during the phase of climatic stability in the of Rome University's Carbon-14 Dating Early Holocene, approximately between Laboratory. Quaternaria 13: 357-76. 8600 and 7000 bp. Water resources, which are fairly abundant in this subregion, might Bada, J. L., and Protsch, R. have favoured the development of a semi- Racemization reaction of aspartic acid sedentary settlement pattern, determining 1973 the subregion's autonomy from others. The and its use in dating fossil bones.Proc. recent discovery of a village at Bahr Playa, Nat. Acad. Sci. 70 (5):131-1334. containing proper residential structures, Barich, B. E., and Hassan, F. A. supports the above-mentioned indications. As for the subsistence pattern, intensive I1 Sahara e le Oasi: Farafra nel Deserto gathering of wild plants can be inferred Occidentale Egiziano. Sahara 3: 53-62. from the abundance of sickle-blades and The Farafra Oasis Archaeological grinding equipment. Along with this type of Project. Nyame Akuma 29: 16-21 economy, which could be said to be proto- agricultural, sheep-goat herding was The Farafra Oasis Archaeological probably practiced. The drastic fall in Project (Western Desert, Egypt)-1987 precipitation that occurred during the Field Campaign. Origini 13: 117-91. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 4. Farafra Oasis (Egypt). Lithic tools with abrupt and foliate retouch from Bahr Playa. Key: 1, 7 = tranchet-axes; 2,3 = drills; 4,6 = perforators; 5 = arrow-head; 8 = sickle-knife; 9 = gouge.

26 Table 1

Radiocarbon Archaeo Material and Conventional ages a Calibrated ranges c Laboratory logical amount (g) (95% confidence) and sample site used 5568Z30 yr) (TlI2 5730140 yr.) number

R-2006 RJH Ostrich 5380t110 BP 553Ot110BPb 4430 - 3890 BC egg-shell (16.4) R- 1895 FA XV Ostrich 6670295 " 6860i 100 " 5885 - 5285 BC egg-shell (39.5) R-1901 BAH 5d Ostrich 6730t60 " 6930260 " 5925 - 5335 BC egg-shell (48)

R- 1894 FA !I Ostrich 6950+60 " 7 150-+60 " 6195 - 5435 BC egg-shell (45.7) R- 1909 AD XIIIb Ostrich 7000?410 " 7210t420 " 6525 - 5330 BC egg-shell (14.3)

R- 1902 BAH 2cl Charcoal (16) 8080260 " 8310Z70 " 7200 - 6700 BC d R- 1983 AR exc Charcoal (8.2) 9650+190 " 9930Z200 " 9050 - 8250 BC

a Conventional ages were calculated on the basis of both Libby's (1955) half-life of 5568 # 30 years and Olsson et al!s (1962) and Olson and Kasten's (1963) half-life of 5730 # 40 years. Thc difference between the two dates corresponds to about 3 pcrccnt. One standard deviation is indicated. Ages are indicated as before present (BP) using AD 1950 as the "prcscnt." C Calibrated ages, or calendric years, were obtained according to Klcin ct al. (19821, Kromer ct al. (19861, and Stuiver et al. (1986). d Extrapolated result. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

Barich, B. E., Hassan, F. A., and Mahmoud, A. A. Olsson, I. U., Karlen, J., Tumbull, A. H., and n.d. From settlement to site: formation and Prosse, N. J. D. transformation of archaeological traces. 1962 A determination of the half-life of C14 Scienze delllAntichita' 5 (in press). with a proportional counter. Arkiv for Fysik 22: 237-55. Belluomini, G., Delfino, A., Manfra, L., and Petrone, V. Olsson, I. U., and Karlen, J. 1978 Benzene synthesis for the radiocarbon 1963 The half-life of C14 and the problems dating and study of the catalyst used which are encountered on absolute for acetylene trimerization. Int. J. Appl. measurements on beta-decaying gases. Radiat. Isotopes 29: 453-59. Radiocarbon Dating, Proceedings of a Symposium, Athens, Nov. 1962. IAEA: Broecker, W. S., Tucek, C. S., and Olson, E. pp. 3-11. 1959 Radiocarbon analysis of Oceanic C02. Int. I. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 7:1-18. Stuiver, M., Kromer, B., Becker, B., and Ferguson, C. W. Hassan, F. A. 1986 Radiocarbon age calibration back to 1978a Prehistoric studies of northern Egypt. 13,300 years BP and the C14 age Baharia Oasis and West Delta. Pullman matching of the German oak and US Report to the Egyptian Antiquities bristlecone pine chronologies. Department. Radiocarbon 28 (28): 969-79.

1978b Archaeological explorations of the Siwa Wendorf, F., and Schild, R. Oasis region, Egypt. Current 1980 Prehistory of Eastern Sahara. New York: Anthropology 19 (1): 146-48. Academic Press, p. 193. Klein, J., Lerman, J. C., Damon, P. E., and Ralph, E. K. 1982 Calibration of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 24 (2): 103-50.

Kromer, B., Rhein, M., Bruns, M., Schoch-Fisher, H., Munnich, K. O., Stuiver, M., and Radiocarbon Dates from Becker, B. Asante (Ghana) Sites 1986 Radiocarbon calibration data for the 6th to the 8th millennia BC Radiocarbon 28 (28): 954-60 P. L. Shinnie Department of Archaeology Libby, W. F. The University of Calgary 1955 Radiocarbon Dating. 2nd ed. Chicago: 2500 University Drive N. W. The University of Chicago Press. Calgary, Alberta Canada T2N 7 N4 McDonald, M. A. n.d. Dakhleh Oasis Project. Holocene prehistory: Interim report on the 1988 The report on the 1991 Asante Research and 1989 seasons. The Journal of the Project (Shi~ieand Vivian 1991) did not Society for the Study of Egyptian contain information on radiocarbon dates Antiquities (in press). since at the time of writing they were not available. The samples have now been processed and the results are in the following table: NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

Table 1. Asante radiocarbon dates. Lab No. Site Uncalibrated age BP

Gd-6540 Adansemanso 310 +_ 70 Recent Findings of Middle Stone Age Material from Gd-5996 Adansemanso 680 f 50 East Turkana Gd-6545 Adansemanso 740 f 70 Gd-6541 Adansemanso 1050 f 100 Allison J. Kelly Gd-6537 Admemanso 1110 f 110 Department of Anthropology Rutgers University Gd-6546 Anyinam 170 f 70 P. 0. Box 270 Gd-5998 Anyinam 550 f 50 New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0270 U.S.A. Gd-5997 Esiease 230 f 50 Gd-6543 Esiease 190 f 60 John W. K. Harris Gd-6542 Esiease 450 f 80 Department of Anthropology Rutgers University P. 0. Box 270 These dates were supplied by Dr. M. F. New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0270 Pazdur of the Radiocarbon Laboratory at U.S.A. Gliwice, Poland. The chronology suggested by these dates is congruent with what archaeological evidence had suggested, with Paleoanthropological fieldwork, under occupation at Anyinam and Esiease being the coordination of Dr. Richard Leakey, comparatively recent whilst Adansemanso began at Koobi Fora, east of Lake Turkana in has evidence for an earlier occupation with the late 1960s (Leakey and Leakey 1978). The five of the dates suggesting activity Koobi Fora region contains rich fossiliferous considerably before European contact. At and artifact bearing deposits which span the this site lack of imports and smoking pipes time period from the Plio-Pleistocene to the had already suggested at least partial Holocene. Although the Plio-Pleistocene and abandonment before the seventeenth Holocene archaeological remains have been century. well documented (Barthelme 1985; Harris and Isaac 1978), very little is known about References the Late Pleistocene archaeological record. A detailed study of the Middle Stone Age Shinnie, P. and Vivian, B. C. (hereafter MSA) archaeology of Koobi Fora 1991 Asante research project. Nyame Akuma was therefore undertaken by one of us 36:2-6. (Kelly in prep) Earlier preliminary fieldwork by one of us 0. W. K. H.) yielded one minor scatter of MSA artifacts (FwJi 1--see Fig. 1) associated with the hominid femur KNM-ER 999 (Kelly and Harris in prep). A partial cranium recovered in the 1980s within several kilometers of FwJi 1 has also been identified recently as belonging to Homo sapiens (Brauer et al. 1991). This paper will provide a preliminary description of the location, geological context, and distribution of new artifact finds documented in fieldwork undertaken NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

by one of us (A. K.) during 1990, 1991 and random 5x5m surface samples were taken 1992. A brief characterization of the along the outcrop. To ascertain whether assemblages follows together with a there was a discrete artifact horizon and possible explanation for the low density of whether it could be traced along the entire the East Turkana MSA in comparison to outcrop, seven geological trenches were also other MSA assemblages from Kenya. excavated during this season. The sediments consist mainly of calcium carbonate rich Site Location and Geological Context sands and occasional silts. Excavation was initiated in 1992 at the northern end of the The artifacts were recovered from three outcrop where the highest surface density of separate areas in the East Turkana region artifacts was located. Artifacts were (see Fig. 1). Two occurrences are found recovered in relatively low densities from within a kilometer of one another along an the 12 square meter excavation. To increase erosional escarpment just to the south of the sample size, additional artifacts were Ileret Police Post. The northern occurrence, surface collected beginning at the excavation designated as FwJi 2, consists of an erosional and extending approximately 30 m to the outcrop which extends for approximately 1 south along the outcrop. kilometer. Surface collection of two The final MSA occurrence, designated relatively high density 5 x 5 m areas was GaJj 17, is located approximately 15 undertaken in 1991. During the following kilometers east of the Lake Turkana summer, a 1 x 2 m geological trench was shoreline. The artifact bearing sediment is excavated in the proximity of one of the composed of an aerially exposed coarse to surface samples to determine whether the medium-grained sandstone which overlies MSA artifacts occurred in a discrete horizon. fine-grained sands. During the summer of A clear artifact horizon could not be 1991, three 5 x 5 m areas were surface distinguished within the predominantly collected and a 3 x 1 m excavation was sandy sediments. undertaken. The excavation confirmed that The southern occurrence, designated the artifacts were restricted to the overlying FwJi 3, is also found along an erosional indurated sandstone. outcrop, although the extent of the MSA deposits is considerably more restricted and the artifact horizon was significantly more Site Distribution distinct. The sediments which make up the The three areas in which MSA artifact horizon consist of sands, pebbles and occurrences have been located in the East small gravels and appear to be colluvial in Turkana region appear to differ ecologically. origin. Thirty-four square meters were The Ileret occurrences (FwJi 2 and 3) exist surface collected and a lxlm area was near the present shoreline and near a major excavated to confirm that the artifacts were river channel. The vegetation along the eroding from the colluvial horizon. river, namely large trees and thicker shrub, Two more MSA occurrences exist on the is scarce within the lake basin. The river backslopes of the Karari Escarpment. These may not have been present during the Late sites have been designated FxJj 61 and FxJj Pleistocene, but if it was, it would have 66. The site of FxJj 66 consisted of a 500 m provided resources (e.g., plant food, riverine long strip of eroded outcrop. Six 5 x 5 m fauna, large cobbles) which were surface collections were made in areas of unavailable in other areas of the basin. higher artifact density during the summer of The inland sites to the east of the Karari 1991. Additional research during the escarpment (i.e., FxJj 61 and 66) lie summer of 1992 indicated that excavation in approximately 23 kilometers from the this area would not be feasible because of present lake margin, but are closer to the the topography of the deposits. The site of basin margin than any of the other sites. It is FxJj 61 is composed of about 1 kilometer of at the basin margin that significant sources erosional outcrop upon which MSA artifacts of chert and chalcedony outcrop (C. Fiebel were found. During the summer of 1991, six and C. Nelson pers comm). The proximity of NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

*

# / .*

a / '*/' *

.

Sites --- Rivers 1 '.- - *- 2000' Contour OdO - Y Interval Kilometers 9

Fig. 1. Physiogeographic Map of East Turkana Region Indicating Location of Middle Stone Age Sites. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

these raw material sources may have made from FwJi 2 and FwJi 3. Although chert and this area an attractive place. chalcedony are still the main raw materials Finally, the site of GaJj 17 lies on what at these occurrences, there is a higher appears to be a paleo-beach (Feibel pers percentage of phonolite/basalt artifacts. cornm). Its probable location near the shores This increase in volcanic artifacts at FxJj 61 of Lake Turkana would have provided easy and 66 may contribute to the apparent access to lacustrine resources such as fish increase in overall artifact size. The and hippo. assemblages (n = 194 at FxJj 66; n = 509 at FxJj 61) are mainly composed of flakes and Although analysis of the East Turkana flake fragments, although several points MSA assemblages is not complete, have been recovered from both sites and preliminary research indicates that the there are a few examples of Levallois type assemblages from these three areas also cores. Faunal preservation at both sites is differ. It may be that part of the intra- poor. There was no fauna recovered from regional variation in these assemblages can the surface at FxJj 66. At FxJj 61 examples of be related to activity differences among identifiable faunal remains include crocodile varying habitats. teeth, hippo tusk, a lower molar of a size 3 alcelaphine, and fragments of a size 4 Lithic and Faunal Assemblages tragelaphine horn core. A total of 121 artifacts along with some Lastly, at GaJj 17 a total of 378 artifacts fragmentary faunal remains were recovered was recovered. Again the assemblage is from the surface samples and geological predominantly manufactured on chert and trench at FwJi 2. The majority of the artifacts chalcedony, with phonolite/basalt and consists of flakes and flake fragments ignimbrite being less common. As with the manufactured on chert and chalcedony other sites, flakes and flake fragments make (other raw materials include up the majority of the assemblage and phonolite/basalt and quartz). Additionally, Levallois-type cores and points exist. The several Levallois-type cores and one chert and chalcedony is very different in retouched point were recovered. The color from that found at FwJi 2 and 3, majority of the faunal remains that could be suggesting procurement from different identified were fish (e.g., Nile perch), turtle, sources. In overall artifact size, the and crocodile, although there were some assemblage appears to be similar to those large bovid (i.e., size 2 and 3) and hippo collected from FxJj 61 and 66. The remains. identifiable faunal remains from the site are The artifacts (n = 232) recovered from predominantly of hippo, crocodile, turtle FwJi 3 were similar in character to those and fish, although a few mammalian found at FwJi 2. Again the majority of the remains, including a suid upper tusk, were assemblage is composed of flakes and flake also found. fragments of micro-crystalline silicates (other raw materials include Site Density phonolite/basalt, ignimbrite and quartz), An interesting aspect of the MSA along with several Levallois-type cores and occurrences in the East Turkana region is miscellaneous retouched pieces. The fauna is that they are all relatively low in artifact somewhat different from that recovered at density compared with occurrences FwJi 2. Although there are still some fish elsewhere in East Africa. The low density remains, there is a greater number of may in part be due to collection of mainly mammalian remains, including the lower surface artifacts (i.e. the assemblages have right M3 and upper right M2 of been winnowed by water and other post Megalotragus, the distal end of a femur from depositional factors). However, excavations a small primate, and several lower limb at FxJj 61, FwJi 3, and FwJi 2 also suggest elements from size 3 bovids. diffuse artifact scatters. This pattern is in At FxJj 66 and 61, the MSA lithics appear marked contrast to the pattern found for to be somewhat larger overall than those other Kenyan MSA assemblages where NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

artifact density is high, such as at Prospect comparisons can be made, but also provides Farm, Prolong's Drift, Muguruk, and new insights into the range and variability Lukenya Hill (Anthony 1978; Merrick 1975; of MSA hominid activities within the region. McBrearty 1986). Some of the difference may Furthermore, the contrasts between the be due to variation in depositional diffuse MSA occurrences at East Turkana environment between the East Turkana and the high density sites in other regions of region and regions further to the south. Kenya, makes it possible to argue that MSA However, we suggest that the frequency, hominid populations adapted their duration, and number of MSA occupations behaviors to the varying landscapes. at Lake Turkana differed from those in the Whether the low density sites in East Central Rift Valley and Lake Victoria Turkana reflect infrequent use of the area or regions and that this may also explain the low population levels remains problematic, variation in artifact density. but it is clear that MSA horninids were well The present environment at East adapted to exploit a range of habitats in a Turkana is arid and supports a limited manner not unlike the Later Stone Age variety and number of plants and animals. peoples. Although the lake level has fluctuated periodically in response to climatic changes Acknowledgements (Feibel 1988), the surrounding landscape We would lieto thank the Government appears to have remained relatively stable. of Kenya for granting us permission to If this reconstruction is correct, then it is conduct research in Kenya and the National reasonable to suggest that the climate near Museums of Kenya and Kenya Wildlife Lake Turkana was arid during the early Services for their help and support while Later Pleistocene. The region would undertaking fieldwork and laboratory therefore not have been an area to which research. For their financial support, we MSA hominids were frequently attracted. would like to thank the L. S. B. Leakey Furthermore, even if there were populations Foundation, the Boise Fund, the Holt Family living permanently in the area, the carrying Foundation and the Graduate School, capacity of the environment must have kept Rutgers University. Additionally, we would the numbers of MSA hominids low. Such like to thank the Koobi Fora Field School conditions could partially explain the low (Harvard University and National Museums density of MSA artifacts within the East of Kenya) staff, crew and students for their Turkana region. logistical support, help in the field, and The environments surrounding Lake advice. Naivasha/Nakuru, Lake Victoria, and on the Athi Plains, however, were more hospitable. Vegetation and animals were References more abundant and variable and rainfall Anthony, B. was more frequent. Although climatic shifts 1978 The Prospect Industry: A Definition. during the Late Pleistocene had an effect on Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, the vegetation, fauna, and lake levels of Haward University. these regions (Messerli et al. 1980; Street and Grove 1976; Washbourn-Kamau 1967), the Barthleme, J. conditions were almost certainly never as harsh as those at East Turkana. As such, the 1985 Fisher-hunters and Neolithic Pastoralists higher density of artifacts at the sites remote in East Turkana, Kenya. BAR from Lake Turkana is to be expected. International Series 254:l-364. Brauer, G., Leakey, R., and Mbua, E. Conclusion 1991 A first report on the ER-3884 cranial The research on the MSA from East remains from Ileret/East Turkana, Turkana has not only provided new and Kenya. In G. Brauer, and F. Smith (eds), unique lithic assemblages with which future Continuity or Replacement? Controversies NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

in Homo sapiens Evolution. Rotterdam: McBrearty, S. Balkema. 1986 The Archaeology of the Muguruk Site, Western Kenya. Unpublished Ph.D. Feibel, C. dissertation, Harvard University. 1988 Paleoenvironments of the Koobi Fora Formation, Turkana Basin, Northern Street, F., and Grove, A. Kenya. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. 1976 Environmental and climatic University of Utah. implications of late Quatemary lake level fluctuations in Africa. Nature Harris, J. W. K. ,and Isaac, G. 261:385-90. 1978 Archaeology. In Leakey, M. G., and Leakey, R. (eds), Koobi Fora Research Washboum-Kamau, C. Project, Volume 1. Oxford: Clarendon 1967 Lake levels and Quaternary climates in Press, pp. 64-85. the Eastem Rift Valley of Kenya. Nature

Kelly, A. in prep The Middle Stone Age of East Turkana, Kenya. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University. Sangoanlechnologyand Kelly, A., and Hams, J. W. K. Habitat at Simbi in prep The Middle Stone Age of East Turkana, Kenya: New insights into variability in Sally McBrearty MSA hominid land-use strategies. Department of Anthropology Paper to be presented at The Brandeis University International Congress in Honor of Dr. Waltham, MA 02245 Mary Douglass Leakey's Outstanding U.S.A. Contribution in Paleoanthropology: "Four Million Years of Hominid Evolution in Africa." August 8-14, 1993, Arusha, Tanzania. It is well known that implements of the Sangoan industry overlie Acheulian artifacts Leakey, M. G., and Leakey, R. (eds) and underlie those of the MSA at a number of equatorial African sites. The Sangoan is 1978 Koobi Fora Research Project, Volume 1: significant because the shift from Acheulian The Fossil Hominids and an Introduction to MSA technology seems to indicate a large to their Context, 1968-1974. Oxford: scale change in hominid behavior, which Clarendon Press. may coincide with the first appearance of modem humans in Africa (McBrearty 1987). Merrick, H. The precise nature of the Sangoan 1975 Change in Later Pleistocene Lithic industry, its environmental circumstances, Industries in Eastern Africa. and its age have been problematic since the Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, first assemblages were described nearly 70 University of California, Berkeley. years ago (Wayland & Smith 1923). Primarily our ignorance is due to the dearth Messerli, B., Winiger, W., and Rognon, P. of excavated samples from reliable 1980 The saharan and east African uplands stratigraphic contexts, conditions in the during the Quaternary. In Williams, humid tropics that conspire against the M., and Faure, H. (eds) The Sahara and preservation of bone or other organic the Nile. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 87- remains, and the lack of reliable dating 118. techniques for this range of time. Application of laser technology, however, NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

now brin s the Sangoan within the range of assemblages (cf. McBrearty 1988, Toth 1982, the 40~r/39~r method, and the site of Simbi Fladmark 1982). About 98% of the artifacts provides new evidence of Sangoan are made in the local raw materials technology, age, and environment. phonolite and quartz. Formal tools make up Simbi is unique in preserving Sangoan < 2% of both surface and excavated artifacts, datable volcanics, and vertebrate assemblages. Surface tools include large and plant fossils. The site is located in the bifaces, picks, and choppers (Fig. 3), though Kano River drainage of western Kenya at an only one comparatively small pick/chopper elevation of approximately 1300 m; it lies was recovered in the excavation. Casually about 30 km south of the equator, roughly trimmed pieces and small scrapers make up equidistant between the shores of the about 65% of the surface and 90% of the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria to the west and excavated tools (Fig. 3). As at other Sangoan the highland town of Kericho to the east sites in western Kenya (McBrearty 1987, (Fig. 1). Quaternary volcanic and fluvial 1988), flake production is primarily by the deposits are found over an area of about 10 radial technique, but Simbi is unusual for its km2 in the Kapsorok valley, which is low number of Levallois cores. Excavation bounded by ridges of Kericho phonolite, a within the unit 4 occupation horizon Losuguta-type Miocene plateau phonolite revealed a concentration of micro- and (Binge 1962). macrodebitage with an area of about 1.5 m2. An anvil slab is surrounded by hundreds of Surface collection and geologic sampling pieces of flaking debris, primarily quartz, were performed at Simbi in 1984 and 1986; the product of bipolar core reduction. in 1989 and 1990, geologic mapping, controlled surface collection, and excavation Excavation and surface collection have were carried out. Research has concentrated produced a faunal sample of about 350 upon an area of about 1 ha where deposits specimens. Conditions at Simbi clearly favor about 5 m thick are exposed (Fig. 2, 4). tooth preservation. Nearly all the fossils are Fluvial channel and overbank deposits, and isolated teeth and jaw fragments, though at least 12 major tuff units, including both one nearly complete equid mandible has airfall and fluvially reworked facies, are been found. Tooth rows were recovered in recognized. Stone artifacts are found at occlusal position in excavation, suggesting several points in the section at this locality chemical dissolution of the surrounding (Fig. 4); both artifacts and mammalian fossils bone. A small proportion of the fauna is are found within the fine grained sediments comprised of alcelaphine, reduncine, and of unit 4, confined within a zone about 15 bovine bovids of Brain's (1981) size classes cm thick and approximately 1 m below the III and IV. Well over 90% of the mammalian modern surface. Tuff samples from units 6 fossils, however, are the remains of large and B provide bracketing single crystal laser equids. These fossils can be assigned to fusion 39~r/40~rdates for the unit 4 either the extinct species Equus oldowayensis occurrence of approximately 50 Ka and 200 or the extant E. grevyi. Equus grevyi is Ka, respectively (Fig. 4). currently restricted to open, semiarid areas of Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia, though its Surface collection of an area of 360 m2 immediately below the unit 4 exposures range may have been more extensive in the yielded about 5500 stone artifacts, and about past (Kingdon 1979). The Simbi area today is woodland; the presence of these large 2500 artifacts were recovered from excavation of 24 m2 in unit 4. Both surface equids suggests that drier conditions and excavated assemblages are dominated prevailed during the Sangoan occupation. by flaking debris (flakes, flake fragments, Plant macrofossils have also been recovered from the dated airfall tuffs units 6 and B. In and angular waste) -2 3 cm in maximum dimension, indicating that small pieces Unit B, they lie stratified about 35 cm above resulting from normal artifact manufacture fresh in situ Sangoan artifacts (Fig. 4). The have not been winnowed out by fluvial or plant fossils themselves consist of masses of other processes; artifact size distribution closely packed grass and sedge leaves and mimics those of replicated flaking stems. Paleosols occur throughout the Simbi NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

Fig. 1. Map of the Simbi Region.

Fig. 2. Geologic Map of the Simbi Region. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

sequence; as many as five minor paleosols directorship of John Sutton. I thank developed upon superimposed landsurfaces especially Laura Bisohp for faunal were observed in a thickness of < 1 m of identifications, John Kingston for isotopic sediment in excavation in units 4 and 5 (Fig. analyses and field geology, Bonnie Fine- 5). Isotopic analysis of paleosol carbonates Jacobs for study of the plant fossils, and and organic matter, as well as of fossil tooth Alan Deino for Ar/Ar dates. enamel, indicates a consistently open, grassland (C4) environment throughout the References section. The direct evidence of fossil plants, Binge, F. W. inferred habitat preferences for fossil 1962 Geology of the Kericho Area. Nairobi: ungulates, and the isotopic content of Geological Survey of Kenya Report 50. paleosols and fossil teeth are all consistent with a grassland paleohabitat throughout Brain, C. K. the Simbi sequence. The data do not support 1981 Hunters or the Hunted? An Introduction the predictions of Clark (1960,1964a, 1964b, to African Cave Taphonomy. Chicago: 1965,1972,1982,1988)that the Sangoan is a University of Chicago Press. woodland adaptation. Simbi Sangoan extractive technology may thus be seen as an Clark, J. D. adaptation to a habitat not unlike that Human ecology during Pleistocene and known for earlier East African Plio- later times in Africa south of the Pleistocene sites, but the precise function of Sahara. Current Anthropology 1:307-24. the distinctive Sangoan implements remains unknown. It is not known whether the The influence of environment in makers of the Sirnbi Sangoan artifacts were inducing culture change at the archaic Homo sapiens, anatomically modern Kalambo Falls prehistoric site. South Homo sapiens, or perhaps late representatives African Archaeological Bulletin 19:93-101. of Homo erectus, but preliminary findings The Sangoan culture of Equatoria: The described here support the hypothesis that implications of its stone equipment. at Simbi they exploited a local riverine Miscellanea en Hornenage a1 Abate Henri setting within a larger semiarid savanna Breuil. Disputacion Provincial de environment. Further research is needed to Barcelona. Institute de Prehistoria y assess the relation of past climatic shifts to Arcqueologia, Monografias 9:309-25. the appearance of anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Later Pleistocene cultures of Africa. Science 150:83347. Acknowledgements Human behavioral differences in southern Africa during the Late Research at Simbi has been funded by grants Pleistocene. American Anthropologist from the L. S. B. Leakey Foundation, the 73:1211-36. Wenner-Gren Foundation, the National Geographic Society, the Leakey Trust The transition from Lower to Middle (London), the Boise Fund of Oxford Paleolithic in the African continent. In University, and the Mazer Fund of Brandeis Ronen, A. (ed.) The Transition from University. Permission to perform research Lower to Middle Paleolithic and the Origin in Kenya was granted by the Office of the of Modern Man. Oxford: B.A.R. President of the Republic of Kenya. International Series 151:235-56. Institutional affiliation in Kenya is provided by the National Museums of Kenya, through The Middle Stone Age of East Africa the kindness of its directors, past and and the beginnings of regional identity. present, Drs. Richard Leakey and Journal of World Prehisto y 2235-305. Mohammed Isahakia. Much appreciated logistical support was provided by the British Institute in Eastern Africa, under the NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 3. Stone artifacts, Simbi. a, b, c, large bifaces, untrimmed butts; d, pickJchopper; e, end chopper or subradial core; f, radial core; g, single platform core; h, i, casual scrapers on flakes. No. 38, December 1992

Fladrnark, K. R. 1988 The Sangoan and Middle Stone Age 1982 Microdebitage analysis: initial sequence at the Muguruk site, western considerations. Journal of Archaeological Kenya. World Archaeology 19:388-420. Science 9: 205-20. Toth, N. Kingdon, J. 1982 The Stone Technologies of Early Hominids 1979 East African Mammals, Vol. IIIB, Large from Koobi Fora, Kenya: an Experimental Mammals. Chicago: University of Approach. Unpublished Ph.D. Chicago Press. dissertation, Department of Anthro- pology, University of California, McBrearty, S. Berkeley. 1987 Une evaluation du Sangwn: son age, Wayland, E. J., and Smith, R. son environnement et son rapport avec l'origine de l'Homo sapiens. L'Anthro- 1923 Some Primitive Stone Tools from Uganda. pologie 91:1274. Entebbe: Geological Survey of Uganda Occasional Paper 1. NYAME A KUMA No. 38, December 1992

WEST EAST SIMBI

Fig. 4. Geologic sections through the Simbi exposures.

SIMBI 1989 EXCAVATION WEST WALL

bov~dtooth

carbonate nodule

rn S I I N 0 1

Fig. 5. West wall of 1989 excavation, units 4 and 5, Simbi.

40 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

ranging patterns, and general land use? Recent Investigations in These kinds of questions have motivated the Landscape Archaeology at preliminary work undertaken by the authors East Turkana over the past two years in deposits of both the KBS and Okote Members, with the help and cooperation of the National Museums of Michael J. Rogers Kenya, the Koobi Fora Field School, and Department of Anthropology Kenya Wildlife Service. Rutgers University In this paper we report principally on Douglass Campus fieldwork undertaken within the Okote P. 0. Box 270 Member, where one of us has begun further New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0270 detailed studies (Rogers in prep.). During U.S.A. 1991, we surveyed several areas of the Koobi Fora Formation where Okote Member J. W. K. Harris deposits were believed to yield low- to Department of Anthropology intermediate-density archaeological remains Rutgers University in order to get an actual quantitative Douglass Campus estimate of archaeological densities in P. 0. Box 270 different sub-regions. Table 1 reports the New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0270 densities and artifact type frequencies of the USA. samples taken and gives the same information for a sample of the previously excavated sites in the Okote Member (from Harris 1978, Bum et al. 1980, Isaac et al. From previous surveys and excavations, 1981). All the 1991 samples are from the much is already known of the general surface except for FxJj 67, which so far character of the medium to high density includes only three square meters of localities in the Okote Member at East excavation. It is also important to note that Turkana 1.6-1.4 million years ago (Harris the only randomly collected sample is FxJj 1978, Bum et al. 1980). Because of their high 17-18; the other samples were selected non- visibility, these localities on the western face randomly, that is, based on their visibility or of the Karari Escarpment received much of lack thereof. The Area 6 density was the attention, in terms of excavation, of calculated by dividing the number of all archaeologists in the 1970s (see Isaac and fresh artifacts found in a given area by the Harris 1978; Fig. lb). However, we have yet estimated surface area of eroding outcrop. to appreciate fully the character of "Freshness" is a subjective measure of how archaeological occurrences in regions other recently an artifact has eroded from its than the western face of the Karari within encasing sediments; relevant attributes the same time range. In addition, little is include its color and edge sharpness. known of what Isaac and.Harris (1975,1980) characterized as "the scatters" (but see Stem 1991), that is, the low density archaeological Landscape Archaeology- traces between the apparent high-density Surface Sampling anomalies termed "patches," and what most During the summer of 1992 we archaeologists would call "sites." What intensified research in the FxJj 17-18 area exactly are the density and typological since two previously excavated localities, characteristics of "low background," FxJj 17 and FxJj 18IH, lie within the same "intermediate level" (or "mini-sites"), and tuffaceous sandy silt lithofacies (Kaufulu "peak" density archaeological remains 1983, 1987; Harris 1978; personal (cf. Isaac et al. 1981)? Will it be the same in observations) even though they are 300 different areas of a basin-wide region? What meters apart in a straight line and more than are the implications of varying background 800 meters apart along the sinuous outcrop. and "site" densities for interpreting hominid This area, then, lends itself to a landscape habitat preference, artifact transport, NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

-- O :hrker Tuff

FxJj 11-

!corker Tuff fxJj 72

83365 93854 104342 114831 1253 19 135808 neters (Arbitrary Datun at FxJ) 18NS--N1000, E1000)

Fig. 1. Three maps on different scales of the East Turkana region. The cluster of symbols within the 1992 transect of Fig. c represents artifacts. bones, and geological markers between FxJj 181H and 17. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

study of archaeological occurrences region. Interestingly, archaeological traces "between" or "outside of" intermediate and do occur in Areas 103 and 104 in the form of peak density "sites." In addition, since the cutmarked bone (Bunn 1982; personal archaeological horizon within the tuffaceous observation, MJR). This suggests that one sandy silt (i.e., the target bed) is easily might have to include non-lithic data, such traceable, one can hope to compare a surface as the frequency of cutmarked bone, into landscape archaeological record with an archaeological density estimates. How this excavated one. data will be incorporated into analyses is a With these goals in mind, all the artifacts problem that remains to be addressed, identifiable to technological category (e.g., mainly because of the poor and differential flaked piece versus detached piece) that preservation of bone. were encountered on the surface between The difference in surface artifact FxJj 17 and FxJj 18NS were collected. The densities between Areas 6,103,104, and 118 upper boundary of the collection area was on the one hand and Areas 130 and 131 on defined as a caliche (calcium carbonate the other suggests that the "background" block) layer present at both the FxJj 18IH density in one area may not be an accurate ' locality and immediately adjacent to the FxJj estimate of the "background" in another 17 locality, while the lower boundary was area (see Fig. la). The extremely low surface defined by a combination of stratigraphic densities in Areas 6,103,104, and 118 range (sands and gravels immediately underlying from practically nothing to a rough estimate the target bed) and topographic (non- of 0.001 artifacts/m2. However, in Areas 130 sloping area) considerations, so that one and 131 the "background" surface densities could collect the artifacts most relevant to are on the order of 0.07 to 1.0 artifacts/m2 the target bed. The density and (see density values for 17-18 and 17X in technological categories of artifacts from this Table 1 and Stern, 1991). Obviously, these surface collection, labeled FxJj 17X, are also differences have implications for how we listed in Table 1. Many confirmed artifacts interpret localities that have been called were too weathered to identify to a specific "sites" in the past. For example, the technological category. Because of this, we relatively low artifact density at two have listed the locality twice so that one can localities in Area 118, FxJj 64 and a new observe what difference the inclusion or locality discovered in 1991, FxJj 67 (Table 1 exclusion of these extremely weathered and Fig. lb), would be considered close to pieces makes on artifact density. The effect is "background" in Area 130, but are strikingly minimal: 0.07 artifacts/m2 without these anomalous when one considers the scarcity pieces versus 0.09 artifacts/m2 with them. of artifacts in Area 118. Immediately apparent from Table 1 is FxJj 67 is also interesting in that the the variability in artifact density between artifacts are associated almost exclusively samples, ranging from a rough with numerous bone fragments of fish approximation of 0.0002 artifacts/m2 in (mostly Clarias). Only one large mammalian Area 6 to 297 artifacts/m2 at FxJj 18IH. bone was discovered in a limited excavation Although FxJj 18IH is an excavated sample, to ascertain the exact vertical position of the even its surface sample is more dense than archaeological horizon. The archaeological that of Area 6 by a factor of lo5. Survey in material lies in a sandy silt layer with Area 118 revealed a similar scale of artifact calcareous concretions that is immediately density to Area 6 (Fig. la). We encountered overlain by a coarser sand and a volcanic about one artifact every 500 meters of tuff that has yet to be identified or dated. outcrop while surveying in this area. The Future work at this locality will Koobi Fora Ridge (Areas 103 and 104) undoubtedly provide a data base for deposits also provide an interesting comparison with medium density localities comparison with the ultra-low artifact in other areas and paleoenvironments density apparent in Area 6, since no one has within the East Turkana region. discovered a single verified in situ artifact from the Okote Member deposits of this sub- NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Table 1. Stone Densities and Typological Distrubitions. - Sample DE* Area Density O/o FP* O/o BF*

Summer 1991

FxJj 24-surf comb** 25 8.2 23.3 25.3

18GT6a-surf comb 25 2.4 9.8 13.2

17-18 comb 200 0.5 7.7 8.7

Area 6 comb 23,600 0.0002 0.0 60.0

FxJj 67-total dfp? 48 0.7 20.6 29.4

Summer 1992

17X, w/o WP** comb 11,770 0.07 22.6 24.7

17X, w/ WP comb 11,770 0.09 22.6 24.7

FxJj 17A fp 3 70.3 4.7 16.1 FxJj l7l3 fp 4 43.8 4.0 17.1 FxJj 17C fp 3 0 na na Previously Excavated FxJj 17 fp/l? 21 12.9 0.4 12.6

FxJj 18 IHS dfp 11 297.5 0.5 17.3 FxJj 64 fp 4C 1.1 0.0 -26.7

* DE = depositional environment (from Kaufulu, 1987 and Hams, 1978); fp=floodplain, dfp = distal floodplain, 1= levee, ch = channel FP = flaked pieces (cores, core fragments, and flakes that have been retouched. WF = whole flakes BF = broken flakes; AF = angular fragments Percentages do not add up to 100.0% due to rounding and exclusion of pounded pieces. # Stones = # artifacts + # unmodified pieces; Area is in square meters; Density = # Stones/Area. ** WP = extremely weathered pieces that cannot be identified to type; comb = a combination of several depositional environments. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Excavations face of the Karari Ridge at East Turkana. Indeed, about the same number of surface As a complement to the FxJj 1% surface artifacts were found at both FxJj 17A and collection, we began an excavated landscape FxJj 17C, but their excavated densities were project in the summer of 1992 by excavating vastly different (70.3 vs. 0.0 artifacts/m2). three randomly-placed test pits within the This implies that the tripartite density same tuffaceous sandy silt lithofacies that classification system devised by Isaac et al. encases FxJj 17 and FxJj 18IH. Labeled FxJj (1981) will probably have to be revised in 17A, B, and C, these test pits were placed light of the excavated landscape record. six, 142, and 292 meters, respectively, along the sinuous outcrop southbf FxJj -17. ~h;! artifact densities and typological Surface vs. Excavated Samples distributions are presented in Table 1. Since The differences between a surface the surface densities at FxJj 17A, 8, and C landscape and an excavated one deserve were much less than the original surface special mention. Besides the obvious density at FxJj 17, we expected to encounter differences in artifact and faunal densities excavated densities similar to or less than mentioned above, there are other that of FxJj 17. Surprisingly, two of the test shortcomings of the surface record. For pits (17A and 17B) revealed substantially example, the artifact typological higher artifact densities-more than triple characteristics of a surface and sub-surface the density at FxJj 17, and up to 1000 times sample will be different, presumably due to greater than the average surface density. The size differences. This is apparent from the third test pit was completely sterile. localities listed in Table 1: the surface The faunal remains found at FxJj 17A samples have much higher percentages of and B also proved to be very interesting, flaked pieces, which probably reflects the especially in view of their density and preferential winnowing of smaller flakes paleohabitat implications. While FxJj 17X, and angular fragments due to gravity and the 11,770 m2 surface collection, yielded water action on an erosional surface. In bone and tooth fragments from a minimum addition, differential weathering and of eight individual animals representing winnowing on the surface can significantly eight different taxa, the same number of affect lithic technological analyses. The individuals and taxa came out of the 3 m2 excavated localities 17A and B have twice excavation at FxJj 17A. The taxa identified at the percentage of Toth Type VI whole flakes FxJj 17A and B represent mostly wet as the surface collection, 17X. An analysis of microhabitats-for example, hippo, turtle, reduction stages involving surface flakes, reduncine bovid, Thryonomys sp. (cane rat), therefore, may be biased towards earlier and fish-suggesting that a stream channel stages of reduction. Finally, certain types of existed nearby. This paleo-channel is spatial analyses, such as artifact refitting, probably the one identified by Harris (1978) cannot hope to provide much information and Kaufulu (1983) that flowed south past when dealing with a surface sample, but can FxJj 17 and then through FxJj 18GS and FxJj be important, and feasible, in excavated 16, two kilometers to the south (Fig. lc). samples. For example, 6.5% of the artifacts at These results, though extremely FxJj 17B conjoined, while only 2% conjoined preliminary, seem to indicate that (1) artifact at FxJj 17A. This type of information is discard was concentrated at certain places important for discerning patterns of artifact on the landscape 1.5 million years ago, at transport and reduction at different some places more than others, even within localities. the same depositional environment, (2) the already excavated "sites" at East Turkana Conclusions are not representative of the artifact What are the reasons for different manufacture, use, and discard behaviors "background" densities in different areas of over the paleolandscape, and (3) the surface archaeological (and paleontological) record East Turkana? What do extreme fluctuations can be misleading, at least on the western in archaeological densities along a NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

continuous target bed mean behaviorally? Bibliography Do "mini-sites" in high density areas Bunn, H. T. resemble those in low density areas-why or why not? Moreover, how do these sets of 1982 Meat-Eating and Human Evolution: archaeological traces in the Okote Member Studies on the Diet and Subsistence compare to those found in the KBS Member? Patterns of Plio-Pleistocene Hominids of Preliminary indications are that the more East Africa. Unpublished Ph.D. diffuse low density scatters are less dissertation, Department of frequently apparent in KBS Member Anthropology, University of California, deposits than those in the Okote Member. Berkeley. This may indicate that we are seeing different behavioral patterns of hominid Bunn, H. T., Harris, J. W. K., Isaac, G. L., Kaufulu, artifact discard over ancient landscapes at Z., Kroll, E., Schick, K., Toth, N., and different time periods (Harris and Capaldo Behrensmeyer A. K. in press). Undoubtedly there may be 1980 FxJj50: an Early Pleistocene site in numerous answers to questions concerning northern Kenya. World Archaeology 12: differential archaeological densities across 109-36. space, including but not limited to: (1)proximity to raw material sources (better Feibel, C. sources in stream beds and near the basin 1988 Paleoenvironments of the Koobi Fora margin), (2) an area's depositional history, Formation, Turkana Basin, Northern and (3) preferential use and discard of stone Kenya. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, implements in different areas. A University of Utah. continuation of the excavation program on apparently intermediate density occur- Harris, J. W. K. rences, on a landscape scale and in different 1978 The Karari Industry: Its Place in African subregions of East Turkana, will help to sort Prehistory. Unpublished Ph.D. disser- out these possibilities. If one can rule out the tation, Department of Anthropology, first two, then future excavations will help University of California, Berkeley. in identifying why some areas were preferred and which activities took place at Hams, J. W. K., and Capaldo, S. D. certain places on a paleolandscape. As presented here, we have tried to start this in press The earliest stone tools. In J. Chavaillon enterprise by quantifying the range of (ed.), The Use of the Tool in Primates. archaeological densities present in both Oxford: Oxford University Press. surface and excavated samples at East Turkana in the hope that future Isaac, G. L. investigations from this baseline will help us 1981 Stone Age visiting cards: Approaches understand early horninid land use. to the study of early land use patterns. In Hodder, I., Isaac, G. L., and Acknowledgements Hammond, N. (eds.), Patterns of the Past. Cambridge: Cambridge We would like to thank Dr. R. E. F. University Press, pp. 131-55. Leakey and the Kenya Wildlife Service, Dr. M. Isahakia, Dr. H. Roche and the National Isaac, G. L., and Hams, J. W. K. Museums of Kenya, Dr. H. V. Merrick, Dr. 1975 The scatters between the patches. Paper C. S. Feibel and the Koobi Fora Field School, presented at the Kroeber and John Kimengich and Frederick Kyalo Anthropological Society Annual for their support and help with the research. Meetings, Berkeley. Financial assistance was given by the L. S. B. Leakey Foundation, the Boise Fund, the Holt 1978 Chapter 4: Archaeology. In Koobi Fora Family Foundation and Rutgers University Research Project, Vol. 1. Oxford: Graduate School. Clarendon Press. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

1980 A method for determining the characteristics of artefacts between sites in the Upper Member of the Koobi Fora Formation, East Lake Turkana. Proceedings of the Eighth Pan-African The Middle Senegal Valley Congress on Prehistory and Quaternary Project: Preliminary Results Studies, Nairobi, 1977, pp. 19-22. from the 1990-91 Isaac, G. L., Harris, J. W. K., and Marshall, F. Field Season 1981 Small is informative: The application of the study of mini-sites and least effort Susan Keech Mclntosh criteria in the interpretation of the Department of Anthropology Early Pleistocene archaeological record Rice University at Koobi Fora, Kenya. In Lns Industrias Houston, 7X 77251 mas Antiquas. XCongresso, Union Inter- U.S.A. national de CienciasPrehistoricas y Protohistoricas, MexicoCity, pp. 101-19. Roderick J. Mclntosh Kaufulu, Z. Department of Anthropology Rice University 1983 The Geological History of Some Early Houston, 7X 77251 Archaeological Sites in Kenya, Malawi and U.S.A. Tanzania: Microstratigraphy, Site Formation, and Interpretation. Un- published Ph.D. dissertation, Univer- Hamady Bocoum sity of California, Berkeley. IFAN, Universitk de Dakar-Ch. A. Diop Dakar Kaufulu, Z. Senegal 1987 Formation and preservation of some Earlier Stone Age sites at Koobi Fora, northern Kenya. The South African From November 1990 to May 1991, we Archaeological Bulletin 42 (145): 23-33. carried out excavations and intensive site survey on the floodplain of the Middle Rogers, M. J. Senegal Valley (Fig. 1) with the goal of in prep.An lntensive Study of Low and understanding the nature and chronology of lntermediate Density Archaeological human settlement in the central sector of the Occurrences in the Okote Member at East region. Prior work in the Middle Senegal Turkana, Kenya. Unpublished Ph.D. Valley (MSV) indicated that floodplain dissertation, Rutgers University. settlement was exclusively Iron Age in date and comprised a large number of highly Stem, N. visible habitation mounds, extensive flat sherd scatters and iron smelting sites with 1991 The Scatter-Between-the-Patches: A Study furnace bottoms and abundant slag (Martin of Early Hominid Land Use Patterns in the and Becker 1974,1981,1984; Thilmans 1987; Turkana Basin, Kenya. Unpublished Van Chi 1977). At various points in the past Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University. 35 years, either in the course of earthmoving projects or excavation, stunning finds of gold, copper-alloy and silver objects have been made, most notably at Podor and Sincu Bara (Chavane 1976, Thilmans 1977, Thilmans and Ravis 1980). These, together with historical references in the eleventh and twelfth centuries to the early empires or kingdoms of Takrur and Silla along the NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

MSV, prompted speculation and ological sites are under active threat of controversy over which of the known destruction in the course of irrigation archaeological sites might correspond to projects. Fieldwork began with excavation at these polities (Thilmans and Ravis 1980:174; the site of Cubalel, which is in reality a Chavane 1985:169-71). In fact, however, the complex of eight occupation mounds of absence of reliable basic data relevant to varying heights scattered over a 1 lun2 area chronology and culture history rendered all near the present-day town of Cubalel. The attempts at higher-level interpretations, Senegal River is actively cutting through the including those dealing with political two most easterly mounds which are on the organization, quite premature. The MSV bank of an incutting meander. Excavation Archaeological Project was designed to units measuring 3 x 4 m were sunk into 4 of provide these basic data as well as to the 8 Cubalel mounds that had been address processual questions concerning the identified prior to the 1989 field season economic, social and political development (identified with numbers between C1 and of the MSV during the Iron Age as it is C8 in Fig. 2). Additionally, a large unit reflected within a designated study region. measuring 10 x 6 meters was sunk into the The two basic aspects of the regional summit of the highest mound, C3. Later, approach adopted in the project are: three 3 x 4 m units were sunk into the 10 ha controlled excavation at deeply stratified mound of Siour. Excavation followed sites to establish baseline data on change natural stratigraphy, thus minimizing the through time in material culture, chance for admixture of non- subsistence, technology, trade activity and contemporaneous deposits. Basic to our environment; and intensive regional survey approach was the recovery of as many to ascertain the full range of sites present macroremains as possible, which was with respect to location, size, surface insured by screening all deposits through 3 features, and chronology. This work was mm mesh. All artifacts and faunal material accomplished under our joint direction, with were recovered and studied. The resulting the able assistance of four matrise students faunal sample exceeded 87 kg. This large from the University of Dakar History faunal sample offers possibilities to Kevin Department, three site supervisors from the MacDonald and Rachel Hutton Macdonald U.S. and England, a paleoethnobotanist, and (n.d.), who are currently analyzing this 20-25 local workers. Funding was provided material, to examine archaeozoological by the National Science Foundation, the issues such as herd structure and butchery National Geographic Society, and the practice. Systematic flotation was carried out Fulbright Award program. on 20 liter samples from all levels. In addition, the contents of the numerous ash- The Research filled pits encountered in the deposits were floated in their entirety. Notable aspects of The particular sector of the MSV that we the Cubalel deposits included an chose to investigate (Fig. 1) offered several extraordinarily high incidence of burned advantages in view of our interest in the features, including ash pits, ash and charcoal emergence of complex society and regional lenses, and reddened earth. This provided a polities: (1) It included several of the largest staggering number (over 150) of charcoal mound sites known from the entire MSV, samples for radiocarbon analysis, some including Cubalel and Siour, where the 5m+ weighing up to 700 g. It also made the site height of the mounds promised a lengthy particularly suited for archaeomagnetic occupation sequence; (2) it contained a high sampling of the reddened earth, in an density of known sites; (3) it encompasses attempt to establish a preliminary secular some of the most productive agricultural varation curve for the western Sahel land in the MSV floodplain, (4) it is in the (Wolfman 1984). Dan Wolfman, of the strategic central region of the MSV where Museum of New Mexico in Santa Fe and an polities seeking to control the wider MSV expert on archaeomagnetic analysis, came have frequently placed their capitals out to the field in January to take samples historically. (5) It is a sector where archae- and to train Senegalese matrise student NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 2. Map of excavated sites within the 1990-91 study area.

Ibrahima Thiaw in the exacting sample ceramic phases, with two additional collection procedure. Over 70 samples were subphases, were recognized. Identification ultimately collected, the majority of them of these ceramic phases allows us to from the large unit at mound C3, where understand the relative chronology of the sterile soil was encountered at almost 6 m deposits in the different excavation units. depth. A signrficant number of samples also Subsequently, 19 radiocarbon dates have came from Sioure, where deposits also been obtained that anchor the ceramic exceeded 5 m depth. With 24 samples sequence in absolute time (Fig. 3). The currently analysed, a preliminary curve for compelling congruence of the independently the first millenium A.D. has begun to take derived ceramic sequence and the shape. radiocarbon chronology is apparent. One of the major goals of the Phase LA. 0-250 A.D. (Fig. 4). This was excavations was to gain an understanding of the earliest occupation encountered during change in material culture through time in excavation.or survey. It is characterised by the study region. This included establish- simple open' and closed bowls and jars ment of a ceramic chronology as well as usually decorated with twisted and rolled identifying shifts in the presence, style and twine, also by jars with deeply everted, dark technology of other categories of material red slipped and burnished rims. These three culture, such as metals, imported materials, forms together comprise 70% of the total shell and stone. Analysis of the largest ceramic assemblage. Slag and iron are category of material culture represented- present but rare. pottery-was completed shortly after Phase IB. 250400 A.D. (Fig. 4). Simple fieldwork ended for all of the more than open and closed vessels with twisted and 30,000 sherds recovered (S. K. McIntosh rolled twine decoration, and jars with 1991). This analysis demonstrated that a deeply angled everted rims continue to number of formal pottery variables were dominate the assemblage. But abruptly, reliably time sensitive. Among these were these earlier forms are abundantly decorated rim form and surface decoration. Based on with plastic motifs, including shallow the recurrent patterns of change identified in smooth channels near the lip, clay pastille all the different excavation units, three major appliques, and wavy comb dragging. No. 38, December1992

CALIBRATED 14 C DATES (2~)FROM C4.BALEL AND SlOURE BY CERAMIC PHASE AND STRATIGRAPHIC ORDER

PHASE I PHASE I1 PHASE Ill

Fig. 3. Calibrated 14 C dates from Cubalel and Siour ordered stratigraphically by ceramic phase. Calibrated ranges are given to 20. Arrows indicate samples taken from stratigraphically related contexts, such that outlying areas of the calibrated ranges can be eliminated. For example, sample 78 (Phase IIIA) overlay sample 89, so that part of 78's calibrated range that is earlier than the range of sample 89 has been cross-hatched to indicate that the true date of sample 78 is unlikely to fall'within that area. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Relative frequencies of slag and iron peak in homogeneous, with little intra-assemblage the major Cubalel excavation unit. variability, within each phase. The pottery Phase 11 (Fig. 5). 400-600 A.D. In Phase assemblage for each phase consists of two or 11, the dominance of simple open and closed three basic rim forms and shows a restricted bowls, plus everted rim jars continues, but range of stylistic or functional variety. deeply everted forms are replaced by more Studies of the paste and temper indicate shallowly everted forms with long lips. technological homogeneity as well (Sall Shallow, flat channelling and wavy dragged 1991). The same lack of variability is evident comb also occur. in other aspects of the material culture: the same categories of artifacts are present in Phase IIIA (Fig. 6). 600-800 A.D. The low frequencies throughout the sequence: appearance in sigruflcant numbers of short stone hammerstones, grindingstones and collared rims representing a major new beads, and shell beads. An exception is net mode for grasping the pots characterizes weights, which occur in abundance in Phase Phase 111. Plastic decoration becomes IA and then virtually disappear by the extremely rare except for punctate applied middle of the first millennium. Burnt traces near the collar, and short stroke, zizag of wattle-impressed daub are present incision on the neck of vessels with very throughout the assemblage, suggesting a slightly everted short rims. Partway through largely invariant architectural technology. the phase, a new class of much longer collars Luxury or elite goods appear not to exist, appears, (>2 cm from the lip of the vessel), and there are no grave goods associated and these are diagnostic for the subphase B, with any of the four adult burials excavated. dated 800-950 A.D. Iron is the only metal present until the very Thus, the first millennium virtually in its end of Phase IIIB, which produced three entirety is represented in the excavated copper artifacts from a single house context. deposits. Another assemblage can be found Iron was fashioned into points, blades, on the surface of some of the excavated harpoons and fishhooks, without any mounds, mixed with Phase IIIB, but clearly apparent shift in functional repertoire, stratified above it. This pottery is slipped throughout the first millennium. The and frequently cordoned and channelled amount of iron and slag present in different and resembles the pottery reported by units during various phases does show Thilrnans and Ravise (1980) from excavation some potentially interesting variation, at Sincu Bara and by Chavame (1985) at however, with peaks at the Cubalel sites in Ogo, some 20 km from Sincu Bara. We refer phases IB and 11. Courtesy of the to this channelled assemblage as Phase IV MacDonalds (MacDonald and MacDonald (Fig. 7), and suggest that it was produced n.d.), we can say that mammals and fish are during the first half of the second the most important faunal groups millennium, a conclusion supported by represented throughout the sequence. The three Ogo radiocarbon dates between the mammalian fauna is dominated by late tenth and late twelfth century A.D. ovicapines throughout, although apparently (Chavane 1985: 90-91). One of the most humpless domestic cattle were also present, salient aspects of the Phase IV assemblage along with wild bovids. Camel is present at wherever it is found is the occurrence within Siour6 in Phase IB, i.e., between 250-400 it of forms (cordonned and channelled A.D. Domestic dog is frequent in some units. vessels) and decorative motifs (oculi and Unfortunately, no preliminary information lozenges) that appear to copy those at on the paleoethnobotanical analyses is yet Tegdaoust, the Mauritanian site presumed available. Overall, the excavated material to be the trade entrepot of Awdaghost signals a conservative, relatively homo- described by al-Bakri in the eleventh century geneous small-scale society practicing a (Devisse and Robert Chaleix 1983, Robert- mixed economy of herding, fishing, Chaleix 1989, Vanacker 1979). occasional hunting and most likely farming. The basic conclusions that we draw at There is thus far no indication of long- this point from the excavated material are distance or interregional exchange prior to these: First, material culture is remarkably c. 900 A.D. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

PHASE I B

Fig. 4. Common and characteristic pottery forms and decorative motifs, Central MSV Phase IA (top 3 rows) and IB (0-400 A.D.). NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

PHASE U

Fig. 5. Common and characteristic pottery forms and motifs, Central MSV Phase II (400-600 A.D.). NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 6. Common and characteristic pottery forms and motifs, Central MSV Phase Ill (600-950 A.D.I. The rims with low collars at the bottom of the page are diagnostic of the B subphase. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 7. Characteristic pottery forms and motifs of Central MSV Phase IV (950-1 500 A.D.), as determined from surface collections and observations.

5 6 No. 38, December 1992

This picture of first millennium MSV production-related artifacts (tuyeres, cru- society is also supported by the results of the cibles, casting molds, stone anvils, spindle intensive survey conducted from January to whorls, net weights, fishooks, pottery late April on 100% of the landforms wasters). Comparable coverage and available for permanent settlement in the intensity of observation at all sites was study area. Within the floodplain basin, assured by walking parallel transects two these landforms are levees above 10 m meters apart through each quadrant. Site above mean sea level (msl); outside the investigation concluded with collection of a floodplain basin, they are uplands > 12 m judgment sample of diagnostic pottery from above msl. The extreme dryness of 1989-90, the entire site surface and a random sample stemming from a lack of rain and the of all sherds within a 4 m2 area in each retention of all floodwaters upriver behind quadrant. These pottery samples permitted the newly completred Manantali Dam, made the surface assemblages to be placed within for ease of movement across the floodplain the ceramic sequence. and for the best archaeological visibility in The preliminary results of the survey years. This helped account for the large confirm the general picture provided by number of new sites we were able to find, excavation: a small scale society that compared to Martin and Becker's earlier underwent little change throughout the first inventory in the late 1960s, which stuck millennium. Site distribution changed fairly close to the two main river roads minimally during this time. Sites from all (Fig. 8). Survey was conducted by teams of 3 phases occur scattered along the high levees. or 4 individuals walking 50 m apart over the In Phase ID, a clustering of settlements along surface of levees 10 m or higher above msl. the Cubalel marigot system suggests that Four classes of site were identified: perhaps some enhancement of this marigot (1) extremely dense accumulations of environment in the later half of the first cultural material in mounded settlement millennium encouraged higher population sites up to 7 m high; (2) metallurgical sites densities locally. There is little evidence that with numerous furnaces and more these populations became more hier- significant amounts of other cultural archically organized, however. Site size material-the largest of these had >I000 distributions for both the group of sites furnaces; (3) extensive surface scatters of around Cubalel and that around Siour6 do sherds and slag, called plages by Senegalese not change from Phase I to Phase ID, while archaeologists, which may be secondarily significant changes occur in Phase IV deposited material; (4) isolated, small (Fig. 9), concomitant with evidence of trade metallurgical sites with a very few furnace and contact with groups bringing copper, bottoms and very little other cultural spinning technology, glass, and other exotics material on the surface. This final class of into the region. That some of these site was briefly noted, described and plotted influences flowed from Tegdaoust is highly on the regional map, but not investigated likely. any further. For the first three site The evidence suggests that MSV categories, surface examination consisted of societies underwent a major and extremely measurement of site dimensions, and rapid transformation in scale and recording of information on vegetation, complexity between the end of Phase 111, location and proximity of water, dated to the early tenth century, and the topographic situation, current usage of or period of the Takrur Empire, which was threat to site. The site was then divided historically attested just over 100 years later. roughly into quadrants, each of which was This conclusion is greatly at odds with thoroughly surface walked to record earlier interpretations of MSV sites by Guy number and position of surface features Thilmans (Thilmans and Ravisk 1980), who (house foundations, burnt floors, iron hypothesized that Cubalel type pottery furnaces, slag concentrations) and certain corresponded to the Takrur Empire and classes of artifacts, including prestige goods Sincu Bara type pottery to a long lived (marine shell, stone beads and bracelets, civilisation dating from the fifth to eleventh glass, copper, enamelled pottery) and NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

. .': \OM LEVEE ,, ' ROAD

0 INVENTORIED SlTE

MOUND SITE

A SHALLOW SlTE

Fig. 8. Map of the MSV Project Study Region, showing sites previously inventbried by Martin and Becker (open squares) and sites discovered during the 1990-91 survey (black). NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 I2 I3 I4 IS 16 17 IX OBSERVATIONS - PHASE 1 PHASE111 - MIASE I\'

I 2 3 4 5 6' 7 X I 10 OBSERVATIONS

Fig. 9. Site size distributions for sites around Cubalel (top) and Siour6 (bottom), showing that larger settlements exceeding 10 hectares in area emerge for the first time in Phase IV. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

centuries A.D. and perhaps corresponding at Geographic Society, and a Fulbright the end to the state of Silla mentioned by Ibn research/teaching award to R. J. McIntosh. Hawkal. The abundant data from Cubalel (including the results of independent References excavations by Thiam [1991]) and the recent results of the MSV project's excavations at Chavane, B. Sincu Bara, conducted by Hamady Bocoum 1976 Le site protohistorique de Sare Tioffi in November 1991, make it clear that these (Sinkgal-Region du Fleuve). Mem. de earlier interpretations can no longer be Maitrise, Universite de Dakar, sustained. Departement #Histoire. 1985 Villages de I'ancien Tekrour. Paris: Acknowledgements fiditions Karthala. Many people contributed to the success of the 1990-91 MSV Project, and we are Devise, J. and D. Robert-Chaleix (eds.) pleased to acknowledge them here. The 1983 Tegdaoust III: Campagnes 1960/65: strength of commitment to the project Enqu2tes &&ales. Nouakchott: Institut shown by Massaba Lame, director of the Mauritanien de la Recherche Musee de 1'IFAN and head of the scientifique. Departement de Prehistoire et Protohistoire at the Universitk de Dakar-Ch A. Diop, was MacDonald, K. C., and MacDonald, R. H. primarily responsible for its completion on n.d. Preliminary Report on the Faunal Remains schedule. Many forces conspired to derail from the 1990 Season at the Sites of the project at various moments, but Cubale1 and SiourC (Senegal). Massamba Lame's conviction strengthened us all and made it possible to move forward. Martin, V., and Becker, Ch. The support of Abdoulaye Bara Diop, 1974 director of IFAN, was also central to the Vestiges protohistoriques et occupation humaine au Senegal. Annales de success of the project. Charles Becker shared 403-29. his extensive knowledge of the MSV sites Demographit! Historique with us, as well as his friendship, his 1981 Atlas de Protohistoire SCnCgambienne. collegiality, and his personal library. His Paris-Kaolak: CNRS. support of the project was also invaluable to its ultimate completion. Andre L6ricollais 1984 lnventaire des Sites Protohistoriques du kindly lent surveying equipment from Shigal. Kaolak: CNRS. ORSTOM and shared his unsurpassed expertise on the human geography of the McIntosh, S. K. MSV. Annie Ravis6 provided invaluagle 1991 Analysis of the Cubalel Pottery insights into MSV protohistory and collegial Assemblage. Preliminary report to the encouragement. Ibnou Diagne, of the National Science Foundation. History Department at the University of Dakar, made it possible for several students Robert-Chaleix, D. to work with us at Cubalel during the 1989 academic year and complete their memoires Tegdaoust V: Une concession midievale h de maitrise on topics related to the project. Tegdaoust: Implantation, ~volutiond'une Unite dlHabitation. Paris: fiditions To these students, I. Thiaw, M. Sall, N. S. Gueye, and A. Deme, plus the other Recherche sur les Civilisations. members of our field crew, IFAN technician I. Ndiaye, K. Stoker, M. A. Muray, G. Rees, Sall, M. and S. Gabler, we extend our thanks and 1991 Etude de la Technologic CCramique de gratitude for your hard work and good Cubalel. Mem. de Maitrise, Universite humor under extremely difficult field de DakarCh. A. Diop. conditions. This research was funded by the National Science Foundation, the National NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Thiam, M. Khartoum Province with the following 1991 La CCramique au Sh6gal: Arch6ologie et scientific programme: Histoire. These de Doctorat, Universite 1. continuation of the systematic test de Paris I. excavations in the Mesolithic settlements along the gravel terrace east Thilmans, G. of the Nile; 1977 Sur les objets de parure trouves a 2. resumption of excavations in the Podor (Senegal) en 1958. Bull. de I'IFAN Neolithic, Meroitic, and Christian 39, ser. B: 669-89. cemetery at Geili; 1987 Recensement Critique des Sites 3. excavation of a late Meroitic tumulus in Protohistoriques de la Rive Gauche du the northern part of the concession area; Senegal. Dakar (roneo). 4. continuation of the comparative analysis of pastoral populations in the Ahamda Thilmans, G. and A. Ravis area, east of the Nile. 1980 Protohistoire du SenegalSintiou-Bara In order to fulfill such requirements a et Les Sites du Fleuve. Memoires de field campaign longer than usual was 1'I.F.A.N. ,no. 91. Dakar: IFAN. carried out (from October 28 to January 9, 1992) and a larger team of scientific and Van Chi, R. (ed). technical experts was involved, including 1977 Atlas National du StWgal. Paris: IGN. prehistoric and Meroitic archaeologists, physical anthropologists, a draftsman, a Vanacker, C. topographer, a photographer, and a restorer. In addition, a systematic palaeobotanical 1979 Tegdaoust 11: Fouille d'un Quartier analysis of prehistoric pottery was carried Artisinal. Nouakchott: Memoires de on by Dr. Anwar el Magid from the I'htitute Mauritanien de la Recherche Department of Archaeology of the Sci~tifique. University of Khartoum. The National Board for Antiquities and Museums of the Sudan Wolfman, D. provided most appreciated assistance, 1984 Geomagnetic dating methods in sending officers who cooperated with the archaeology. In Schiffer, M. (ed.) Mission in fieldwork, general organization, Advances in Archeological Method and and restoration of archaeological materials. The following investigations were carried out: 1. The prehistoric settlement pattern with (a) Mesolithic populations settled on the ancient river banks and (b) Neolithic groups less permanently scattered in the flood plain, which was recognized in the The University of Rome southern part of the concession area, Prehistoric Mission at had been only postulated for the Geili El Geili (Khartoum) area and needed to be tested by extending the programme of soundings northwards, to the gravel terrace east of Isabella Caneva the Geili cemetery. Seven new Via E. Pasquali 38 soundings were opened in the 00167 Rome, Italy northernmost site of the concession, Geili Sharq. The site is located 1 krn east of the Neolithic settlement at el Geili, on The 1991 field campaign of the "Italian the gravel ridge which borders the Mission for Prehistoric Research in Egypt narrow flood plain in this area. The and the Sudan" was carried out in Mesolithic deposits were preserved only NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

below the late Meroitic burial tumuli, to be present at Geili, where all the pits and yielded an assemblage of pottery were dug from the present surface. and lithic material belonging to the A number of elongated burials in "wavy line" culture. narrow, east-west oriented pits should 2. The resumption of excavations at el probably be considered of Christian age. Geili, a site already excavated during Their characteristics confirm the the 1970s, followed the suggestions typology observed in the previous made in the final excavation report for excavations. 1988. This was especially the case as 3. As in the case of the Mesolithic and regards the analysis of human bones, Neolithic settlement patterns, which needed to be applied to a larger assumptions had been made about the population sample for the different burial tumuli bordering the ancient periods represented in the cemetery. course of the Nile in the northern part of Moreover, the typological study of the the concession area. One such tumulus grave shafts and goods could be was completely dismantled and improved through more systematic excavated this year in the site of Geili characterization. A total of 49 new Sharq, east of el Geili. The access to the graves were discovered and grave was through a short ramp sloping documented in the 268 square meters from east to west down to the chamber. excavated this year. This had been originally closed with The Neolithic graves were, as expected, wooden posts plastered with compacted very shallow, often disturbed or clay. The same technique was used to mutilated by digging later pits. The cover the upper part of the grave, below skeletons were always in very bad the tumulus. condition. Concentrations of potsherds The grave had been plundered but four belonging to the same pot suggested complete pots were still in situ in the that pottery must have been part of the chamber, as well as a group of 24 iron goods, but unfortunately no entire pots arrow heads. Both the grave goods and were found associated with the graves the shape, orientation, and size of the excavated this year. The only object grave, are indistinguishable from those found in situ was a stone disk mace- discovered in the southern part of the head in a grave which contained also Geili region and dated to the third lumps of malachite. Both finds, new at century A.D. Geili, are common in the Neolithic 4. A project of ethnological investigations cemetery of Kadada, in Shendi province. among the pastoral populations of the The largest part of the graves excavated Butana started in 1987, in order to in 1991 belong to the Meroitic identify traits deserving comparative occupation of the area. Many of these analysis in prehistoric pastoral contexts graves were disturbed by others (technology, diet, seasonal cycles, social belonging to the same cultural entity. structure, etc.). In 1991, beside a This seems to confirm the earlier preliminary investigation of pottery and suggestion of a prolonged Meroitic textile technology, the problems occupation, which probably extends connected with the construction and from the third century B.C. to the third- maintenance of a water reservoir (hafir) fourth century A.D. The shape of the and with access to water reserves were grave shafts and the associated objects analysed among the pastoral tribes of show some variation which could be the southern Butana. interpreted either in chronological or in social terms. One grave had the same shape and orientation of the late Meroitic graves which are concentrated on the gravel terrace, covered with earth tumuli. No such tumuli, however, seem NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

management and protection of this region's University of Khartoum archaeological heritage. However, practical Mahas Survey, Nubia: considerations have concentrated our efforts 1990-91 Field Seasons in those areas close to the Nile which are presently most threatened by the expansion of settlement and agriculture, and no Ali Osman Mohammed Salih systematic work has as yet been possible in Department of Archaeology the desert hinterlands east and west of the University of Khartoum river. P. 0 . Box 32 1 Khartoum During the course of the initial survey Sudan we have been able to identify and select a small number of sites for more detailed David N. Edwards studies. Our special research interests fall St.John 's College into two main areas: (1) the history and Cambridge CB2 7 TP cultural heritage of the Mahas Nubians and England (2) the long-term history of the Third Cataract as a cultural and political frontier. Included within these areas of interest are: The University of Khartoum Mahas 1. the late and post-medieval periods, the Survey has now completed two field seasons transition to Islam and the development within the Mahas region of Sudanese Nubia, of the Mahas "kingdom" in the an area which until now has remained borderlands between Funj Sudan and largely unexplored archaeologically. This the Ottoman Empire. region extends over some 140 km of the Nile 2. Meroitic and post-Meroitic settlement, valley, from Hannek-Tombos in the south to and the development of the frontier Soleb-Wawa in the north. Our initial survey between the medieval, latterly licenses, issued in 1990 and 1991, have Christianised kingdoms of Nobatia and included the area from Tombos as far north Makuria. as Delgo. During 1990, the project undertook the During 1990 the project was supported survey of the west bank of the Third by fieldwork grants from the University of Cataract zone, a rugged and generally Khartoum and most importantly by the inhospitable area between Hannek and Mahas Cooperative Union. Their financial Kajbar, a distance of some 53 km. In 1991, and logistical support proved invaluable to we moved to the east bank, and worked the project. It is to be hoped that northwards from Abu Fatima-Tombos. community-based support for projects such Plans to complete the survey on both banks as ours will increase in the future. as far north as Delgo were not achieved, Additional funding was received from the although most of the cataract zone was University of Newcastle upon Tyne and the completed and a preliminary reconnaissance Society of Antiquaries of London, and was made along the east bank to Delgo and during 1991, from St. John's College and the on the west bank at Sesi. Some further work Mulvey Fund, University of Cambridge. will be required north of the cataract and on The project has so far concentrated on a the many islands of the cataract area, relatively intensive survey of the region and especially Simit and Arduan. was planned to be completed within 4-5 During the two seasons, 192 sites or loci seasons. The first objective of this survey is have been registered (Fig. I), and a further to provide an adequate sites and 33 sites have been provisionally identified monuments inventory for the region and within other areas of the Mahas. While our establish the outline of its settlement history. surveying was less intensive than, for Through this work, it is hoped to make a example, that of the Franco-Sudanese survey useful addition to the national of the Dal area just to the north in the 1970s archaeological records and facilitate the (Vila 1975), our results are encouraging. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

Broken down by period, the inventory of following a preliminary inspection, may best sites is as follows: be interpreted as a water-harvesting system for wadi agriculture. Neolithic - PreKerma Kerma A cluster of New Kingdom and Napatan Pharaonic sites has been found close to Tombos on both the east and west banks. Testing of a Meroitic small cemetery close to the Tombos granite Post-Meroitic (X-Gp) quarries revealed a large, although heavily Medieval Christian disturbed, late eighteenth dynasty tomb. Islamic Preliminary analysis of the finds indicates Rock Drawings an unusually richly furnished tomb with Uncertain multiple burials for which no good parallel Only a few comments may be added is known so far south in Nubia. Surface here concerning some of the more sherds also show Napatan activity in the interesting sites or groups of sites. As might cemetery area. On the nearby Dabaki island, be expected within this relatively marginal a large but poorly preserved mudbrick area, settlement has been relatively sparse fortification would also appear to date back and few sites are of special significance. to the New Kingdom. Climatic deterioration over the last three Within the cataract zone itself, only a millenia has increasingly restricted handful of further sites have been found settlement to the immediate vicinity of the dating to the Pharaonic, Meroitic or post- river and our experience within the cataract Meroitic periods. However, just north of the zone indicates a pattern of settlement very cataract on the east bank, a large Meroitic similar to that found in the more arid and settlement and cemetery have been located inhospitable areas of Lower Nubia. at Kedurma. Unfortunately, the cemetery However, the picture is less clear for and parts of the settlement are now settlement within the Kerma and earlier threatened by a new agricultural scheme periods when environmental constraints and some parts of the site have already been were less severe and there is growing damaged by preliminary work on the evidence for significant occupation away project. A preliminary survey was carried from the river. Further systematic survey of out and very limited salvage work was the modern desert hinterland will be carried out on damaged graves. This work necessary before we can have a fuller demonstrated the great potential of the site appreciation of this early settlement. The which is undoubtedly one of the most identification of six A-Horizon/Pre-Kerma important Meroitic sites known within sites is of interest and these clearly merit northern Sudan. further attention as the cultural relationship A preliminary survey was also made of between this region and Lower Nubia the large post-Meroitic tumulus cemetery at during this period still remains little known. Sesi, a few miles to the north on the west A further four Early Kerma sites were bank. In the absence of any evidence for identified and add significantly to the post-Meroitic settlement at Kedurma, it number of known sites of this period would appear that the primary focus of (Gratien 1978:275). Most of the Kerma sites settlement in this area shifted to the hilltop were quite minor, but an interesting group site of Jebel Sesi at the end of the Meroitic was located along the wadi system running period. This settlement developed into a south from Barja, several kilometres from major fortified site in the medieval period, the river. These probably follow the route of which seems to have remained occupied as an ancient track to ~ombosand Kerma late as the nineteenth century. Only two which avoids the broken country along the small post-Meroitic tumulus cemeteries river bend south of Arduan. However, some have been identified south of Sesi. In of the sites may also be associated with a contrast to material from north of the complex of low walls running along and cataract, ceramics found near the south end across the lower reaches of the wadi which, of the Mahas region appear to be products NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 7992

MAHAS SURVEY

Site Distribution map

Fig. 1. Site distribution in the southern Mahas region.

65 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

of the still poorly defined "southern" post- References Meroitic pottery industries. This seems to Edwards, D. N., and Osman, A. confirm that the cataract marks the effective limit of distribution of the typical Lower 1992 The Mahas Survey 1991. An lnterim Nubian "Ballana" or "X-Group" post- Report and Site Inventory. [Mahas Meroitic ceramics. This "ceramic frontier" Survey Reports 11. Cambridge. corresponds closely to the Nobatian- n.d. Survey in the Mahas region 1990, A Makurian political frontier. preliminary report. Nubica I11 (in press). Medieval occupation was widespread throughout the region and a number of Gratien, B. small Christian settlements were found in 1978 Les Cultures Kerma, un essai de areas which have not been occupied in more classzj'ication. Lille. recent periods. However, most of the larger Christian sites were found on the west bank Vila, A. near the south end of the cataract. We have . 1975 some historical evidence that the main The Archaeological Survey of the Nile Valley,south of the Dal Cataract, Vol. I. caravan route northwards would have Paris: CNRS. passed through here, then leaving the river and crossing the desert northwards directly to Soleb, bypassing the very rugged country north of Delgo. As was found in Lower Nubia, many of the villages contained ZAIRE mudbrick churches. Several examples were well preserved and a number of intact wall- paintings and inscriptions were noted. Archaeological and We have attempted to continue the Ethnoarchaeological pioneering work of the Dal Survey in Research in the Zones of recording Islamic sites, especially the DifF Rutshuru and Masisi in fortified houses which are such a Northern Kivu conspicuous feature of the Nubian landscape in this region, and the domed Qubba tombs. The collection of local oral Kanimba Misago traditions has provided useful evidence for lnstitut des MuscSes Nationaux du Zaire dating many of these and has revealed the B.P. 4249 post-medieval settlement history of the Kinshasa I1 region was quite complex. One outstanding Zaire problem concerns the date of a small number of the larger nucleated settlements Gatare Shumbusho which seem to postdate the Christian period, lnstitut Pddagogique National but were abandoned before the early B. P. 1885 nineteenth century. Kinshasa I1 At the time of writing, the third season Zaire of fieldwork for 1992 has been postponed, and current work is concentrating on the publication of previous seasons. A preliminary report for the 1991 season with In 1986 we initiated archaeological a site inventory is now completed (Edwards research directed towards the Iron Age of and Osman 1992). A companion inventory Northern Kivu. Ethnographic studies of volume for the 1990 season should also be in material culture and oral traditions related print by the end of 1992. to the settlements of Bambuba, Banyarwanda and Bahunde were also accomplished. As underlined before (Kanimba 1989, Kanimba and Bellomo 1990), NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

the combination of the two approaches is At Gungu, in the Masisi Zone (Fig. 2), indispensable for reconstitution of ancient we interviewed two elderly blacksmiths, Mr. history in Central Africa. Kazimoto, from the Hunde ethnic group, Three expeditions have already been and Mr. Kafuku, from the Munyarwanda conducted in the Semliki Valley within the ethnic group, who had produced iron until framework of the "Semliki Expedition" the end of the Second World War. Their project. This is an international project in reduction techniques are similar to those which many researchers from various used in Burundi and in Rwanda as disciplines have participated. The described by Celis and Nzikoganyanga provisional reports and results of earlier (1976) and Van Noten (1983:50-58), work have already been published respectively. The two blacksmiths are still (Kanirnba 1987,1990 a and b). able to reconstruct all the operations of iron processing. We hope to achieve this with Thanks to credit granted by the them during our next mission, in which we European Economic ComrnLinity within the plan to involve other researchers and framework of the "Appui de la Commission technicians. de la Communaut6 Europeenne 21 1'Institut des Musees Nationaux du Zaire," we have At Rukinga, in the neighbourhood of been able to broaden our field of Tongo, we have questioned, observed, and investigation towards the south, in the zones photographed three Batwa potters who situated north of Kivu Lake. This region is performed all the steps of pot making, from part of the area where investigations during clay preparation to pot processing after the 1950s (Hiernaux and Maquet 1960, firing. We also intend to follow up this line Maquet and Hiernaux 1968) led to the of investigation during our next expedition. discovery of Urewe-type pottery associated with traces of iron metallurgy (Fig. 1). Archaeological Survey However, few data were recovered Our surface observations have mainly concerning settlement practises, social been centered on the caves of Jomba. Before organisation of life ways of the occupants of beginning our search for sites, we had the sites, and the age of the settlements has interviewed three elderly men who showed been placed between the seventh century us 16 caves around the Catholic mission of B.C. and the eighth century A.D. on the basis Jomba. Each cave has a proper name and of cross-dating (Van Grunderbeek et al. oral history. Our informants distinguish 1982, Clist 1987), but has not been three categories: (1) six caves of difficult radiometrically determined. access which used to be wild animal dens; The aim of our fieldwork was to attempt (2) six caves which served as refuges during to fill gaps in the historical and cultural tribal wars; and (3) four caves which were picture developed by earlier investigators. funeral sites for a category of people whose To this end, we conducted both site surveys corpses, for some reason, were not buried. and test excavations, as well as These were infants, young people, and ethnoarchaeological studies involving adults who died without issue. videorecordings and photographs of According to tradition, one of the four material culture and everyday life. The caves in the last category, called visual data are useful not only for Akabakobwa, was reserved for unmarried archaeological interpretation but also as mothers (Ibinyandaro). In the past, it was museum documents that will help remind forbidden for a young Munyarwanda girl to the urban public of village ways. become pregnant before marriage. Those who did were sentenced to death or were Ethnoarchaeological Studies chased away and forced to live in exile in For technical reasons, our work has one of the neighbouring countries. In Jomba, focused on two traditional techniques only: a pregnant girl who could not succeed in iron ore reduction and pottery. running away was hurled into that cave. As NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Fig. 1. Map showing Urewe industry sites; x = Tongo site; = site.

68 NYAME AKUNIA No. 38, December 1992

RUTSHURU Tongo Tshengere I Jomba* \

I KALEHE I I I

Fig. 2. Map showing the sites mentioned in the text.

69 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

a matter of fact, the cave contains many we have found no roulette decorated sherds. human bones. From that depth on down we have found, at Despite the fact that the entrance of the different levels, most of the base sherds with refuge caves is generally large, it is dark flat bottoms or with basal dimples, shell inside and one needs artificial light to carry pearls, whole shells, or shell fragments that on excavations. The darkness is caused in appear to have been worked. The shells part by banana and eucalyptus trees planted suggest that pearls were made on the site. up to the entrance. For lack of illumination, Apart from ceramics and shell pearls, the we have been unable to investigate the site is rich in animal bones, some of which Jomba caves carefully. However, at Tongo have been shaped and used as tools or (Fig. 2) we have identified a site of very rich ornaments. Iron objects are rather rare and archaeological potential. in a very bad state. It is also worth pointing out the discovery of a small piece of iron slag and a small fragment of tuyere, which Excavations at Tongo would suggest ironworking. The site was discovered during the Human bones were also recovered construction of the road that links Masisi to during the excavations. In the first trench Rutshuru going through Kalengera (Fig. 2). (TG, Il), a child's mandible was found at 105 Mr. Kasuku, who was resonsponsible for the cm. In the second trench (TG, I2), we have construction, was able to save some objects exhumed two skeletons at different levels. In during the cutting of the road. These include the layer at 100-110 cm were scattered the whole pots, iron rings, shell pearls, animal bones of a child's skeleton. They were in a teeth pendants, and human skeletons. He bad state. A hundred centimetres deeper, has told us that his workers had found more between 200 and 230 cm, rested a complete than 60 skeletons, some of which are adult's skeleton wearing two iron rings, one presently being studied by Dr. N. T. Boaz at on the right forearm and the other on the the University of Virginia. right leg. There was also a decorated pot We have opened two trenches (TG I1 fragment above the right knee. and TG 12) two and a half meters away from Although it had been impossible to the road embankment. As the examination observe the form of the grave before of the wall we had cleaned with a trowel exposing the skeleton, the grave contours had not revealed clearly distinct layers, we were readily visible after the excavation. have excavated by artificial layers 10 cm Indeed, it seems as though the limestone thick down to bedrock. had to be cut in order to make a cavity for The two trenches have yielded almost the corpse. The latter was lying on its back, identical remains. All layers contained pot oriented north-south, the legs apart and the sherds, of which about 30% were decorated. feet crossed at the level of the iliac bone. The One category is marked by twisted cord left arm, stretched along the body, crossed roulette decoration; another bears decorative the right arm above the left thighbone. patterns of Urewe type: incised small We have found charcoal throughout the hatchings, regular oblique incisions, excavations and have taken 16 samples for fishbone patterns, embossed designs, 14C dating. striations, interlaces, concentric lines, etc. The provisional results allow us to place The sherds include bottoms and rims. the Tongo site in the Urewe tradition. If its Sherds with flat bottoms or with a basal age is confirmed by radiometric dating, the dimple present various thicknesses, form, site of Tongo would be the oldest large diameter, and depth of the dimple. The rims necropolis of the Iron Age discovered in the also appear in various forms: flat rims, interlacustrine region. bevelled rims with several plans, round rims, etc. The two pot categories are mixed in the Acknowledgements upper layers (from 0 to 50 cm) which have This project was financially aided by the been disturbed by ploughing. Below 50 cm "Commission de la Communaute NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Europkenne B Kinshasa," whose assistance Van Grunderbeek, M. C., Roche, E., and we gratefully acknowledge. Doutrelepont, H. 1982 L'Lge du fer ancien au Rwanda et au References Burundi: archeologie et enviromement. Journal des Africanistes Celis, G., and Nzikobanyanga, E. 52 (1-2):5-58. 1976 La Mktallurgie traditionnelle nu Burundi techniques et croyances. Tervuren. Van Noten, F. 1983 Histoire archiologique du Rwanda. Clist, B. Institut National de Recherche 1987 A critical reappraisal of the Scientifique. Butare, Republique chronological framework of the early Rwandaise. Publication No. 24. Urewe Iron Age industry. Muntu No. 6:35-62.

Hiernaux, J., and Maquet, E. 1960 Culture prehistoriques de l'bge des metaux au Rwanda-Urundi et au Kivu (Congo-Belge). Acad. Roy. Sci. Autre Mer 10 (2). Bruxelles.

Kanimba, M. Recentes recherches archeologiques dans la vallee de la Semliki. Nsi 1:18- 20. Btat de la recherche sur l'Lge des mbtaux au Zaire. Actes du 1er Colloque dlAequatoria 10-13 octobre 1987. Centre Aequatoria: 81-115. Recherches archeologiques dans la vallee de la Semliki (Nord-Kivu). Annales Aequatoria 11:83-95. Archaeological research on the age of metals in the Semliki area, Zaire. In Boaz, N. T. (ed.), Evolution of Environments and Hominidae in the African Western Rift Valley. Virginia Museum of Natural History Memoir No. 1, pp. 301-16. Kanimba, M., and Bellomo, R. V. 1990 Methods of pottery construction and firing techniques observed in the village of Bukokoma II, Zaire. In Boaz, N. T. (ed.), Evolution of Environments and Hominidae in the African Western Rift Valley. Virginia Museum of Natural History Memoir No. 1, pp. 301-16. NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

"traditional" entities, existing in stable equilibrium with their environments until disrupted by external forces, is "antiquarianism, a sentimental quest for the past which in fact denies history and with it an understanding of change and develop- Sutton, John E. G. ment and the pressures stimulating them" A Thousand Years of East (p. 2). From this perspective, Sutton seeks to Africa. Nairobi: British expose not only the inherently dynamic Institute in Eastern Africa, nature of various endemic forms of distributed by Thames & sociopolitical and economic organization in Hudson; 120 pp. f8 (discount East Africa, but also the adaptability of such for members of the BIEA). institutions in response to external pressure and, more broadly, their role in world history. While reactions to this line of John Bower thought will vary (mine is generally Department of Sociology & Anthropology positive), it is certainly not an overworked 228 Cina Hall theme and, for this reason alone, worth University of Minnesota airing. Duluth, MN 558 12-2496 Another feature of Sutton's book that U.S.A. deserves mention is its emphasis on process rather than condition. Thus, instead of seeking to illuminate the origins of cultural This book is an outgrowth of a travelling practises in such areas as technology or exhibit concerning the research of the British social organization, this book attempts to Institute in Eastern African that was consider existing practises as part of an circulated by the Institute among the historical flow. Such an approach serves not capitals and some regional centers of Kenya, only to underscore the dynamic character of Tanzania, and ~~anda'in1986-87. Although African cultures, but also to foster a sense of the book was not written as a guide to the relevance for the past in understanding the exhibit, its aims essentially parallel those of present. the exhibit, which was intended to inform The book is divided into five chapters: a the general public about major social, prologue, an epilogue, and a chapter on each political, and economic developments in of the three geographic zones mentioned East Africa from about the tenth century earlier. Also included is an annotated A.D. to the colonial period. The geographic bibliography and an index. coverage centers on three major zones-the The chapter on the interlacustrine zone interlacustrine region, the Gregory Rift and emphasizes the role of cattle in political adjacent highlands, and the Indian Ocean development, particularly the proliferation coast-but the book makes no pretense at of kingdoms. Also noted are various aspects being temporally, culturally, or of salt "mining" and exchange, as well as geographically comprehensive. Instead, its key phases of iron production, especially content reflects some of the major research smelting. The chapter on the Rift Valley and foci of the British Institute, presumably more adjacent highlands opens with an overview or less along the lines of the exhibit. of irrigation agriculture and then shifts to Although this "shotgun" approach does not the history of livestock herding, with special yield a coherent historical overview of the attention to the distinction between Sirikwa late Iron Age in East Africa, the book is, sedentism and Maasai mobility, the former nevertheless, "cemented" by a central requiring substantial constructions (Sirikwa theme, which is the dynamic character of "holes") for sheltering herds and the latter African cultures. entailing military competence, both in The author takes the position that the weaponry and organization. The chapter on perception of African cultures as the Indian Ocean coast is centered on the NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Swahili ports (especially Kilwa) and their role in international commerce. The book is richly illustrated with line drawings, maps and halftone photographs. Unfortunately, some of the halftones did not reproduce well, yielding rather "muddy" Items for Review pictures, but the illustrations are generally I I apposite, and their content adds substantially to the textual description. The latter tends to jump around a bit, perhaps The following books have been received because of its connection, however tenuous, for review: with the exhibit mentioned at the outset of Racines Bantu/Bantu Roots (1991). Th. this review. But, despite the book's Obenga & S. Souindoula (eds.), Centre somewhat disjointed nature, it contains solid International des Civilisations Bantu descriptive and interpretive material on the (CICIBA). late Iron Age of East Africa, including some The Skeletons of Contact: A Study of of the more famous sites of the period, such Protohistoric Burials from the Lower Orange as Bigo, Engaruka and Kilwa, as well as River Valley (1992, Alan G. Morris). important economic practises, such as Witwatersrand University Press. irrigation systems, the Sirikwa phenomenon, and Indian Ocean trade. I would strongly Still available for review is Quara, Ville recommend A Thousand Years of East Africa Perdue (Tchad);see NA32. as a supplementary text for courses on The St. Petersburg Association of African history and/or archaeology. The Scientists and ~'fidition de 1'Espace book may also be useful in courses on Europeenn en St. Petersbourg announce a African ethnology. new English-language journal, The St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies (SPBJAS). It is claimed to be the first scholarly journal on Africa to be published in Russia or the CIS and appears to be concerned mainly with ethnology, folklore and linguistics. Subscription information may be obtained from: Valentin Vydrin (Managing Editor) African Department Museum of Anthropology & Ethnography University Embankment 3 St. Petersburg 199 034 Russia Telephone: (812) 218-41-52 Fax: (812) 218-0811 NYAME AKUMA No. 38, December 1992

Colleagues who are interested in the conference and in offering contributions, or in suggesting to the organisers themes to be discussed, are asked to contact either Dr. D. W. Phillipson The British Institute in Gonville and Caius College Cambridge, CB2 1TA Eastern Africa England International Conference Dr. J. E. G. Sutton "The Growth of Farming Communities in British Institute in Eastern Africa Africa from the Equator Southwards " P.O. Box 30710 Nairobi, Kenya. July 4-8, 1994 The former will be handling the Cambridge, England practical arrangements in Cambridge. A more detailed prospectus of the conference will be circulated in 1993. The purpose of this conference is a rigorous and comprehensive examination of the development and expansion of agricultural populations in the southern third of Africa comprising the Zaire basin and the equatorial forests as well as the savannas, woodlands, and highlands extending to the eastern and southern shores of the continent--during the formative period commonly known as the Early Iron Age. It will concentrate therefore on the first millennium A.D., but without disregarding the preceding situations and, in the more northerly parts, the contributions of earlier food-producing communities and the impact of ironworking. Equally relevant will be the emergence of regional later Iron Age societies a thousand years or so ago from the early Iron Age base. Contributions are expected not only from archaeologists active in the various regions of Bantu Africa, but also from linguists, anthropologists, and ecologists who have been pioneering novel approaches to the region's cultural, demographic, economic, and technological history. The conference-and the volume emerging from it which the Institute intends to publish promptly afterwards-are envisaged therefore as not merely a review of an old subject, but as the opportunity to chart new directions of enquiry into the study of this part of Africa.