Spiritual Dimensions Wilderness Stewardship Movement of Wildlife in Wilderness Botswana, South Africa INTERNATIONAL Journal of Wilderness

DECEMBER 2006 VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3

FEATURES 30 Developing Wilderness Character Monitoring EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES A Personal Reflection 3 Wilderness Is a Bipartisan Cause BY PETER B. LANDRES BY VANCE MARTIN 32 Chief’s Excellence in Wilderness Stewardship SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS Research Science Award 4 The Spiritual Dimensions of Wilderness A Secular Approach for Resource Agencies EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION BY ROGER KAYE 33 Components of and Barriers to Building Successful Interagency Wilderness Citizen Stewardship STEWARDSHIP Programs 9 One Week in the Life of Wilderness RangerJim Leep BY CONNIE G. MYERS and DON HUNGER BY LES JOSLIN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 11 A Backcountry Ranger in the White Mountain 37 Walking with Magqubu National Forest Adult Reflections on Boyhood Memories BY NATHAN PETERS BY DOUG WILLIAMSON

13 Out of the Office and on the Ground WILDERNESS DIGEST Eastern Sierra Wilderness Stewardship Corps 42 Announcements BY JAMIE ANDERSON Book Reviews SCIENCE AND RESEARCH 45 Last Great Wilderness: The Campaign to Establish the Arctic NEWS FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD National Wildlife Refuge WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE BY ROGER KAYE 16 Wilderness Stewardship in an Era of Global Changes Reviewed by Chad Dawson BY DAVID J. PARSONS 45 Wilderness Forever: Howard Zahniser and the Path to the 17 The Effects of Veterinary Fences on Wildlife Wilderness Act BY MARK HARVEY Populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana Reviewed by John Shultis BY JOSEPH E. MBAIWA and ONALETSHEPHO I. MBAIWA 46 Beyond Conservation: A Wildland Strategy 24 Modeling Encounters between Backcountry BY PETER TAYLOR Recreationists and Grizzly Bears in Glacier Reviewed by John Shultis National Park 47 NOLS Wilderness Ethics: Valuing and Managing Wild Places BY NICK SANYAL, EDWIN E. KRUMPE, Reviewed by Chad Dawson and CHAD VANORMER

On the Cover Disclaimer FRONT: Tree branch covered in epiphytes at Baihe Nature Reserve, Sichuan. The The Soul of the Wilderness column and all invited and featured Mountains of Southwest China hotspot includes portions of the provinces of Sichuan and articles in IJW, are a forum for controversial, inspiring, or especially Yunnan in southwest China. informative articles to renew thinking and dialogue among our INSET: Man collecting mushrooms and firewood. The growing population of the readers. The views expressed in these articles are those of the Mountains of Southwest China hotspot depends greatly on the natural resources provided by authors. IJW neither endorses nor rejects them, but invites the lush high altitude forests of the region. Tacheng, Yunnan Province, China. comments from our readers. Both photos © Cristina Mittermeier, International League of Conservation Photographers. —John C. Hendee, IJW Editor-in-Chief

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 1 International Journal of Wilderness The International Journal of Wilderness links wilderness professionals, scientists, educators, environmentalists, and interested citizens worldwide with a forum for reporting and discussing wilderness ideas and events; inspirational ideas; planning, management, and allocation strategies; education; and research and policy aspects of wilderness stewardship.

EDITORIAL BOARD Perry Brown, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA H. Ken Cordell, Wilderness and Trends Research Forestry Sciences Laboratory, USDA Forest Service, Atlanta, Ga., USA Troy Hall, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA Vance G. Martin, WILD Foundation, Ojai, Calif., USA Rebecca Oreskes, White Mountain National Forest, Gorham, N.H., USA John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, B.C., Canada Alan Watson, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont., USA

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF John C. Hendee, Professor Emeritus, University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center, Moscow, Idaho, USA

MANAGING EDITOR Chad P. Dawson, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USA

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—INTERNATIONAL Gordon Cessford, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand; Karen Fox, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Andrew Muir, Wilderness Foundation Eastern Cape, South Africa; Ian Player, South Africa National Parks Board and The Wilderness Foundation, Howick, Natal, Republic of South Africa; Vicki A. M. Sahanatien, Fundy National Park, Alma, Canada; Won Sop Shin, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk, Korea; Anna-Liisa Sippola, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland; Franco Zunino, Associazione Italiana per la Wilderness, Murialdo, Italy.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—UNITED STATES Greg Aplet, The Wilderness Society, Denver, Colo.; David Cole, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont.; John Daigle, University of Maine, Orono, Maine; Lisa Eidson, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.; Don Fisher, USFS, Washington D.C.; Joseph Flood, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C.; Lewis Glenn, Outward Bound USA, Garrison, N.Y.; Gary Green, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.; Glenn Haas, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo.; William Hammit, Clemson University, Clemson, S.C.; Greg Hansen, U.S. Forest Service, Mesa, Ariz.; Dave Harmon, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, Oreg.; Bill Hendricks, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Calif.; Greg Kroll, El Rito, N.M.; Ed Krumpe, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; Yu-Fai Leung, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C.; Jim Mahoney, Bureau of Land Management, Sierra Vista, Ariz.; Bob Manning, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.; Jeffrey Marion, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Leo McAvoy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Michael McCloskey, Sierra Club; Christopher Monz, St. Lawrence University, Canton, N.Y.; Connie Myers, Arthur Carhart Wilderness Training Center, Missoula, Mont.; Roderick Nash, University of California, Santa Barbara, Calif.; David Ostergren, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Ariz.; Marilyn Hendee, Wilderness Transitions Inc., Sausalito, Calif.; Joe Roggenbuck, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Holmes Rolston III, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo.; Keith Russell, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Susan Sater, U.S. Forest Service, Portland, Oreg.; Tod Schimelpfenig, National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander, Wyo.; Rudy Schuster, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, N.Y.; Michael Tarrant, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.; Elizabeth Thorndike, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.; Jay Watson, The Wilderness Society, San Francisco, Calif.; Dave White, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ariz.

International Journal of Wilderness (IJW) publishes three issues per year Submissions: Contributions pertinent to wilderness worldwide are (April, August, and December). IJW is a not-for-profit publication. solicited, including articles on wilderness planning, management, and allocation strategies; wilderness education, including descriptions of Manuscripts to: Chad P. Dawson, SUNY-ESF, 320 Bray Hall, One key programs using wilderness for personal growth, therapy, and envi- Forestry Drive, Syracuse, N.Y. 13210, USA. Telephone: (315) 470-6567. ronmental education; wilderness-related science and research from all Fax: (315) 470-6535. E-mail: [email protected]. disciplines addressing physical, biological, and social aspects of wilderness; and international perspectives describing wilderness worldwide. Business Management and Subscriptions: WILD Foundation, P.O. Box Articles, commentaries, letters to the editor, photos, book reviews, 1380, Ojai, CA 93024, USA. Telephone: (805) 640-0390. Fax: (805) announcements, and information for the wilderness digest are encour- 640-0230. E-mail: [email protected]. aged. A complete list of manuscript submission guidelines is available from the managing editor. Subscription rates (per volume calendar year): Subscription costs are in U.S. dollars only—$35 for individuals and $55 for organizations/ Artwork: Submission of artwork and photographs with captions are libraries. Subscriptions from Canada and Mexico, add $10; outside North encouraged. Photo credits will appear in a byline; artwork may be America, add $20. Back issues are available for $15. signed by the author.

All materials printed in the International Journal of Wilderness, copyright World Wide Website: www.ijw.org. © 2006 by the International Wilderness Leadership (WILD) Foundation. Individuals, and nonprofit libraries acting for them, are permitted to make Printed on recycled paper. fair use of material from the journal. ISSN # 1086-5519.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute • Conservation International • National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) • Outward Bound™ • SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry • The WILD® Foundation • The Wilderness Society • University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center • University of Montana, School of Forestry and Wilderness Institute • USDA Forest Service • USDI Bureau of Land Management • USDI Fish and Wildlife Service • USDI National Park Service • Wilderness Foundation (South Africa) • Wilderness Leadership School (South Africa) FEATURES EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES

Wilderness Is a Bipartisan Cause

BY VANCE G. MARTIN

ormer President Teddy Roosevelt—TR—led and Mountains of Utah. Four more controversial bills are pend- approved some of the most important achievements ing that, if approved, will add another 750,000 acres of Ffor land conservation. TR was a special breed, the wilderness in California, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. epitome of a “conservative” that respected the land. He Hard work and tough negotiating over many years are was responsible for creating 150 national forests, 51 federal needed to craft any wilderness bill, and the results do not bird reservations, four national game preserves, five national always please everyone. But the hard work is continuing, parks, 18 national monuments, and convened seven conser- and new organizations and alliances are evolving to get it vation conferences and commissions. His famous quotes are done in today’s political environment. One worth noting is many, among them: “The conservation of natural resources the recent launch of the International Conservation Caucus is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve this problem it Foundation (ICC), www.iccfoundation.us. The ICC is a avail us little to solve all others.” (1907) bipartisan effort, one of the fastest growing caucuses on Despite the considerable disappointments in environ- Capitol Hill, and includes important congressional leaders mental policy in recent years, some good news is of both parties. It is proof that elected leaders of insight and emerging. On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush wisdom can unite under concern for the environment. announced the Northwestern Hawaii Islands Marine The WILD Foundation is pleased to have helped in National Monument. At 140,000 sq. miles, it is more than the early stages of creating the ICC, and to join with other seven times larger than all the other national marine sanc- ICC partners, such as Conservation International, The tuaries combined, and 100 times larger than Yellowstone Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and the National Park. President Bush tacitly invoked the spirit of Wildlife Conservation Society in launching this new effort. TR when he made his proclamation. This announcement Conservation is a bipartisan cause, and we believe ICC will has tremendous implications for the emerging concept of be a leader in further advancing U.S. international envi- marine wilderness, as within five years this entire area will ronmental policy. be off limits to commercial fishing, and dedicated to native Thank you for reading, discussing, and disseminating cultural uses, recreation, species replenishment, and coral the IJW. This issue stays true to our focus—it covers the reef protection. This area has been well studied for years, global as well as the local, the professional as well as the making it an easy one for President Bush to approve. personal. There is something in here for everyone, just as There is more good news for terrestrial wilderness, too. there is in wilderness. IJW The current 109th Congress approved, and President Bush signed, three wilderness bills designating 11,000 acres of VANCE G. MARTIN is president of The WILD Foundation, executive canyon land and desert in New Mexico, 10,000 acres of rain director of the World Wilderness Congress, and an executive editor forest in Puerto Rico, and 100,000 acres in the Cedar of IJW.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 3 SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS

The Spiritual Dimension of Wilderness A Secular Approach for Resource Agencies

BY ROGER KAYE

All of us have the task of making a living; but we long for something more, something that has a mental, spiritual impact on us... we must give serious attention to our mental and spiritual needs—hard to define but of greatest importance. — Olaus Murie, 1960

hese words by the preeminent field biologist and recognizing or enhancing opportunities for the nondoctri- wilderness proponent Olaus Murie reflect a theme naire aspects of spirituality (Friesen 1996). Tthat resonates through American wilderness writ- Perhaps the main reason managers are squeamish ing: Beyond utilitarian and commodity needs, our natural about this dimension has to do with its association with landscapes serve needs that lie at the core of the human something…mystical. But wilderness stewards can come psyche (figure 1). Yet the spiritual realm is usually rele- to understand the spiritual orientation toward wilderness, gated to the background of wilderness stewardship, often and protect the conditions conducive it, without reference alluded to, but seldom incorporated in planning, manage- to anything supernatural or paranormal. Insights from six ment, and educational programs. One searches the policies fields of research are particularly helpful in enabling us to of the four wilderness managing agencies in vain for any understand spirituality as a secular, psychological phe- specific notion as to how spiritual values will be accom- nomenon, as an inherited and beneficial component of our modated. Why is spirituality left as a closet value? humanity with biological roots in our evolutionary past. In part, managers’ reluctance to recognize spirituality is due to its association History with religion or religious The association between wilderness and spirituality doctrine—a barrier result- reaches back thousands of years. In Western traditions, ing from a possible misin- leaders and prophets such as Jesus, Moses, Elijah, and terpretation of the First Muhammad left their society to find their vision and inspi- Amendment’s mandate for ration in the wilds. The Buddha’s remote sojourn provided separation of church and spiritual insights that were influential in the East and in state. Although the Con- the formation of Thoreau’s transcendentalist ideas—a stitution prohibits the gov- foundation of the American wilderness movement. For ernment from establishing, Thoreau, wilderness was a medium for transcending the promoting, affiliating with, effects of socialization and conformity (figure 2), and com- or discriminating against ing to the humbling recognition that we are “an inhabitant, Figure 1—Olaus and Margaret “Mardy” Murie in Alaska in 1956. Their writings expanded thinking any religious doctrine or or part and parcel of nature”(Thoreau 1906). about our species’s role in the larger scheme of organization, it does not A generation later, John Muir drew upon the emerging things. Photo by George Schaller. prohibit an agency from ecological and evolutionary thinking, and especially the

4 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 implications of the common origin of In the words of psychologist all life, to preach that wilderness is Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, particularly conducive to enabling they all provide a sense “that people to see themselves as “a small one belongs to something part of the one great union of cre- greater and more permanent ation” (Muir 1918). Aldo Leopold than oneself” (1997). Histor- (1987) further incorporated the spir- ically, this has been expressed itual implications of ecological and as a core wilderness precept. evolutionary thinking into the emerg- Its psychological universal- ing wilderness ethic. The wilderness ity suggests an innate movement, he wrote, was “one of the underpinning—that there is focal points of a new attitude—an likely an evolutionary Figure 2—Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone by Thomas Moran, 1872. Hudson River School of Art paintings (1820–1875) gave visual expression to romantic intelligent humility towards man’s human predisposition for and transcendental ideas about spiritual experience in wilderness. place in nature.” Even the gung-ho this impulse for connection Bob Marshall, late in his life, came to to some larger, greater, encompassing larger, more objective perspective. the realization that the dominant ultimacy. This transcendent perspective is one value of wilderness was “being part of in which a person sees a fundamental an immensity so great that the human Clinical and Health Psychology unity. being that looks upon it vanishes into Although not specific to wilderness, utter insignificance” (as cited in these fields provide empirical support Transcendence—rising above the Zahniser 1957). This diminishment for what the founders of the wilder- narrow confines and concerns of the of the self, the ego, and the sense of ness movement knew intuitively— self—is the initial state one must pass connection with something timeless that the kind of spiritual orientation through to find this enlarging capac- and universal was the central motiva- many find in wilderness can be healthy. ity. And across research disciplines, tion, the spiritual motivation, of They offer functional definitions of across cultures, and throughout the Wilderness Act author Howard spirituality, provide psychometric foundational wilderness writings, Zahniser, who was compelled by the scales to measure it, and document the this is what’s common to the defini- belief that “we deeply need the positive effects spirituality can have on tions and descriptions of spiritual humility to know ourselves as the one’s physical and psychological well- experience. dependent members of a great com- being. Robert Emmons (1999) sum- munity of life” (Zahniser 1957). marized research documenting that a Outdoor and spiritual orientation can lead to a Wilderness Recreation Experience Psychology of Religion and lesser incidence of negative states, These fields provide a plethora of Comparative Religion such as anxiety, stress, and depression, studies wilderness stewards can draw The unitive experience these wilder- and can contribute to the positive upon to better understand the nature ness movement leaders spoke of has a states of satisfaction, optimism, and of this state and the benefits of attain- great deal in common with religious meaning and purpose of one’s life. ing it. Employing interviews, journal systems of thought and belief; so Piedmont (2001) documented analysis, and a variety of survey much can be learned from these the positive correlation between such instruments, they provide qualitative fields. But we must keep in mind that, benefits and individuals whose orien- descriptions of how, for many visitors, as research disciplines, their concern tation fits within this summary wilderness experience contributes to is not the object of spirituality. Rather, definition of spiritual: personal growth, and enhanced self- they are concerned with the common identity, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. characteristics, benefits, and factors The capacity of individuals to stand Yet although meaningful and beneficial, contributing to the spiritual experi- outside of their immediate sense of these self-constructs are not, in them- ence. Whether religions are based on time and place and to view life from a selves, spiritual as many psychologists a God, animistic spirits, an Eastern philosophy of harmony and unity, or belief in one’s embeddedness in the Wilderness is both a place and a system of natural world, they share a core func- belief and feeling about our role in tion: They replace the self as the “ultimate,” with a sense that the self is the larger scheme of things. part of a larger, more enduring reality.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 5 noted, the term spiritual growth better especially the last one—which begs describes the gradual change in the question…intrusions upon what? awareness more characteristic of the “Intrusions upon what” in psycholog- phenomenon. ical parlance is termed cognitive Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) con- freedom. Its characteristics include ceptualization of the “flow” state the freedom to limit your attention to integrates findings from recreation, whatever you choose, to control your religion, and mental health research thoughts, and to be free of the expec- to enhance understanding of how the tations of others. Significantly, a diminishment of self-consciousness characteristic of all spiritual traditions contributes to this change. The con- is the premise that concern with your cept was so named because his self-image, status, and approval of subjects reported that immersion in others are barriers to transcendence. their experience was analogous to Although the physical character- being on a river, “carried on by the istics of wilderness, and the physical flow” (Csikszentmihalyi 1991). Immer- and temporal separation they pro- Figure 3—Wilderness provides a sense of scale and the physical and temporal isolation from reminders of the everyday sed in the trip, they were better able to vide, are especially conducive to world that is conducive to transcendent experience. Photo by forget, or hold in abeyance, aware- attaining both solitude and spiritual Roger Kaye. ness of status concerns and pressure experience, they are only contributing to conform to socially defined roles factors. The findings of Hollenhorst define spirituality. The work of and norms. In short, their perception et al. (1994) on the most effective Marilyn Riley and John Hendee of and relationship to the surround- predictors of solitude achievement (2001) suggests that these “self” ing environment became less affected are as applicable to the more encom- aspects comprise an initial, or by the filter of their self-image. passing spiritual experience. It was prerequisite stage through which one not primarily the physical character- must pass in the process toward Solitude istics of the setting they conclude, transcendence—described by psy- The popular literature describes soli- “but rather predispositional factors chologists Steven Kaplan and Janet tude as a prerequisite condition for that the visitor brings to the wilder- Talbot (1987) as their subjects’ emer- spiritual experience in wilderness, ness experience.” Wilderness is also a gent feeling of “a sense of union with and many studies provide useful symbolic environment, a socially something that is lasting, that is of insights into its nature and role (fig- constructed behavioral setting. Like a enormous importance, and they per- ure 3). Although the term solitude church, cathedral, or monument to ceive as larger than they are” (p. 195). usually refers to some degree of which it is so often compared, wilder- In examining the “wilderness aloneness, privacy, or isolation, it is ness has become invested with effect,” psychologist Robert Green- more appropriately defined as a state meanings that make it prone to sup- way (1995) found that for many of of mind, or way of being, that isola- port spiritual interpretation and his subjects, a primary value of their tion, among other factors, is experience. trip was the “perceptual shift” they conducive to. experienced. He found an expansion William Hammitt’s “The Psy- Evolutionary Psychology and of the self, and a lessening of the ego chology and Function of Wilderness Neurophysiology and culturally reinforced individual- Solitude” (1994) is among the psy- A convergence of evidence from these istic thinking patterns. His term chometric studies that identify fields is providing a growing body of perceptual shift is worthy of attention components of the experience and support for the idea that there are because it lends insight into the correlate them with the major deeper predispositional factors at actual nature, onset, intensity, and causative factors. Characteristics of play than the learned beliefs, values, duration of transcendent experiences the environment his subjects reported and expectations for spiritual experi- in wilderness. They are seldom sud- to be particularly important were the ence that the visitor bring to the den, intense, ecstatic, or comparable naturalness and peacefulness of the wilderness. They support the theme to reported religious conversion setting and its being free of human- that resonates through the wilderness experiences. In fact, the word experi- made intrusions. This is one example literary tradition, represented by ence may be misleading if taken to of the kind of study offering much- Murie’s reference to “attributes which mean a discrete event or episode. As needed research-based rationale for we have inherited and developed Barbra McDonald et al. (1989) have protecting such conditions, and through the ages…in response to an

6 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 inner urge that we still have and still do not fully understand” (1973, The spiritual realm is usually relegated to the p.184). For example, Newberg and background of wilderness stewardship, often D’Aquili’s (2001) research on the alluded to, but seldom incorporated in planning, neurological structures and processes that generate the spiritual experience management, and educational programs. provides compelling evidence that the spiritual urge is encoded in a genome that developed in synergistic how, through our biocultural evolu- or a church, monument, memorial, evolution with the natural world. It’s tion, it enhanced the fitness of our shrine— of any consecrated place. An part of our wiring as Homo sapiens. ancestors and the likelihood of their adaptive mechanism, the spiritual Their findings are based on brain passing genes on to the future. dimension of wilderness has evolved, imaging studies of subjects in the Perhaps, as some evolutionary psy- is evolving, and will continue to midst of transcendent experience, chologists theorize, it emerged with evolve in response to changes in our- described as “the absorption of the the development of the brain’s neo- selves and our relationship to the self into something larger.” To grossly cortex, serving to relieve the psychic natural world. The manifestation of simplify, within the limbic system stress associated with the existential spirituality in the wilderness concept they identified specialized bundles of concerns that arose with the develop- both reflects the unmet needs of our neurons that cause perceptions to ment of conscious thought. Perhaps urban, utilitarian, commodity-driven reach one’s awareness through neural in enabling our ancestors to sense culture, and reveals some archetypal pathways less affected by the filter of their brief lives as part of a larger, part of us that this culture obscures. self-interest. Changes in the brain’s more enduring reality, they were bet- Wilderness is both a place and a left parietal lobe were observed as ter able to deal with the new system of belief and feeling about our subjects passed through stages of qui- realization that they, as individuals, role in the larger scheme of things. escence and came to a state that would die. Geographically, wilderness is a rem- would help “free the mind’s aware- But as wilderness stewards, we nant of our world that is still natural, ness from the limiting grip of the need not concern ourselves with the wild, and free. Spiritually, it is a ego.” As they summarized: question of whether or to what refuge for that part of ourselves that degree the spiritual impulse origi- seeks connection, belonging, and We saw evidence of a neurological nates in evolutionary process, social rootedness within that world. IJW process that has evolved to allow us construction, or perhaps, divine humans to transcend material intervention. We need only recognize existence and acknowledge and that the longing to connect to an ulti- REFERENCES Murie, Olaus. 1960. Testimony Before the connect with a deeper, more spiritual mate value larger than the self is Merchant Marine and Fisheries part of ourselves perceived of as an ancient and has always been central Subcommittee on S. 1899, A Bill to absolute, universal reality that to the idea of wilderness. Establish the Arctic Range, 1959, 86th Congress, 1st session, part 1, 1959; connects us to all that is. (2001, p. 60) Recent insights into the human Washington, D.C.: GPO. mind’s workings enable understand- Friesen, Jennifer. 1996. Nature, the human What triggers this innate poten- ing of and provision for the spiritual spirit, and the First Amendment. In tial in some but not others? In brief dimension of wilderness in psycho- Nature and the Human Spirit: Toward an Expanded Land Management Ethic, ed. summary, it’s the set of beliefs and logical (secular) terms, thus making B.L. Driver et al. State College, PA: expectations one brings to a setting it a legitimate concern of science- Venture Publishing. that, because of its physical charac- based natural resource agencies. They Thoreau, Henry David. 1906. Walking. In Excursions and Poems, vol 5, The teristics and associated meanings, is provide empirical understanding for Writings of Henry David Thoreau. Boston: conducive to a perceptual shift. what those who initiated the wilder- Houghton Mifflin. ness movement knew intuitively— Muir, John. 1918. A Thousand-Mile Walk to Conclusion the great importance of mediums the Gulf. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Zahniser, Howard. 1957. The need for wilderness Where did this predisposition come such as wilderness for opening peo- areas. Living Wilderness (Winter-Spring, from, and why does it persist? What ple to something within themselves 1956-57): “mental and spiritual needs,” as that seeks relatedness to a greater Leopold, Aldo. 1987. A Sand County Almanac, and Sketches Here and There Murie (1960) described, did it evolve meaning beyond themselves. This is (originally published 1948). New York: to meet? We can only speculate as to the spiritual function—of wilderness, Oxford University Press.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 7 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1997. Finding Flow: effect and ecopsychology, In . Leadership (WILD) Foundation. The Psychology of Engagement with Ecopsychology, ed. T. Roszak, M. E. Hollenhorst, Steve, Ernest Frank III, and Alan Everyday Life. New York: Harper Collins. Goes, and A. D. Kanner (p. 128). San Watson. 1994. The capacity to be alone: Emmons, Robert. 1999. The Psychology of Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Wilderness solitude and growth of the Ultimate Concerns: Motivation and McDonald, Barbara et al. 1989. The spirit in self. In International Wilderness Allocation, Spirituality in Personality. New York: The the wilderness: The use and opportunity Management, and Research, ed. John C. Guilford Press. of wilderness experience for spiritual Hendee and Vance G. Martin (pp. Piedmont, Ralph L. 2001. Spiritual transcen- growth. In Wilderness Benchmark 1988: 234–39). Ft. Collins, CO: International dence and the scientific study of Proceedings of the National Wilderness Wilderness Leadership (WILD) Foundation. spirituality. Journal of Rehabilitation 67: Colloquium, held in Tampa, Florida, Murie, Olaus J. 1973. Journeys to the Far 4–14. January 13–14, 1988 (pp. 193–207). North. Palo Alto, CA: The Wilderness Foster Riley, Marilyn, and John C. Hendee. Asheville, NC: U.S. Southeast Forest Society and the American West Publ. 2001. Wilderness vision quest clients, Experiment Station. Newberg, Andrew, and Eugene D’Aquili. motivations, and reported benefits from Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1990. Flow: The 2001. Why God Won’t Go Away: Brain an urban based program, 1988–1997. Psychology of Optimal Experience. New Science and the Biology of Belief. New In Wilderness and Humanity: The Global York: Harper & Row. York: Ballantine Books. Issue, Proceedings from the 6th World Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1991. Leisure and Wilderness Congress, Bangalore, India, self-actualization. In Benefits of Leisure, ed. Vance G. Martin and M. A. Partha ed. B. L. Driver, P. J. Brown, and G. L. ROGER KAYE is a wilderness specialist and Sarathy (267–74). Golden, CO: Fulcrum Peterson (91–97). State College, PA: airplane pilot with the U.S. Fish and Publishing. Venture Publishing. Kaplan, Steven, and Janet F. Talbot. 1987. Hammitt, William. 1994. The psychological Wildlife Service on the Arctic National Psychological benefits of a wilderness functions of wilderness solitude. In Wildlife Refuge and an affiliate professor of experience. In Behavior and the Natural International Wilderness Allocation, Northern Studies at the University of Environment, ed. I. Altman and F. F. Management, and Research, ed. John C. Alaska. He can be contacted by email at Wohlwill. New York: Plenum. Hendee and Vance G. Martin (277–33). Greenway, Robert. 1995. The wilderness Ft. Collins, CO: International Wilderness [email protected].

From WILDERNESS STEWARDSHIP on page 16

popular author addressing the theme the future of wilderness. As a result, Only recently have we come to realize of Managing Wilderness in a Time of at least three of the Institute’s future the magnitude of the impact of Global Change. Other conferences, focus areas for research include human-induced changes on wilder- including the Natural Areas Con- change as a significant driver. These ness ecosystems and values. The idea ference in September 2006 (Managing include understanding changing rela- of wilderness as a pristine landscape Natural Areas in the Face of Global tionships between humans and that can, by simply leaving it alone, Climate Change) and the April 2007 wilderness, stewardship of fire under be preserved in perpetuity, is no George Wright Society Conference changing climatic and social condi- longer compatible with the realities (Rethinking Protected Areas in a tions, and global change effects on of today’s world. It is apparent that Changing World, www.georgewright. fauna (see leopold.wilderness.net). the greatest challenge to ensuring the org/2007.html), also feature change as Although wilderness ecosystems future sustainability of wilderness their primary theme. have long been recognized as will be our ability to understand, mitigate, and adapt to the multiple facets of the changing world we live in. Only recently have we come to realize the Meeting this challenge will require unprecedented proactive collabora- magnitude of the impact of human-induced tion and cooperation between changes on wilderness ecosystems and values. scientists, managers, politicians, and the general public.

During the 2005 program review dynamic entities that are continually DAVID J. PARSONS is director of the Aldo of the Aldo Leopold Wilderness changing, the scale of such change Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Institute, much was heard about the has generally been considered to be USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain need to better understand the poten- within the range of historic variabil- Research Station, Missoula, MT, USA; tial implications of changing climatic, ity, and as such, part of the wilderness email: [email protected]. ecologic, and social conditions for attributes that are to be protected.

8 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 STEWARDSHIP

One Week in the Life of Wilderness Ranger Jim Leep BY LES JOSLIN

For a dozen summers—until funding dried up—wilderness ranger Jim Leep patrolled and packed in the Three Sisters Wilderness, the second largest and most visited National Wilderness Preservation System unit in Oregon. This is the story of one week during those 12 summers of service.

im Leep, who served in the Three Sisters Wilderness Lake and to his day-off chores of car- every summer from 1993 through 2004, is the special ing for his stock. But this day off Jkind of guy it takes to succeed as a U.S. Forest Service ended—again—when he was tapped (USFS) mounted wilderness ranger and packer (see out to help eight search-and-rescue figure 1). personnel rescue an injured hiker on Just how special Leep is became especially evident South Sister. On the trail up Oregon’s during the week of July 21 through 27, 2002. That week third highest peak, Leep promised his tested him—and the two horses and five mules he lovingly mount, Bobby, a veteran of many res- calls—“the critters”—almost to the limit. That’s almost to cues, a pass on the next mission in the limit. Leep takes good care of his animal partners. exchange for the long afternoon and Sunday was fairly routine. Leep and wilderness ranger evening ahead. As the daily Bend Article author Les Joslin. Photo by Chris Miccolis spent the day “logging out” the Corral newspaper, The Bulletin, reported on Pat Joslin. Swamp trail. Clearing downed trees off trails—a job done July 25, Leep’s horse was used to with hand tools in the wilderness—is a late-spring early- move the victim “to an appropriate landing zone, where summer job for wilderness rangers (see figure 2). Air Life of Oregon retrieved him via helicopter” and flew Monday, one of his three days off on a “four-ten” work- him to St. Charles Medical Center in Bend. Leep and week schedule, found Leep tasked to pack a Deschutes Bobby got back to camp at 10:30 p.m. County Sheriff’s Office search-and-rescue team camp into Wednesday was another scheduled day off on which, the popular Green Lakes area. That was a one-horse, two- from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., Leep packed the search-and-rescue mule job. The team was continuing its search for a hiker camp and equipment out of the Green Lakes area. This was missing on Broken Top since the previous November. another one-horse, two-mule job. Bobby got his day off, but Tuesday was another day off until late morning when there was not much rest for Leep. Never mind, Thursday Leep was summoned to help a USFS scientist whose vehi- would be a day off to compensate for the three he’d missed. cle was stuck in deep pumice off a back road. Leep did the Thursday, however, Leep was dispatched to the job, then returned to his administrative site near Todd Diamond Peak Wilderness at 6:30 a.m. to pack out five smoke jumpers and their firefighting equipment. On foot and leading three mules, he beat the heat by wading icy, Stationed at a tent camp on the knee-deep Trapper Creek twice during the nine-mile round trip. Back in camp by 7:30 p.m., he cared for his edge of the wilderness, he was stock and planned long-delayed chores for Friday. always on call and always Leep got a good start on those chores (see figure 3). Then, as reported by The Bulletin on July 27, hikers found ready to answer the call. human remains near the base of Broken Top on Friday afternoon. Leep was dispatched. It was a job for his best

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 9 animals. There could be no mistakes. well-rested veterans of many seasons work with wilderness visitors to help He selected Bobby, along with mules on congested trails, for the mission. ensure enjoyable wilderness experi- Charlie and China, all rock-solid and Leep and a sheriff’s detective left the ences and to help protect the Green Lakes Trailhead about 4 p.m., wilderness resource. They carry out followed by a search-and-rescue the Wilderness Act of 1964, in which team. They packed the remains of the Congress set aside special places to hiker, who’d been missing more than remain wild by law, on the ground. eight months, out of the wilderness Most patrol and work on foot. Some, for transportation to the state medical like Leep, are mounted. examiner’s office in Portland. Leep Jim Leep, during his 51st through and his animal partners got back to 62nd summers, was a seasonal mem- camp at 10 p.m. ber of the Forest Service wilderness Saturday found Leep, Miccolis, team. A retired Portland police officer, and three mules packing a trail crew he’d run his own pack string for more camp and the crew’s equipment into than 20 years. His many skills, espe- Figure 1—Wilderness ranger Jim Leep and saddle mule Charlie the Wickiup Plain. It had been an cially his own combination of people greeted Three Sisters Wilderness visitors with a friendly face eventful seven days, and another and packing skills, remain as rare as and a helping hand. Photo by Les Joslin. week was starting. Since there were good pack strings these days. Each more trail crew gear and con- year the Deschutes National Forest struction materials to pack in, hired him and his pack string to patrol Leep and the pack string were and to carry the load—literally—in back on the job Sunday. There the Three Sisters Wilderness, else- also was the possibility of another where on the Deschutes National smoke jumper pack-out mission. Forest, and even on the adjacent That possibility became a reality Willamette National Forest. Stationed on Monday. at a tent camp on the edge of the The pace of that July week wilderness, he was always on call and was just a notch above routine. always ready to answer the call. But the work was not especially Hard work and low pay were the routine. A more routine week—if order of the day for Jim Leep who there is such a thing—emphasizes spent a dozen summers, as the Forest Figure 2—Cutting downfall off wilderness trails with “misery whip” was just one of wilderness ranger Jim Leep’s many daily duties. Photo visitor information and education Service slogan says, “caring for the by Les Joslin. patrol work. Wilderness rangers land and serving people.” He was the epitome of the wilderness ranger. Summers in the Three Sisters Wilder- ness since just haven’t been the same without him. IJW

LES JOSLIN, a retired U.S. Navy com- mander and former U.S. Forest Service firefighter, served with Jim Leep in the Three Sisters Wilderness until 2003. That year he began a two-year stint as team leader for recreation, heritage, and wilderness resources on the Deschutes National Forest’s million-acre Bend/Fort Rock Ranger District. Now retired, he continues to teach an Oregon State University wilderness management course, to consult, and to write from his home at 2356 N.W. Great Figure 3—Wilderness ranger Jim Leep pausing in Three Sisters Wilderness high country east of Broken Top. Leep Place, Bend, OR 97701, USA;. email: often packed every tool needed for a day’s patrol and work on one mule. Here, Charlie’s load included a crosscut saw and shovel as well as Jim’s chaps, rain slicker, and saddlebags containing hard hat, saw wedges, radio, first- [email protected]. aid kit, human and mule food, and visitor information. Photo by Les Joslin.

10 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 STEWARDSHIP

A Backcountry Ranger in the White Mountain National Forest BY NATHAN PETERS

’ve been hiking into the Great Gulf Wilderness for Appalachian Trail traversing our several hours now and have yet to encounter another forest and ridgelines. Our district is Iliving soul. As I rock-hop across the swift water of the home to the infamous Mt. Wash- Peabody River, I can’t help but think about the large ington, which is renowned for having volume of water that continually moves through this mas- the worst weather in America, with sive watershed. The sound of the raging torrent drowns record wind speeds of 231 mph. Mt. out any audible sound within earshot of the river. Moving Washington and the rest of the deeper into the wilderness the forest type transitions from Presidential range encompass several hardwoods to that of the northern boreal forest. As the large ravines. Tuckerman Ravine is trail begins to pull away from the river, the musical banter best known for its steep spring from New England’s warblers and other songbirds is skiing, and Huntington Ravine for its immediately apparent. The lushness of the forest is almost alpine ice and rock climbing. In Nate at a campsite revegetation project on the White Mountain surreal. The steep slopes and glacial cirques of the addition to our spectacular moun- National Forest. Northern Presidential mountain range rise 1,000 feet or tainscapes and miles of meandering more above me on three sides. Midslope the trees give way rivers, our district harbors the largest alpine ecosystem in to the krumholtz, talus slopes, and alpine meadows char- the Northeast. With just under 4,200 acres of above tree line acteristic of the mountains in this region. alpine zone on our district (see figure 2), the significance of As far as the Northeast is concerned, it can be hard to an area so unique proves to be beneficial not only as an eco- imagine that an area so spectacular and grand in scale as the logical community, but as a draw for hikers and backpackers Great Gulf Wilderness can be located in such close proximity as well (USDA Forest Service 2005). An environment that is to the developed metropolises to the south (see figure 1). For my five fellow rangers and I, it is something that we are able to experience on a daily basis. Each day we are able to hike into new and exciting places where new challenges await us and our senses are sure to be heightened. As backcountry and wilderness rangers, we have the opportunity to experience amazing places on a daily basis. On our district of the White Mountain National Forest (WMNF), we routinely patrol four equally impressive mountain ranges (the Kilkennys, Mahoosucs, Carter Moriahs, and the Presidentials), two designated wilderness areas (the Great Gulf Wilderness—5,552 acres—and the Caribou-Speckled Mountain Wilderness—12,000 acres), and one area proposed to be designated as wilderness (Wild River Wilderness—23,700 acres). We patrol 386 miles of trail, with approximately 50 miles of the scenic Figure 1—Great Gulf Wilderness and the Presidential Mountain range. Photo by Nate Peters.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 11 country users on various illegal and/or heavily impacted camp- topics. Two programs that sites; doing inventory and maintenance we heavily promote on of approximately 700 trailhead and the WMNF are Hike Safe backcountry signs; maintaining back- and Leave-No-Trace country tent sites and cabins; (LNT), which over time developing new tent sites; maintain- have proven to be benefi- ing first-aid caches, and doing some cial in decreasing the minor trail maintenance (see figure 3). number of injured and Being a backcountry ranger can lost hikers, as well as be an extremely rewarding experi- minimizing the recre- ence for an individual who is very ational impacts on the motivated and seeking an employ- resource. One way that ment opportunity that will challenge we implement LNT prin- on a daily basis. On any given week I Figure 2—View from Mt. Washington. Photo by Nate Peters. ciples is through the will hike between 40 and 50 miles, distribution of plastic ascend an average of 12,000 vertical as unique as the alpine zone brings trowels to overnight backcountry feet, make 50 to 100 visitor contacts, with it specific management chal- users in each of our wilderness areas and complete any number of the pre- lenges that we, as stewards of the and discussing the importance of viously mentioned duties. Our office backcountry, deal with on a regular properly disposing of human waste. is the backcountry. We work rain or basis to ensure its viability for the In addition to these educational tools, shine, which can prove to be very years to come. our contacts with backcountry visitors challenging at times. Regardless of Backcountry rangers on the also give us an opportunity to answer the challenges posed by this posi- Androscoggin Ranger District are questions that they may have regard- tion, I can honestly say that there responsible for a wide variety of ing weather and/or trail conditions, isn’t a position more suitable for a tasks. First and foremost, we are the identifying appropriate campsites, person such as myself. I need vari- eyes and ears of management in the sharing pertinent rules and regula- ety to keep things interesting, and backcountry. We are often the only tions, or simply helping them to in this position I never know what WMNF employees that many of our identify the flora and fauna of the I’ll see when I round the next turn visitors will ever see. This is espe- area. These positive interactions with in the trail. If you enjoy working cially important because it provides the public enhance the experiences alone in remote backcountry and us the opportunity to educate back- that people have while visiting the wilderness locations, enjoy working backcountry, wilderness, and alpine in adverse and continually changing areas of our forest. These interactions weather conditions, have a toler- also serve as a means for us as man- ance for swarms of vicious biting agers of the land to determine insects, enjoy strenuous exercise all recreational use patterns. WMNF day, and are passionate about stew- managers benefit from our time spent ardship of wilderness, then this in the backcountry because we are might just be the job for you. See often the first to encounter many of you on the trail. IJW the issues that visitors are trying to resolve, such as illegal fires and campsites, potential hazards, and trail REFERENCES USDA Forest Service. 2005. White Mountain or resource impacts. National Forest: Final Environmental Some of the other duties of Impact Statement, Proposed Land and rangers include wilderness monitor- Resource Management Plan. ing, enforcement of rules and regulations for situations in which NATHAN PETERS is a backcountry and education cannot mitigate the issue; wilderness ranger for the USDA Forest administering first aid; assisting on Service on the Androscoggin Ranger Figure 3—Caribou-Speckled Mountain Wilderness Boundary. search and rescues; helping with District. He can be contacted at 300 Glen Photo by Nate Peters. revegetation and rehabilitation of Road, Gorham, NH 03581, USA.

12 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 STEWARDSHIP

Out of the Office and on the Ground Eastern Sierra Wilderness Stewardship Corps

BY JAMIE ANDERSON

ffices can be a horrible place to work, unless your The Inyo National office is, well…outside. This summer we did just Forest, located along Oas this title suggests: we got out of the office and the eastern edge of off the phone, we shut down the computers, ignored California, is one of emails, and took our picks and shovels along with dozens the most heavily vis- of hardy volunteers to help protect a few of California’s ited national forests in most visited and least known wilderness areas. the nation. Within a Why, you may ask? Well, to get out of the office of five-hour drive from course! No…seriously. Out goal was to combat the “per- four of the West’s fect storm” brewing in the Eastern Sierra of California with major metropolitan increasing visitor demand and with decreasing Forest areas—Los Angeles, Service and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manage- San Joaquin Valley, ment capacity. Friends of the Inyo established the Eastern Reno, and Las Vegas— Sierra Wilderness Stewardship Corps through a generous the grand mountain grant from the National Forest Foundation. and desert vistas, pris- This ongoing program develops projects and recruits tine mountain streams Jamie Anderson working with volunteers during the upper volunteers to work on the public lands throughout the teeming with trout, Owens headwaters restoration project. Photo by Friends Eastern Sierra landscape. By actively connecting individu- and thousands of of the Inyo staff. als and groups with ecological restoration work, resource miles of backcountry monitoring activities, and interpretive development proj- wilderness trails through the High Sierra draw more visi- ects, we are working to deepen the public commitment to tors each year than Glacier, Yellowstone, and Grand preserving our national natural heritage. Canyon National Parks combined. In 2003 nearly 160,000 Friends of the Inyo is a growing grassroots conserva- hikers, anglers, climbers, and equestrians camped tion and nonprofit organization dedicated to preserving overnight in the Inyo National Forest’s John Muir the public lands and wildlife of the Eastern Sierra of Wilderness Area alone. This number excludes day users California through stewardship projects, natural history who, to judge by the cars filling trailhead parking areas, hikes, and public lands advocacy. Based out of Bishop, may increase this use number by two to three times. California, we work on projects from the Mojave Desert to Over the last five years, Friends of the Inyo has led the summit of Mount Whitney. Friends of the Inyo was more than 700 people, from locals to visitors from South organized in 1986 by a group of local conservation-minded Africa and Denmark, on nearly 200 publicly noticed free residents. Their mission was simple and very real: to pro- natural history outings, organized numerous stewardship tect and help guide public land decisions regarding their projects in and around locally popular recreation areas, backyard—the 2 million acres of surrounding public and published numerous interpretive brochures in order to lands. The impact of Friends of the Inyo was and still is a acquaint people with the stories of the plants, animals, and very strong influence in conservation management deci- rocks surrounding them. We have also spent considerable sions in the Eastern Sierra. time working to ensure that our public land management

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 13 rocks, and swung their picks and shovels with a purpose to restore and rehabilitate the trails, rivers, creeks, and meadows that are so important to all of us. The creeks and critters applauded as illegal off-highway vehicle tracks were raked out and roads were closed. The meadows and lakes rejoiced with every illegal campsite rehabilitated and fire ring destroyed. In the summer of 2005, the Eastern Sierra Stewardship Corp Volunteers spoke for the things that have no voice, we spoke through our actions, and our actions were heard. Active stewardship is alive and well in the Sierra thanks to the 189 volunteers who came out to protect and preserve the public lands of the Eastern Sierra. Figure 1—Friends of the Inyo volunteers proud of their work in the Inyo Wilderness Area. Photo by Friends of the Inyo staff. Inyo Mountains Wilderness One of the areas that the Friends of agencies—namely the Inyo National ble summer of stewardship in 2005. Inyo work hard to protect is a remote Forest and Bishop Field Office of the It all seems like a blur now, with desert gem, the Inyo Mountains BLM—have sufficient resources to picks and shovels flying, ash- and Wilderness. At 205,000 acres (82,995 carry out their duties by assisting dirt-stained clothes, long hikes, ha), it is one of the largest wilderness them in their volunteer stewardship blown-out gloves, handsaws sharp- areas designated by the 1994 Calif- projects regionwide. With a perenni- ened, trails restored, smiling faces, ornia Desert Bill. The Inyo Mountains ally shrinking federal budget for unauthorized campsites and fire rings Wilderness is sandwiched between recreation management, it has removed, trash bags overflowing, and Death Valley National Park, which lies become readily apparent that groups long days spent giving back to the to the east, and Owens Valley and the like Friends of the Inyo are needed public lands we all love. What a great Sierra Nevada, which lie to the west. now more than ever to step up with summer, indeed. With the snowpack The northern third of the range is creative solutions to help solve the still holding on far into July, we had a administered by the Inyo National problems facing our public lands. late start, yet it seemed like every Forest, and the southern two-thirds The opportunity provided by the weekend we had another great proj- are under BLM administration. National Forest Foundation’s ect to sink our shovels into. The Inyo Mountains Wilderness Wilderness Stewardship Challenge It all started with a glorious day harbor herds of bighorn sheep and Grant allowed us to firmly establish a in June with the restoration of an ille- mule deer, plus coyotes and the elu- community of local stewardship vol- gal road up into the Inyo Mountains sive mountain lion. Unexpected and unteers. The stewardship portion of Wilderness by enhancing the barri- rare species found in this Mojave sky our work is new, but is rapidly cade with natural features to island include the Inyo Mountain expanding. In its first season, Friends discourage wilderness incursions. slender salamander (Batrachoseps of the Inyo volunteers contributed From removing illegal fire rings in campi), a rare species found only in more than 1,800 hours of hard labor alpine Glacier Canyon to the six remote canyons of the Inyo and returned more than $20,000 in Community Clean Up project along Mountains. This ancient species of volunteer time to the public lands of heavily used Bishop Creek, we made Batrachoseps is confined to desert the Eastern Sierra. From deep wilder- a difference. springs along a 25-mile (40-km) sec- ness trail projects and wilderness Yet, the unsung heroes were our tion of the Inyo Mountains. In the restoration patrols to restoring the volunteers who sacrificed their week- rain shadow of the Sierra, these creeks and rivers of the upper Owens ends, got out of bed early on Saturday mountains receive only 8 inches River watershed, we had an incredi- mornings, hiked all day, lifted heavy (20.5 cm) of precipitation annually

14 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 on the lower slopes and 20 inches elevations are cloaked in creosote (51.2 cm) on the peaks. The land is bush, shadscale, and big sagebrush, high elevation desert, yet contains whereas the higher elevations have a what is arguably one of the most fas- dense forest cover of juniper, pinyon, cinating botanical discoveries of all and limber pine. time: the ancient bristlecone pines The gnarled bristlecone pines (Pinus longaeva). These mountains living today were seedlings when the have maintained most of their pris- pyramids were being constructed tine character due to the sheer and are ancient patriarchs today. ruggedness of the terrain. Bristlecones occur in only six western Figure 2—Hunter Canyon: Home to many endangered The Inyo Mountains Wilderness states, with the oldest found in the and endemic flora and fauna. Photo by Friends of the Area preserves one of the most dra- White-Inyo Range in California. The Inyo staff. matic ranges in the California bristlecone has adjusted to places on desert—the fault-block Inyo Mountains Earth that no other tree wants to and rehabilitated; 0.5 miles of road soar to more than 11,000 feet (3,352 inhabit, and in these harsh environ- removal and revegetated; 36 pounds m) in less than 6.5 miles, creating ments, has flourished, free of of trash removed; 9 square meters of one of the most spectacular desert competition. invasive plants removed; 12 miles of ranges in the world! Waucoba Peak, So, if you’re a desert rat looking trail work completed; 82 miles of the tallest peak in the range soars to to escape the rat race, a rare plant afi- trails surveyed, toured, and scouted; 11,123 feet (3,390 m) above sea level. cionado, a fossil hound, or an 124 volunteers engaged; 131 hours Waucoba, the Paiute name for “pine,” aspiring herpetologist looking for the on the ground and out of the office; is a very appropriate name, given that elusive slender salamander, the Inyo and 1,016 volunteer hours accrued. ancient bristlecone, pinyon, and lim- Mountain Wilderness Area will cer- We anticipate having several ber pines cling to it’s the peak’s tainly not disappoint. The Inyo stewardship projects scheduled for windswept summit. These same tow- Mountains Wilderness: where access the spring and summer of 2006, as ering mountains were once ancient is extremely limited and solitude is there is still plenty of work yet to be sea floors teeming with Paleozoic easily obtained is a true desert wilder- done to continue to protect this desert creatures that are still found frozen in ness in the sky. wilderness gem. We have already time in its fossilized shale layers. started working to revegetate and Researchers have recently found giant The Inyo Mountain Wilderness Area close old roads that off-highway vehi- megalodon shark teeth. Three hun- Needs Friends cles were using to illegally enter the dred twenty-five million-year-old Friends of the Inyo is currently work- Inyo Mountains Wilderness Area. ammonoids and pelecypods are ing diligently with public land Maybe we’ll see you at our next event. tucked away in area canyons. managers to increase protection of Until then, remember the ole’ Cactus The dry climate and high altitude this incredible wilderness area by Ed slogan: “I come more and more to make this region a rare and endan- monitoring and patrolling for the the conclusion that wilderness, in gered environment. The rapid increased illegal vehicular incursions, America or anywhere else, is the only changes in elevation create abrupt as well as providing assistance with thing left that is worth saving.” IJW habitat and species changes. This fac- wilderness boundary signage and the tor, combined with a short growing development of an educational kiosk JAMIE ANDERSON is the outreach director season, results in sparse, delicate, and project. Friends of the Inyo has for the Friends of the Inyo. Email: rare flora. Recovery from disturbance already accomplished several wilder- [email protected]. Website: www. is slow—occurring on a scale of cen- ness projects: 62 campsites removed friendsoftheinyo.org. turies, not seasons. What about the flora? Well, the Inyos have some of the oldest and the rarest. Outcrops of seeping lime- Friends of the Inyo is...dedicated to preserving the stone walls and deep canyons support a number of rare plants, public lands and wildlife of the Eastern Sierra of including: Limestone evening-prim- California through stewardship projects, natural rose (Oenothera caespitosa ssp. Crinita), July gold, (Dedeckera history hikes, and public lands advocacy. eurekensis), and many others. Lower

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 15 SCIENCE and RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Wilderness Stewardship in an Era of Global Changes BY DAVID J. PARSONS

t seems increasingly clear that the primary challenge to the future preservation of wild landscapes will be Iadapting to the rapidly changing social and biophysical environments within which such areas exist. Established in large part as islands of naturalness, where human influences are minimized, wilderness ecosystems are now threatened by myriad changes, many of which result from external human activities over which wilderness managers have no control. Evidence of the effects of climate change, especially of a warming environment and increasingly unpredictable extreme weather events, has heightened awareness of the vulnerability of even the most natural of ecosystems. Droughts, melting glaciers, receding ice caps, algal Wilderness has featured a number of recent articles on the blooms, increasingly severe wildfires, and climate-induced importance of change for protecting and managing wilder- shifts in faunal populations have captured international ness (see Chapin et al., 2004, 10[3], “Wilderness in a attention and raised serious questions about the future of changing Alaska”; Flood and Colistra, 2005, 11[3], protected ecosystems and associated traditional ways of “Changes in the aftermath of natural disasters”; and sev- life. Ecological changes, including the spread of invasive eral articles [Miller, Kruger, and others] in the April 2006, species, increased fuels resulting from fire suppression, 12[1] issue on wilderness fire policy in a changing world). and the effects of expanding rural development, are caus- These topics barely touch the surface of the ever-growing ing additional stress to many wilderness ecosystems. Social documentation of the implications of different types of change is occurring simultaneously, as expanding human change on natural ecosystems. populations, shifting age and ethnic demographics, and The 8th World Wilderness Congress (WWC) in 2005 changing values and lifestyles, including an increasing featured change as an overriding theme. Entire tracks reliance on technology, influence the relationships humans focused on such topics as the challenges of wilderness experience with the natural world. stewardship in a changing environment, and evolving rela- Recognition of the importance of “change,” whether tionships between native people and wilderness. A climatic, ecologic, or social, on natural systems has workshop designed to facilitate dialogue attracted a room- become increasingly apparent to the natural resource and ful of scientists and public land managers to discuss the scientific communities as well as to the general public. The challenges climate change poses to the management of pro- popular press has featured myriad articles on possible link- tected areas, including the role science can play in better ages between human activities and the occurrence and defining options and outcomes. The closing plenary ses- effects of severe droughts, hurricanes, floods, and fires. sion at the WWC featured a panel of scientists and a Recent cinematic releases have highlighted the threats posed by climate change. The International Journal of Continued on page 8

16 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

The Effects of Veterinary Fences on Wildlife Populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana

BY JOSEPH E. MBAIWA and ONALETSHEPHO I. MBAIWA

Abstract: This article examines the effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using data from secondary data sources, findings indicate that the existence of veterinary fences in the Okavango Delta contributes to the decline of wildlife species in Botswana. Veterinary fences are erected to control the spread of livestock diseases in order to protect the European Union beef market where Botswana’s beef is largely exported. Migratory wildlife species such as wildebeests, zebras, giraffes, buffalo, and tsessebes have their migratory routes blocked by veterinary fences and hence die from dehydration and entanglements in the fence. Those that get trapped by the fence often become easy kill targets for poachers. Some of the animals have been observed walking along the fence trying to cross. The erection of veterinary fences indicates that the expansion of livestock production into wildlife areas threaten the survival of wildlife in Botswana. To address the problem, an integration of wildlife production with other sectors such as agricultural development should be made a priority at national and local policy levels. This means that the principles of sustainability should be given priority in the erection of veterinary fences in wildlife areas.

Introduction Some of the largest populations of wild animals in Africa are found in Botswana (see figure 1). These wild animals include elephants, buffalo, zebras, lions, impalas, kudu, giraffes, red lechwe, and many other small species scattered all over the country. Although Botswana’s rangelands have supported a variety and abundance of wildlife resources for hundreds of years, recent studies such as those by Lomba (1991), Mordi (1991), Campbell (1995), Perkins (1996), Perkins and Ringrose (1996), and Albertson (1998) pointed out that Botswana’s wildlife populations are in a constant decline (see figure 2). Perkins and Ringrose (1996) stated that Botswana’s Joseph E. Mbaiwa Onaletshepho I. Mbaiwa abundant wildlife resources have been on decline since the 1960s (see table 1). Spinage (1991) also argued that PEER REVIEWED

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 17 Taylor and Martin (1987) pointed out that any Third World state that aspires to export beef to international markets, especially in Europe, is required to meet high standards of veterinary hygiene and disease management. In Botswana, this is achieved through the construction of a network of veterinary cordon fences and quarantine camps that divide the country into disease control areas between which livestock movements are restricted. This strategy has resulted in Botswana being crisscrossed by a network of veterinary cordon fences. The erection of veterinary fences began in 1958 with the Kuke Fence (Perkins and Ringrose, 1996). Since then, different districts in Botswana have had veterinary fences erected one at a time over the years. This article is limited to the effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in the Okavango Delta region in northwestern Botswana. It discusses the effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations based on the principles of sustainability. The aim is to analyze the role that sustainability can play in minimizing the degradation of the wildlife population in Botswana. The

Figure 1—Map of Botswana showing the Okavango Delta (Mbaiwa 2005). Okavango Delta is a classical case study because it has some of the largest concentrations of wildlife although Botswana has one of the With the exception of the ele- species in Botswana. most comprehensive game laws in phant and the gemsbok, table 1 Africa, there are fears about the shows that almost all other wildlife Methods sustainability of wildlife resource species have been declining. Species This article relied on the use of utilization, as wildlife populations are that are mostly affected include secondary data sources. Specific in a state of constant decline. wildebeests, hartebeests, and zebras. materials used include both pub- Therefore, an investigation of factors lished and unpublished articles and that cause wildlife decline in reports on veterinary fences and Botswana is essential. Human factors wildlife management in Botswana. such as livestock production—partic- Government policy documents on ularly veterinary fences—are cited as wildlife management (e.g., annual factors that contribute to the decline aerial wildlife surveys), consultancy in wildlife populations in Botswana reports, maps, books, and other (Lomba 1991; Mordi 1991; Perkins related information on veterinary and Ringrose 1996; Grag Gibson/ fences and wildlife populations were Environmental Investigation Agency also used. The information obtained Figure 2—Giraffes in the Okavango Delta. Photo by J. E. 2004; Scott Wilson Resource from these documents include Mbaiwa. Consultants 2000). wildlife statistics, the changing status

18 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 of wildlife populations, and the effects of veterinary fences on wildlife Table 1. Changing Status of Some Wildlife Species in Botswana populations. Finally, data collected (Perkins and Ringrose 1996) was analyzed qualitatively. Species 1978 1999 Results Wildebeest 315,058 46,741 Beef production remained Botswana’s Hartebeest 293,462 31,114 chief export product until it was rele- Eland 18,832 15,163 gated to second by diamond export in Springbok 101,408 51,792 the late 1970s, and to third by Ostrich 92,286 32,499 tourism in 2004 (Mbaiwa 2005). Zebra 100,295 55,406 Politicians and decision makers in Sable 3,636 (1987) 2,052 Roan 1,228 (1987) 884 Botswana consider the erection of Impala 56,773 (1987) 45,183 veterinary fences necessary for the Sitatunga 1,541 (1987) 1,234 improvement of the country’s econ- omy. As a result, Botswana is being crisscrossed by a network of veteri- animal numbers.” The Kuke Fence the wildebeest die-offs constitute a nary fences (see figure 3) to control completely cuts the movement of massive reduction in large herbivore livestock diseases. These fences are wildlife species from northern biomass in the Kgalagadi system. noted for having effects on migratory Kgalagadi and the Schwelle region This means the limiting effects of wildlife populations in the country. with the Northern system (Okavango wildlife movement by fences, espe- Since this article is limited to Delta region). The fencing of the cially in drought periods when fences in the Okavango region, it is eastern parts of Central Kalahari wildlife need to migrate to wet areas, necessary to describe wildlife migra- Game Reserve further cuts wildlife negatively impacts on wildlife popu- tion patterns here. Wildlife migration movement from the Kgalagadi area, lations in the area. routes are mostly between the inner especially Central Kgalagadi Game (wet) and outer (dry) areas of the Reserve and the Boteti/ Makgad- The Buffalo Fences Okavango Delta. In wet seasons when ikgadi system. Silberbauer (1981) The Buffalo Fence is one of the there is water in all the parts of the stated that after the erection of the important fences in Botswana in that Okavango, wild animals migrate to Kuke Fence, severe droughts that are it controls the spread of foot-and- the outer parts of the wetland. In dry endemic to Botswana, resulted in mouth disease in the Okavango Delta seasons when water becomes scarce, heavy wildebeest mortality and the region. The Buffalo Fence runs from wild animals migrate to the perma- effective exclusion of zebra from the the south to the north of the Okavango nent water source areas in the inner Northern (Okavango) system. Child Delta. The fence has succeeded in parts of the wetland. (1972) described the wildebeest die- keeping buffalo populations, which offs at Lake Xau in 1964 and 1970 are known for transmitting foot-and- The Kuke Fence and the severe drought of the 1980s mouth, within the inner parts of the The erection of the Kuke Fence as attributable to the erection of the delta separate from cattle populations started in 1954 and was completed in Kuke Fence. In the dry season, these that remain in the outer parts of the 1958. It runs from the Namibian bor- wildlife species could not migrate to country. The Buffalo Fence is divided der across the northern boundary of areas of water supply, as the fence into the Southern Buffalo Fence the Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve, blocked their movement. erected in 1982 and the Northern where the Makgadikgadi Fence joins There are, however, conflicting Buffalo Fence erected in 1996. The it. The Kuke Fence has had severe figures on the mortality estimates for impacts on the wildlife species found wildebeest die-offs at Lake Xau. in the Schwelle region (i.e., the Owens and Owens (1980, 1983) esti- Kalahari Desert area). As DHV mate the number to be 800,000 (1980, p. 21) put it, “The Kalahari animals, whereas Williamson and appears to be a single system in Williamson (1981), Williamson and which the Schwelle running north- Mbano (1988), and Mordi (1989) put west–southeast through the middle the figure at 50,000 animals. of the region forms an axis, about According to Williamson and Figure 3—The Southern Buffalo Fence. Photo by J. E. Mbaiwa. which are centered the greatest Williamson (1984) and Murry (1988),

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 19 Figure 4—An elephant bull walking along the northern Buffalo Fence in November 1997. The bull has been separated from the rest of the herd by the fence (Kalahari Conservation Society 2005).

Buffalo Fence is reportedly one of the most destructive fences to migratory wildlife species in the region (Albertson 1998). The fence cuts across an area that is described to be Figure 5—CBPP Fences in the Okavango Delta, Botswana (Darkoh and Mbaiwa 2005). a major route for migratory wildlife species to and from dry and wet ing along the Buffalo Fence have also and 1996. The CBPP Fences include (Okavango Delta) areas. Albertson been reported (Scott Wilson 2000). the Northern Buffalo Fence, Setata (1998) stated that the Northern Fence, Samochima Fence, and Ikoga Buffalo Fence not only cuts off the The CBPP Fences Fence (see figure 5). larger migratory patterns of zebras, The outbreak of the Contagious As the government cordoned off wildebeests, and elephants, but also Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), or the whole district, about 320,000 fragments and restricts the move- simply known as the cattle lung dis- cattle had to be destroyed as well ments of localized populations whose ease, in 1995 in the Okavango region (Scott Wilson, 2000). These meas- territories it bisects (see figure 4). led to the extension of veterinary ures were taken partly to assure Albertson indicated that wildlife cordon fences in the area. The CBPP European markets that Botswana’s species mostly affected are eland, is a lung disease that affects cattle beef is safe and free from livestock roan, sables, tsessebes, and giraffes. and water buffalo. The disease is diseases. However, CBPP Fences Veterinary fences such as the highly contagious, and the available have proved to be destructive to Buffalo Fence are also known for vaccine is ineffective in controlling migratory wildlife species, as they causing deaths of migratory wildlife it. In fact, treated animals remain continue to die in large numbers species. Table 2 shows the deaths of carriers of the disease. In order to along them. The visible manifesta- wildlife species along the North control the spread of the CBPP and tion of the fence impact is a buildup Buffalo Fence in 1998. Further effects protect beef markets in Europe, the of wildlife carcasses along the fences. of the Northern Buffalo Fence government erected veterinary The fences also prevent wild animals include entanglement of species. fences that have come to be known from migrating to watering places in Trapping of species and illegal poach- as the CBPP Fences between 1995 and outside game parks, such as Moremi Game Reserve located in the Table 2. Wildlife Species That Died along Northern Buffalo inner parts of the Okavango Delta. Fence in 1998 (Albertson 1998) This limiting effect of the fence dis- putes the once-held belief that game Species Number Period parks can provide for the year-round requirements of wildlife species. As Giraffe 5 January–June 1998 Giraffe 5 July–September 1998 indicated earlier, migratory wildlife Buffalo 2 September 1998 species generally migrate to dry parts Elephant (cow and calf) 2 September 1998 of the Okavango during wet seasons Roan antelope unknown September 1998 and back into wet and inner parts of the Okavango in dry seasons.

20 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 has often led to fences separating Table 3: Wildlife Species That died along the Caprivi Fences, wildlife families from each other. 1997 (Albertson 1998) These animals have been observed attempting to reunite with each other Species Number Period but are unable to do so due to fences Kudu 5 August 1997 that separate them. In addition to Eland 2 June–July 1997 effects on wildlife populations, the Sable 1 July 1997 erection of fences without EIAs has Roan antelope 1 July 1997 resulted in land and resource use Giraffe 5 June 1997 conflicts with other stakeholders. Elephant 1 July 1997 For example, veterinary fences have Ostrich, duiker, steenbok unknown July 1997 become hunting areas for poachers (Scott Wilson, 2000), hence cause Albertson (1998) recorded a Assessments (EIA)—were carried conflicts between wildlife managers number of wildlife species that died out. As a result, there was no prior and subsistence communities in on other fences in the Okavango knowledge on the part of policy these areas. Resource conflicts have Delta area. For example, a trip along makers on the possible impacts of been found to cause resource degra- the Setata Fence on October 13, fences on wildlife populations and dation (Darkoh and Mbaiwa 2001). 1997, recorded the following deaths: wildlife habitat. Apparently, fences in In the case of veterinary fences, seven giraffes, eight gemsboks, two Botswana are mostly erected as a resource degradation includes the wildebeests, two hartebeests, three reaction to some livestock disease decline in wildlife populations in the ostriches, and three kudu (the Setata outbreak, as was the case with CBPP Okavango Delta. Fence was decommissioned and in 1995–966. This reactive approach removed in 2003). As for the Ikoga Fence, a trip taken by a veterinary worker covering 20 kilometers in Table 4: Wildlife Species That Died along Other Fences 1996 found the following numbers of in the Okavango Delta, 1997 animals killed along the fence: two (Albertson 1998, observed along different parts of the fence) kudu, one eland, and one ostrich. Table 3 shows the number of animals Ground Observations, Oct. 13, 1997 Aerial Observations*, Nov 9, 1997 that were found killed along the Setata Fence 4 adults (gemsboks); 7 adults, 2 calves Caprivi Fence. The Caprivi Fence is 1 adult gemsbok, 1 calf (gemsbok); 4 adult (gemsboks); 5 adults (gemsboks); 4 adults, along Botswana’s border with hartebeests; 1 wildebeest; 4 adult ostriches; 1 calf (hartebeests); 3 adults (hartebeests); Namibia. 4 adult wild dogs 1 adult (wildebeest); groups of 2–3 Albertson (1998) also records a individual ostriches number of wild animals that were Ikoga Fence, Oct. 21, 22, 1997 No data recorded from aerial observation. observed either attempting to cross 1 adult gemsbok; 1 adult ostrich fences or walking along them (see Caprivi Fence, Oct. 24, 25, 1997 25 herds of elephants with between 2–55 figure 6). Some of the animals, partic- 7 adults (elands), 2 adults (elands); 1 adult giraffe; animals in each observed on different ularly those that move in herds, got 18 zebras; 2 adult kudu; 6 adult elephants, parts of the fence on November 10, 1997 separated from the rest of their group 2 subadults, 1 calf, 3 adults, 2 adult elephants by fences. Table 4 shows numbers of Northern Buffalo Fence, July 19–21, 1997 herd of 40 buffalo, Oct. 1, 1997 animals that were observed along 2 subadults, 1 calf (roans); 1 adult, 3 calves (roans); herd of 20 buffalo, Oct. 1, 1997 fences either by ground or aerial 3 subadult elephants, 1 adult female elephant and herd of 15 zebras, Oct. 1, 1997 observation. 1 calf; 1 adult eland and a calf; herd of 110 2 adult tsessebes, Oct. 1, 1997 Studies (e.g., Perkins 1996; Scott buffalo, herd of 62 buffaloes (July 21, 1997); several herds of elephants, Oct. 1, 1997 herd of 50 buffalo, herd of 70 buffaloe, herd of 17 herd of 18 elephants, Nov. 10, 1997 Wilson 1998; Albertson 1998; Grag buffalo; 1 adult giraffe; 3 adult tsessebes 4 adult herd of 30 elephants, Nov. 10, 1997 Gibson/Environmental Investigation zebras; 1 kudu calf (Oct 1, 1997); 5 adult elephants, Nov. 10 ,1997 Agency 2004) on the impact of vet- 5 subadults, 1 adult (giraffes), 8 adults and 2 2 subadult elephants, Nov. 10, 1997 erinary fences indicate that none of subadult giraffes (Oct. 27–30, 1997); herd of 20 buffalo, Nov. 10, 1997 the fences in Botswana was erected 3 wildebeests, 2 adults wildebeest (Oct. 28, 1997); Herd of 18 wildebeest, Nov. 10, 1997 after detailed scientific studies—par- 1 adult tsessebe, 2 adult tsessebes (Oct 27, 1997); 5 adults, 2 subadults (kudu) (Oct 28, 1997) ticularly Environmental Impact

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 21 Discussion An integration of wildlife production with other Findings in this article indicate that veterinary fences have been used for sectors such as agricultural development livestock disease control in Botswana should be made a priority at national since the 1950s. Veterinary fences cover thousands of kilometers across and local policy levels. Botswana, and they introduce an entirely artificial constraint upon wildlife movements that is histori- The Impact of Removing Veterinary (p. i). The Kalahari Conservation cally unprecedented in terms of its Fences on Wildlife Species Society study further indicated that scale, magnitude, and longevity of Although veterinary fences con- the removal of the Setata Fence has impact (Mbaiwa and Darkoh 2005). tribute to wildlife decline in led to free movement of wildlife over Migratory wildlife species depend for Botswana, recent studies seem to sug- the old fence as shown by seasonal their survival on seasonal migration gest that a reverse in wildlife migrations of elephants, zebras, and between rangelands and water populations can be achieved if some wildebeests. In addition, gemsbok sources. Veterinary fences block these of the fences are removed. For exam- and hartebeest populations observed migratory routes. The immediate ple, an EIA study by Scott Wilson in 1997 and 1998 comprised very manifestations of veterinary fences (2000) on CBPP Fences recom- small, scattered adults of fewer than include the carcasses found along mended the removal of the Setata and five animals or sedentary lone adults fences and the animals observed Nxai Pan Buffalo Fences. The or calves. Those herds in 2005, after walking along it. Perkins and removal of the Setata Fence was done the fence was removed, were typically Ringrose (1996) stated that veteri- and completed in 2003, and the Nxai larger and more cohesive, with num- nary fences remain central to any Pan Buffalo Fence was removed in bers and age structures within explanation of the dramatic die-offs 2004. Figures 7 and 8 show cables normal ranges. With regard to the of migratory wildlife species that and standards from removed fences. Nxai Pan Buffalo Fence, the study have occurred in the country in the A recent study by the Kalahari assumed that wildlife populations, last 20 years. Albertson (1998), Scott Conservation Society (2005) indi- particularly elephants, buffalo, and Wilson (2000), and Grag Gibson/ cated that “the removal of the 210 zebras, are likely to return to prefenc- Environmental Investigation Agency kilometer Setata Fence and the 66 ing levels over the long term. These (2004) argued that the effects of kilometer portion of the Nxai Pan results indicate that wildlife popula- veterinary fences include the obstruc- Buffalo Fence resulted in an immedi- tions in the Okavango Delta can be tion of wildlife migratory routes, ate end to negative impacts on wildlife reversed if some of the veterinary fragmentation of wildlife popula- populations in the affected areas” fences were to be removed. tions, and the death of animals due to dehydration and entanglement on the fences. Scott Wilson Consultants stated that poaching along CBPP Fences in the Okavango is higher because of the wildlife animals that become trapped by the fences. As a result, veterinary fences have a direct negative impact on wildlife numbers in the Okavango Delta. The erection of veterinary fences in Botswana indicates that in most developing countries, immediate economic benefits for sectors such as agricultural development are often implemented to the detriment of other sectors, such as wildlife management. The other aspect that emerges from this study is that the beef indus- igure 6—Gemsbok between fence lines in 1998 (Kalahari Conservation Society 2005). try in Botswana is heavily subsidized

22 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 Figure 7—Cables prepared for collection (Kalahari Conservation Society 2005). Figure 8—Standards prepared for collection (Kalahari Conservation Society 2005). with funds by the European Union Botswana. This means that EIAs need Darkoh, M.B.K., and J. E. Mbaiwa. 2005. through the Cotonou Agreement to be done before the construction of Natural Resource Utilisation and Land Use Conflicts in the Okavango Delta, (Perkins 1996; Perkins and Ringrose any veterinary fence. EIA studies may Botswana. Gaborone: University of 1996, Grag Gibson/Environmental also need to be conducted for existing Botswana: Department of Environmental Investigation Agency 2004). The fences and, where possible, some of Science and Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre. involvement of the European Union the fences may require removal. ———. 2001. Sustainable development and in Botswana’s beef industry is part of Removing some veterinary fences has resource conflicts in Botswana. In African globalization and international trade. the potential of reversing wildlife Pastoralism: Conflicts, Institutions and Globalization and international trade populations in the Okavango Delta. Government, ed. M. A. M. Salih, T. Ditez, and A. G. M. Ahmed (pp. 39–55). are important in the economic devel- The Kalahari Conservation Society London: Pluto Press. opment of any country; however, (2005) study has shown that the DHV. 1980. Countrywide Animal and Range they also encourage development removal of the Setata Fence and Nxai Assessment Project. 7 vols. Gaborone, Botswana: European Development Fund programs and strategies that can Pan Buffalo Fence has the potential of and Ministry of Commerce and Industry. cause negative environmental increasing wildlife populations by Grag Gibson/Environmental Investigation impacts. The case of veterinary fences reducing wildlife stress, entangle- Agency. 2004. A Line in the Sand: The Unsustainable Expansion of Botswana’s Beef and wildlife decline in Botswana is ments, death, and separation from Industry at the Expense of Local Communities one example of this phenomenon. each other. IJW and the Okavango Delta. London: EIA Instead of promoting the sustainable Environmental Investigation Agency. use of Botswana’s wildlife resources, Kalahari Conservation Society. 2005. Kalahari REFERENCES Conservation Society Assessment Report: globalization and international trade Albertson, A. 1998. Northern Botswana Removal of Decommissioned Veterinary are thus contributing to the depletion Veterinary Fences: Critical Ecological Fences in Ngamiland District, Botswana. of its wildlife resources. This problem Impacts. Maun, Botswana: Okavango Gaborone, Botswana: Sierra Club, People’s Wildlife Trust. Kalahari Conservation Society, and The can partly be addressed by encourag- Bendsen, H., and T. Meyer. 2002. The dynam- WILD Foundation. ing livestock policies and programs ics of the land use systems in Ngamiland Lomba, R. 1991. Buffalo Fences: Botswana’s that adhere to principles of sustain- and changing livelihood options and Shame. The Death Trap, Collected Papers strategies. In Environmental Monitoring of on the Buffalo Fence. ability in Botswana. This can partly Tropical and Subtropical Wetlands, Mbaiwa, J. E. 2005. Enclave tourism and its be achieved through the integration Proceedings of a Conference, Maun, socio-economic impacts in the Okavango of wildlife management and livestock Botswana, December 4–8, 2002, ed. Delta, Botswana. Tourism Management Bernard et al. (278–304). Maun, production programs. This approach 26(2): 157–72. Botswana: HOORC, Mbaiwa, J. E., and M.B.K. Darkoh. 2005. means that none of these sectors Campbell, A. C. 1995. Utilisation of wildlife in Sustainable development and natural (livestock and wildlife) should be Botswana from earliest times to AD 900. resource competition and conflicts in the given priority to the detriment of the In The Present Status of Wildlife and Its Okavango Delta, Botswana. Botswana Future in Botswana (pp. 45–67). Gaborone, Notes and Records 37: 40–60. other, as is the case with the erection Botswana: Kalahari Conservation Society Mordi, R. 1989. The future of animal wildlife of veterinary fences. and Chobe Wildlife Trust Symposium/ and its habitat in Botswana. Environmental Finally, EIA studies are essential Workshop. Conservation 16(2): 147–56. Child, G. 1972. Observations on wildebeest in promoting an environmentally die-off in Botswana. Arnoldia 5(31): friendly livestock and beef sector in 1–13. Continued on page 41

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 23 SCIENCE and RESEARCH Modeling Encounters between Backcountry Recreationists and Grizzly Bears in Glacier National Park BY NICK SANYAL, EDWIN E. KRUMPE, and CHAD VANORMER

Abstract: The likelihood of a human–grizzly bear encounter in Glacier National Park was modeled using GIS analysis to integrate four social variables (visitor adaptive behaviors, length of time in the backcountry, visitor group size, and the proportion of visitors hiking off- trail) with biological data (numbers and distribution of grizzly bears). The model illustrates three plausible scenarios that reflect varying weights on social and biological parameters. Changes in the percent of the backcountry trail corridor that falls within each “likelihood of encounter” category show that as more importance is placed on human factors, the relative risk of encountering a grizzly bear on a backcountry trail increases.

Introduction show relationships between variables, and sometimes Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for spatial these patterns are generalized over large geographic areas. analysis and display of data has not been adopted exten- However, many analyses have failed to address the spatial sively by recreation managers and researchers (Wing and nature of use and user characteristics; for example, some Shelby 1999). Wing and Johnson (2001) noted that the aggregated statistical descriptions of recreation use over lack of the right kinds of data and the inflexibility of tra- an entire wilderness or park creates an oversimplified ditional analyses remain obstacles to effective recreation description that may not be very useful for on-the-ground planning. Traditionally, the results from recreation sur- management (Landres, Spildie, and Queen 2001; Wing veys have been illustrated using univariate statistics to and Shelby 1999).

Nick Sanyal Edwin E. Krumpe Chad VanOrmer

PEER REVIEWED

24 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 This study was designed to demonstrate how GIS can be used to integrate multiple data sources to model social, geographic, and biological data. The objective of the study was to construct an index model displaying the likelihood of encountering a grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribils) in the Glacier National Park (NP) backcountry. An index model serves to evaluate the attributes of a composite dataset, calculate index values from the attributes, and to create a map based on the index values (Clarke 1999).

Methods Glacier National Park is the central component of the Northern Contin- ental Divide Ecosystem and is one of six brown bear recovery zones recognized under the Endangered Species Act (Servheen 1993). Glacier NP was chosen as the study area for several reasons, including the availability of data on its large population of grizzly bears, data on the numbers and distribution of backcountry recreationists, and the park’s extensive system of trails and trailheads where visitors could be sampled. Figure 1—Steps in preparing and integrating the data sources for the grizzly-human encounter model

Biological Data Measures (anyone who hiked more than 0.5 questionnaire sent to the remaining Biological data, supplied by the miles (.08 km) off the developed road nonrespondents two and four weeks Greater Glacier Bear DNA Project system) and overnight campers (hik- later. Compliance for the self-regis- (nrmsc.usgs.gov/research/beardna.ht ers who spent one or more nights at a tration stations was estimated at 67%. m), included the numbers and distri- backcountry campsite), between May Compliance was higher (mean=78%) bution of grizzly bears in the park, 15 and September 7, 2000, 16 years for trails frequented by overnight which were assembled from 633 or older (VanOrmer 2002). The sam- campers and lower (mean=51%) for barbed wire hair traps set up through- ple was developed by using personal day-use trails. These figures are out the Glacier backcountry. Bears contacts (by handing a mailback slightly higher than those reported by were lured into hair traps where hair questionnaire to participants on ran- McCool, Braithwaite, and Kendall would snag and be left behind. domly selected days as they exited (1989) when they developed this Biologists then collected the hair sam- the backcountry at one of the 31 trail- sampling approach for the Glacier ples and analyzed them for DNA to heads) or mail contacts (by random Park backcountry. Overall, our sam- determine the species of bear and sampling trailhead self-registration pling design was intended to be number of individual grizzlies at each cards at the other 41 backcountry proportional to use levels. trap (Kendall and Waits 2001). These trailheads). A questionnaire was The questionnaire quantified the data were prepared for this analysis as mailed two weeks after a trip. adaptive behaviors of respondents point data, where each point repre- Following Dillman’s Total Design while hiking in bear country. A four- sented a hair trap set up in the park. Method (Dillman 1978), there were point scale (Always, Frequently, Some three follow-up mailings, including a of the Time, Never) recorded the fre- Social Data Measures reminder postcard one week after the quency at which they engaged in The sample consisted of day hikers initial mailing and a second and third each behavior. This 22-item scale (see

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 25 included a polygon coverage of Table 1. Frequency of Use of Adaptive Behaviors by Hikers Glacier NP with the eight management subdistricts and line coverage 1 Means of backcountry trails. Day Overnight ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR Hikers Campers Overall Results Only Only (n=1,591) Questionnaires were administered to (n=968) (n=623) 2,092 backcountry users and completed responses were received from Carrying out garbage 1.2 1.0 1.1 1,591 people (76% response rate), Being especially alert for grizzly bears 1.5 1.5 1.5 Making noise on the trail 2.3 1.1 1.8 including 968 backcountry day hik- Washing dishes well away from camp — 1.8 1.8 ers and 623 backcountry overnight Checking with NPS for current bear warnings 2.2 1.3 1.8 campers. Statistics for the adaptive Hanging food in trees for storage — 1.8 1.8 behaviors are shown in table 1. Few Sleeping in a tent — 1.6 1.8 significant differences were found Cooking 300 feet away from camp — 2.1 2.1 between day and overnight users. Wearing clean clothes while sleeping — 2.3 2.3 Overnight campers were more likely Camping away from trails — 2.3 2.3 than day hikers to “make noise on the Using odor-proof containers 2.5 2.4 2.4 trail” and “check with NPS for cur- Carrying bear defense spray 2.9 2.6 2.8 rent bear warnings.” These two Cooking downhill from camp — 2.9 2.9 behaviors were virtually always prac- Hiking in groups of four or more2 2.9 3.2 3.0 ticed by overnight campers, whereas Using scented deodorants, soaps, cosmetics2 3.0 3.5 3.2 Engaging in fishing2 3.4 3.4 3.4 day users only practiced them fre- Wearing bear bells 3.4 3.5 3.5 quently, at best. Although the mean Hiking alone2 3.6 3.4 3.5 for “using scented deodorants, soaps, Carrying a cell phone 3.5 3.7 3.6 cosmetics” for both groups was in the Cooking fish or bacon for meals2 3.7 3.8 3.8 “some-of-the-time” category, day hik- Hiking after dark 3.9 3.8 3.8 ers were more likely to report using Carrying a firearm 3.9 3.9 3.9 this adaptive behavior. Because of this similarity, our model used the 1 Where, 1=Always; 2=Frequently; 3=Some of the Time; 4=Never combined average for both day and 2 “Negative” behavior, that was reverse-coded prior to analysis. The means in this table reflect overnight users. this change. An Adaptive Behavior Index was created from these 22 variables. The table 1) was enlarged from a previous numeric scoring of the five “negative” list of behaviors identified by resource managers (McCool and Braithwaite 1989) to reduce the likelihood of con- Table 2. Social Parameters Used to Create the Model frontations with bears in Glacier NP. PARAMETER JUSTIFICATION Seven of the adaptive behaviors were specific to overnight use and were not The adoption of behaviors by back country visitors that increases/decreases measured for day hikers. Data were Adaptive behavior index the likelihood a bear encounter. also collected on the length of time each person spent in the backcountry The more time spent in the backcountry or on the trail, the size of the hiking Length of time in the backcountry will increase the likelihood of a bear or camping group, and the proportion encounter of time people engaged in off-trail The smaller the visitor group size, the hiking (see table 2). Visitor group size greater the likelihood of a bear encounter. Spatial Data Measures The higher the proportion of visitors Spatial data, obtained from the U.S. Visitors hiking more than 0.5 miles off trail hiking off trail, the greater the likelihood Geological Survey (USGS) Field of a bear encounter. Station in Glacier National Park,

26 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 Figure 2—Final output map for Scenario 1 (75% biological Figure 3—Final output map for Scenario 2 (50% biological Figure 4—Final output map for Scenario 3 (25% biological weight), risk of encounters weight), risk of encounters weight), risk of encounters behaviors were reversed. For exam- calculated separately for day and sion 3.2a) ModelBuilder Extension. By ple, the codes for cooking fish or bacon overnight hikers. converting the coverage to grids cov- for meals and using scented deodor- The social data were linked to a erage the social data were integrated ants, soaps, cosmetics, were reversed geographic location in the park by with the spatial data. Figure 1 illus- from that recorded in the question- identifying the trailhead where the trates the data sources and the naire, so that a response of Never was questionnaire was issued or the regis- processes each had to go through for recoded to a 1, instead of a 4. This tration card was completed by the preparation of the model. allowed us to sum all 22 variables backcountry hiker. All social data The top layer represents the three creating an additive scale that ranged were generalized to the specific ranger data sources used to create the index from 22 (use of adaptive behaviors subdistrict where it was collected. model. The biological data were used associated with a lower likelihood of to model the density of bears attracting bears) to 88 (use of adap- Creating the Model throughout the park, by interpolating tive behaviors associated with a The first step in creating the model the points in Glacier National Park higher likelihood of attracting bears). was to prepare the data from all where hair from individual bears were The scale had a normal distribution sources for analysis in ArcView (ver- captured, into a grid using the Inverse with a mean of 53.3 and median of 54.0. No significant differences between day hikers and overnight Table 3. Comparison of the Characteristics of Day and campers, or between management Overnight Users of the Backcountry subdistricts were found. Con- Day Users Overnight Users sequently, the aggregate scale scores Characteristic were used for all respondents. (n=968) (n=623) Overnight campers spent an Percent who hiked more than 0.5 miles average of three nights in the back- (0.8 km) from backcountry trails 16.4% 33.7 country, averaging 39.8 hours on backcountry trails (see table 3). They Group size: Mean 3.2 2.8 Median 2.0 2.0 were also twice as likely as day users to engage in off-trail hiking. Day hik- Mean number of hours spent ers spent an average of 14.4 hours on backcountry trails 14.4 39.8 hiking. Both groups hiked in similar Mean number of nights in the sized parties. Because of these differ- backcountry 0 3.0 ences, these social attribute data were

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 27 coverage to create the final output Table 4. Weights for the Three Encounter Scenarios Used maps. The results of applying the with the Index Model model scenarios are displayed as buffered trail system maps. Figure 2 Weights Placed on Each Variable illustrates scenario 1, which places Variables Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 75% of the weight on the biological data. Figure 3 illustrates scenario 2, Grizzly bear density and distribution 75% 50% 25% with 50% of the weight placed on the Adaptive behaviors of hikers and campers 10% 15% 20% biological data, and Figure 4 shows Length of time in the backcountry 5% 15% 20% scenario 3, where 25% of the weight Visitor group size 5% 10% 20% is placed on biological data. Each map provides researchers Visitors hiking more than 0.5 miles 5% 10% 15% (0.8 km) off trail and managers with two important pieces of information that have not been available in the past. The first is Distance Weighted Method (Clarke analysis. The primary difference that the data is spatially referenced; 1999). Next, the grid was converted between the three scenarios is the we can now see where potential from a continuous to a discrete grid distribution of the weights between encounters between humans and using the Weighted Overlay process. the biological and social variables. grizzlies may occur along the back- This combined the different data The probability of an encounter country trail system. The second is a sources and converted them to com- between human and grizzly was quantification of the area in each mon values that could then be obtained by calculating means for “likelihood of encounter” category. manipulated in the ModelBuilder each variable for each of the eight Table 5 shows the changes in the Extension program. management subdistricts in the park percent of trail corridor that falls The spatial data file contained and creating a 3-point probability of within each “likelihood of the boundary of Glacier NP and its encounter scale (low, medium, or encounter” category. Under scenario eight management subdistricts, and it high-probability of an encounter). 1 (75% of the weight assigned to bio- was converted from a shapefile into a Cut-off values for the encounter scale logical data), 71% of the trails are in grid before importing the social were set at the 33rd and 66th per- the low likelihood class, 27% in the attribute data. The social attribute centiles. medium likelihood class, and 2% in data were statistically summarized by The final step of model develop- the high likelihood class. Under sce- individual management subdistrict ment was to add the spatial coverage nario 2, there is almost a halving of and added to the attribute tables of of backcountry trails. This data the percent of trails in the low likeli- each grid coverage from the spatial source was combined with the hood category and a doubling of the data file. Finally, the data were weighted overlay map of integrated medium likelihood proportion, with merged into the model, and the social, spatial, and biological data. virtually no change in the high likeli- weights (see table 4) were assigned. The coverage of backcountry trails hood class. Finally, scenario 3 again These weights were created by was modified to include a 0.25 mile shows another shift in the likelihood research biologists and social scien- (0.4 km) buffer around the trails to categories as a result of different tists to represent three encounter represent the trail corridor that was assigned weights. These changes scenarios that were modeled in this merged with the weighted overlay show that as more importance is placed on human characteristics there is an increase in the relative risk Table 5. Percent of Trail Corridor within Each Likelihood of encountering a grizzly bear on a of Encounter Category backcountry trail.

Likelihood of Encounters Discussion Model Low Medium High This application shows that GIS is a flexible tool that can be used to Scenario 1 (75% biological) 71% 27% 2% model site-specific resource condi- Scenario 2 (50% biological) 37% 62% 1% tions. It is also flexible enough that Scenario 3 (25% biological) 7% 93% 0% resource professionals can easily manipulate data and create scenarios

28 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 specific to resource objectives. In this human use, such as roads and trails, of the data input into the model case, integrating recreation character- correlated well with the locations of should be evaluated and the models istics and biological grizzly bear data human-caused grizzly bear mortali- should be verified against actual provides insight as to where potential ties. They concluded that spatial bear-human encounters before bas- conflicts may occur within the park. models, such as presented in this arti- ing management decisions on GIS This provides managers with more cle, can be used for management of modeling alone. This has not been site-specific direction about where to humans in grizzly bear territory and done for this study. focus management activities that will for the identification of potential con- The spatial analysis technology mitigate those conflicts. trol sites. needed to make decisions that affect GIS models show how human and biological data can be integrated to create scenarios for more In this case, integrating recreation characteristics informed decision making. For and biological grizzly bear data provides instance, Nielsen, Herrero, Boyce, Mace, Benn, Gibeau, and Jevons insight as to where potential conflicts (2004) found that relatively little of the landscape was secure from may occur within the park. human-caused grizzly bear mortality and recommended decreasing Although our analysis addressed resources is gradually becoming eas- human access to grizzly-occupied only two components of the natural ier to use and more available. It will areas as the remedy. Our model can environment within Glacier National benefit all natural resource disci- help pinpoint most likely locations Park, a major asset of GIS modeling is plines to be able to model alternative for human-grizzly encounters. that other data can easily be incorpo- management decisions based on inte- Increasing levels of recreation rated into the model. For instance, grated data prior to implementation. use in parks and wilderness areas can our analysis focused only on back- Integrated resource GIS modeling is have a negative impact on wildlife country trails, whereas there are an analysis tool that deserves more species, some of which depend on the several other potential points of research attention and on-the-ground protections afforded by these desig- human-bear conflicts that can occur implementation. IJW nations. Information on the types, within the park, such as front coun- likelihood, and location of impacts try campgrounds and backcountry REFERENCES can enhance our ability to find suc- chalets. Biological data included only Dillman, D. A. 1978. Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method. New cessful management solutions to data on the location and numbers of York: John Wiley & Sons. such conflicts. Our model shows that bears, but certainly, the model could Clarke, K. C. 1999. Getting Started with changes in human behavior are more include age composition, vegetation Geographic information Systems, 2nd ed. critical if one goal of backcountry phenology, seasonality, and data on Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kendall, K. C., and L. Waits. 2001. Monitoring management is to reduce the relative prey species and other foods. Grizzly Bear Populations Using DNA. risks associated with encountering Even though GIS modeling Bozeman, MT: U.S. Department of the grizzly bears. By institutionalizing allows us to visualize management Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center. the adoption of adaptive behaviors, decisions prior to implementation, Landres, P., D. Spildie, and L. P. Queen. 2001. higher numbers of bears may be caution must be taken when devel- GIS Applications to Wilderness Manage- accommodated without reducing oping management strategies. For ment. RMRS-GTR-80. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain human use levels. instance, assigning weights to the Research Station. Nielsen et al. (2004) examined variables is a subjective exercise. Nielsen, S. E., S. Herrero, M. S. Boyce, R. D. the hypothesis that grizzly bear mor- Managers at Glacier National Park Mace, B. Benn, M. L. Gibeau, and S. tality relates to factors describing may assign weights differently, bas- Jevons. 2004. Modelling the spatial distribution of human-caused grizzly bear human accessible habitats in loca- ing them on more current data and mortalities in the Central Rockies ecosys- tions that bears frequent. They managerial knowledge. However, tem of Canada. Biological Conservation developed a predictive model this flexibility is what makes GIS 120: 101–113. McCool, S. F., and A. M. Braithwaite. 1989. describing the distribution of human- such a useful tool for modeling and Beliefs and behaviors of backcountry caused grizzly bear mortalities for on-the-ground resource manage- campers in Montana toward grizzly bears. Alberta and Yoho National Parks of ment. Because GIS models rely Wildlife Society Bulletin 17(4): 514–19. southern Canada, and found that largely on the type of data that are landscape attributes relating to entered into the system, the quality Continued on page 48

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 29 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

Developing Wilderness Character Monitoring A Personal Reflection

BY PETER B. LANDRES

he 1964 U.S. Wilderness Act has one, clear man- asked Steve Boutcher, the agency’s wilderness information date to the agencies that manage wilderness: manager, and me to cochair a Forest Service Wilderness Tpreserve the wilderness character of the area. But Monitoring Committee. Our task was to craft a monitoring even though the Wilderness Act went into effect 42 years strategy to improve wilderness stewardship. As a team we ago, and all four federal agencies that manage wilderness debated, we listened, and we argued respectfully while work- have policies that direct managers to preserve wilderness ing through excruciatingly detailed discussions: What is character, the agencies can’t show whether they are pre- wilderness character? How does management affect it? serving wilderness character or not. Would our monitoring diminish the important intangible In part this lack of accountability is a result of the benefits of wilderness character? Can we develop a cost- deeply intangible values and benefits that are such an effective monitoring protocol? How will line officers and important part of wilderness character. These were the cor- staff use the information to improve wilderness stewardship? nerstones that Howard Zahniser, principal author of the Eventually, more than 50 people were actively engaged Wilderness Act, strove to preserve: that people would feel in developing this monitoring protocol, demonstrating their connection to and interdependence with nature, that close partnership between management and science staff. humility would grow from being surrounded by and The protocol has been reviewed by more than 30 man- immersed in the community of life, that people would be agers, line officers, and scientists, and it’s been pilot tested inspired. Although it may be hard for the agencies to mon- in all nine Forest Service regions. itor these intangible benefits, the agencies should be The protocol uses the statutory language of the 1964 accountable for the more tangible outcomes of manage- Wilderness Act to identify four qualities of wilderness char- ment decisions that affect wilderness character. acter that the agency has management responsibility for: Over the past five years, a dedicated and passionate “untrammeled,” “natural,” “undeveloped,” and “outstand- group of wilderness managers, agency staff (mostly Forest ing opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined Service but also represen- type of recreation.” Each quality is divided into one or more tatives from the three monitoring questions or goals to focus monitoring, and other wilderness manage- these are divided into one or more specific indicators. ment agencies), and Indicators were chosen based on three criteria: They had to scientists have labored to be meaningful across multiple scales to help improve indi- develop a new protocol to vidual unit wilderness stewardship and national wilderness monitor wilderness char- policies; they needed to apply to at least half of the 407 acter in wildernesses Forest Service wildernesses; and data for the indicator had managed by the U.S. to be available within the Forest Service with no new field Forest Service. This work data collection, or available as an external national dataset. began when Jerry Stokes, This last criterion was vital for several reasons, but most who was then the Forest importantly because in this time of austere budgets a new Service national wilder- monitoring program must be designed to be as cost-effective Peter B. Landres. Photo by Nyssa Landres. ness program leader, as possible. Also, using existing Forest Service data from

30 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 across the many staff areas with wilderness responsibilities, such as air Monitoring wilderness character has quality, fish and wildlife, vegetation, engineering, range management, and many tangible benefits. recreation, helps integrate wilderness across the agency. Monitoring wilderness character tial effects more quickly and accu- tinue when I’d think about how our has many tangible benefits. First, it rately than before. This new society is increasingly separated from allows informed decisions about the monitoring protocol was also the nature, and how wilderness character effects of stewardship and actions on impetus for a workshop of scientists is such an important touchstone for our wilderness character, which is critical and managers to develop a new social interdependence with nature, for fos- for about half of all line officers in the science research agenda to improve tering humility and respect, for how Forest Service who have responsibility understanding about how manage- we grow when we’re challenged. for managing wilderness. Second, it ment policies, decisions, and actions Although I’m the one who received provides accountability for the man- affect wilderness character in general, the award for this work, this work is date in the Wilderness Act to “preserve and the outstanding opportunities not mine. The reality is that this moni- wilderness character.” Third, it builds quality in particular. toring was conceived of and developed internal agency integration by making On a personal level, just like a by a team of people, both managers and information from other program areas wilderness journey, this work has scientists, who had one goal clearly in more accessible to wilderness man- taken me on a path of challenge and mind: to honor the letter and spirit of agers, and vice versa. Fourth, it creates discovery, frustration, humility, and the Wilderness Act. I am deeply hon- an “institutional memory” about the eventually deep satisfaction. I’ve ored and humbled to have had the outcomes of wilderness stewardship spent years working to define, then opportunity to work with such a won- decisions, allowing future managers to refine, then define and refine again derful group of people who could learn from the past. the big picture and hundreds of translate their years of on-the-ground There are also tangential bene- details for this monitoring; the entire experience into a tool to help managers fits. Describing wilderness character time has been a wonderful challenge preserve wilderness character for our in terms of the four qualities is full of discovery. Throughout these children, for our future. IJW already being used as an organizing years there certainly were frustrating framework in several NEPA effects moments and times where I ques- PETER B. LANDRES is a research ecologist analyses. Management staff involved tioned if I should be putting so much at the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research in these analyses felt that this frame- time and effort into developing this Institute, Missoula, Montana, USA. Email: work helped them document poten- monitoring. But I knew I should con- [email protected]. Chief’s Excellence in Wilderness Research Application Award Dr. Peter B. Landres received the Peter led an effort to develop a • • • 2005 Excellence in Wilderness national protocol for monitoring The monitoring protocol incor- Research Science Application Award, changes in wilderness character in porates biophysical, social, and cosponsored by the U.S. Forest all 407 wildernesses managed by the managerial aspects of wilderness Service and IJW. His work in moni- Forest Service. Despite the recent into a cohesive assessment of wilder- toring wilderness character based on 40th anniversary of the Wilderness ness character. The IJW Editorial the language in Wilderness Act was Act, the phrase “protect wilderness Board is pleased to jointly recognize heralded by his colleagues and character” has never been defined Dr. Peter Landres for this award and wilderness managers as central to a sufficiently for the purpose of deter- his leadership in developing a moni- team effort—he provided both sus- mining whether or not, we as an toring protocol to measure tained leadership and the science agency, have been successful at wilderness character—the heart of base for this applied research effort. managing for this core mandate of wilderness stewardship. According to one of his colleagues, the Act.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 31 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

Chief’s Excellence in Wilderness Stewardship Research Science Award

r. F. Stuart “Terry” Chapin and the Regional Resilience and Adaptation Program (RRAP) in the DInstitute of Arctic Biology at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, received the 2005 Excellence in Wilderness Stewardship Research Science Award cosponsored by the U.S. Forest Service and IJW. As Professor and Director of the RRAP, Dr. Chapin has led the program to study resilience and vulnerability of northern regions to social and environmental change. The award recognizes their excellence and accomplishment in research that helps directly maintain the cultural and ecological qualities of wilderness. One colleague noted that “this team was so effective…that it precipitated a major theme of the 8th World Wilderness Congress to present evidence of how Dr. F. Stuart Chapin managers and scientists are assessing and addressing social, policy and environmental change in defining and protecting wilderness values.” Some of their work has a blueprint for assessing the factors that govern their sen- been published in IJW (Chapin 2004a) and challenges sitivity to social and environmental change.” managers to The IJW Editorial Board is pleased to jointly recognize Dr. F. Stuart “Terry” Chapin and the Regional manage not for a set of uniform physical attributes but for Resilience and Adaptation Program for this award and protection of a wilderness character that is difficult to define their research in understanding and addressing ecological but which acknowledges the integral nature of the dynamic change and resilience as an important component of relationship between people and the land.(p. 11) wilderness stewardship.

Dr. Chapin and coworkers are most widely known (Chapin and others 2004b, 2005) for their nationally pub- REFERENCES lished work on arctic tundra and boreal forests—the Chapin, F. Stuart, III, Laura Henry, and La’ona Dewilde. 2004a. Wilderness in a changing Alaska: Managing for resilience. IJW dominant forest in polar and subpolar regions of North 10(4): 9–13. America—and the social and environmental factors that Chapin, F. S. and others. 2004b. Resilience and vulnerability of north- are changing these ecosystems. A colleague observed that ern regions to social and environmental change. Ambio 33(6): 344–49. “the scientific value of study of these places as a regional Chapin, F. S. and others. 2005. Role of land-surface changes in arctic system of protected areas to the global ecosystem provides summer warming. Science 310: 657–60.

32 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 EDUCATION and COMMUNICATION

Components of and Barriers to Building Successful Interagency Wilderness Citizen Stewardship Programs BY CONNIE G. MYERS and DON HUNGER

Introduction 1. Agency cham- Integrity of the National Wilderness Preservation System is pion—The most threatened by fire suppression, invasive species, heavy and successful proj- highly concentrated use of sensitive areas, and a growing ects included an disconnect between people and wilderness. The staff, skill agency employee base, and funding needed to address these challenges con- who solidly in- tinue to decline and are currently insufficient. Unless vested in volunteer approaches for closing this staffing and funding gap are efforts by provid- developed, the integrity of wilderness will continue to ing leadership, Article co-authors Connie G. Myers and Don Hunger erode and, along with it, the ecologic, economic, and support, feedback, social benefits of wilderness to our citizens, our country, reward, and sometimes field presence. and our world. • Leadership—Time was taken to build and cultivate One approach successfully employed by some units to trusted relationships with volunteer organizations. help compensate for federal staffing and funding shortfalls • Support—Bunkhouse and office space, equipment is developing and deploying skilled citizen wilderness and supplies, transportation, radios, training, etc. stewards. This article identifies common components of were furnished by the agency to the degree possible. successful volunteer wilderness citizen stewardship programs • Feedback—Projects were evaluated from the per- as well as barriers. spective of both parties, with feedback provided Individual and group meetings were conducted during to decision makers. the 2004 calendar year to explore and identify intersecting • Reward—Volunteer efforts were appropriately circles of interest and capacity among agencies, academia, acknowledged and rewarded. volunteers, and other partner organizations in developing • Field presence—Agency employees participated and deploying citizen wilderness stewards. Specific to the in project work to the degree possible. Forest Service are elements of the 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge that could successfully be addressed 2. Nongovernmental champion—The most successful by citizen wilderness stewards. projects included a nongovernmental organization that conducted volunteer recruitment, training, outfit- Components of Successful Programs ting, and supervision. A number of successful citizen wilderness stewardship • Recruitment—Conducted outreach and matched programs were reviewed to determine what makes them volunteer interest and skill with the project. work. When compared one to another, the following five • Training—Provided training to ensure appropri- common components of success surfaced. ate skill level for the project with some agency support.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 33 • Outfitting—Provided food, helped ensure a positive — Tie need with opportunity transportation, and equip- experience for all parties. — Think of volunteers as ment with minimal agency • Adequate training—Volun- partners support. teers were provided the train- — Conduct air quality moni- • Supervision—Provided full- ing needed to do the job right. toring time field supervision with This eliminated frustration, — Build social capacity minimal agency support. generated mutual respect, through experience as improved safety, resulted in wilderness stewards 3. Meaningful volunteer experi- good work, and provided an — Data analysis/collection ences—The most successful incentive to return. — Recreation management projects were those inspiring • Effective supervision— Vol- and dispersion of people connectedness and community, unteers were supervised by — Standardized program in interesting and meaningful work highly qualified, experienced, training, recruitment, with clear expectations and and inspiring individuals, reimbursement responsibilities, adequate train- agency/nonagency/both, who — Identify experiences we ing, effective supervision, and provided guidance and oppor- can give people while appropriate recognition. tunities for growth throughout getting work done • Connectedness and commu- the entire experience. • Nongovernmental Organiza- nity—Clearly connected • Appropriate recognition— tion Needs volunteer contributions to Volunteers received recog- — Educate citizens for deci- final outcomes so volunteers nition appropriate to their sion making could see how important effort and contribution. — Cultivate happy, healthy, their efforts were in the big connected people picture no matter how 4. Academic and scientific support— — Provide opportunity for menial the task may have Among the most successful citizens to serve been. There was a common monitoring projects were those — Match desired experience sense of what volunteers were supported by academic institu- to project—retirees might trying to achieve together tions providing training, ensur- have different needs, skills with the agency, resulting in a ing data quality assurance and development strong sense of community quality control, data analysis, — Provide appropriate recog- and an incentive to return. and long-term project continuity nition of volunteers • Interesting and meaningful and management. — Meet organization mission work—Large or small, spe- • Training—Provided volun- — Preserve access cific, place-based, discrete teers monitoring training, — Consider volunteer objec- projects were offered having use of equipment, survey tives a beginning, middle, and instruments, etc. end, on a continuum from • Data quality assurance/con- Barriers to Successful Efforts weekend to weeklong to trol, analysis—Conducted Some efforts to develop and deploy monthlong, that were clearly built-in field checks to citizen wilderness stewards failed, connected to making a posi- ensure QA/QC and analyze and even successful citizen wilderness tive difference to the resource. data, providing results to stewardship programs experienced These projects and programs decision maker. setbacks along the way. When com- generated ownership and • Long-term continuity—Man- pared one to another, the following enthusiasm among volunteers aged long-term monitoring five common barriers preventing suc- and an incentive to return. projects to ensure continuity cessful citizen stewardship programs • Clear expectations and respon- over time, application to surfaced: sibilities—Expectations and long-term global trends. responsibilities were clearly 1. Insufficient agency collabora- defined for the agency, 5. Meets needs—Successful citizen tion and coordination with volunteer supervisor, and stewardship efforts meet both volunteer organizations volunteers so there was no agency and nongovernmental • Limited agency staff and confusion about who was organization needs. time—There are fewer supposed to do what. This • Agency Needs employees doing more work

34 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 who are stretched so thin that they cannot spend time Successful citizen wilderness stewardship programs cultivating relationships with volunteer organizations, are partnerships—and partnerships are all about preparing field projects, conducting outreach, and relationships, and establishing and cultivating coordinating volunteer efforts. relationships take both time and dedication. • Limited knowledge and expertise—There is incon- sistency in volunteer manage- In some cases volunteers whole do not have a volun- ment among staff due to spend more time in training teer culture. In some cases, varying levels of awareness than they spend in the field, employees do not believe and knowledge about avail- unless they are returning volunteers capable of doing able partnership authorities. volunteers. Concern about their work. In other cases, liability and number of employees are threatened 2. Bureaucratic barriers courses required frequently because volunteers can do • Inability to reimburse—New precludes investment in their work. Many employees requirements make it almost volunteer program develop- simply don’t want to or don’t impossible to reimburse vol- ment. have time to spend coordi- unteers for gas, supplies, etc. • Support—Providing bunk- nating volunteer efforts. This is a tremendous imped- house and office space, Generating volunteer hours iment to volunteer efforts equipment, supplies, trans- is not part of employee per- resulting in the generation of portation, and the inability formance elements. Volun- ill will between otherwise to dedicate time with volunteers aren’t free. It takes time supportive volunteers, a teers in the field are barriers. to build a strong commit- decline in returning volun- ment from both parties, to teers, and a lack of incentive 4. Insufficient incentive do the planning to prepare a for agency employees to • Agency—Rather than being field project, and to conduct continue volunteer efforts. rewarded for accomplishing outreach. Spending time cul- • Inability to provide gifts— work with volunteers, some tivating volunteer oppor- The agency cannot purchase units are being penalized by tunities is not a priority. gifts in recognition of volun- having funds shifted away • Volunteers—If volunteers teer efforts. They have to from their program to don’t show up, projects are find some other organization another program. Because canceled, resulting in lost to do this, adding to the they have demonstrated an investment and disappoint- already demanding volun- ability to make do with less, ment among volunteers who teer coordination efforts. even less is given. Some didn’t cancel. become a victim of their own 3. Insufficient volunteer training success. Implications and Recommendations and support • Volunteers—Volunteers are Consistently, the most successful citi- • Training—Volunteers are most interested in the volun- zen wilderness stewardship programs treated as if they were employ- teer experience. They want displayed the common elements of ees, so before they even get to interesting and meaningful success and avoided the barriers pre- technical training in moni- work with clear responsibili- sented herein. The implication is that toring, trail reconstruction, ties, effective supervision, if units launching citizen wilderness campsite restoration, weed and appropriate recognition. stewardship efforts embrace the com- identification, etc., they are Without these incentives, mon elements of success and avoid required to take a consider- they are unlikely to return. the barriers, their likelihood of suc- able amount of training, cess will be significantly greater than including defensive driving, 5. Insufficient commitment those who choose to do otherwise. crosscut saw safety, horse • Agency—Although there are Results further suggest that units safety, first-aid certification, unquestionably outstanding would benefit tremendously from field communications, etc. exceptions, agencies as a establishment of citizen wilderness

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 35 stewardship program coordinator 4. Organization and Training— pion who conducts volunteer recruit- positions to cultivate relationships Explore methods for getting ment, training, outfitting, and with volunteer organizations, prepare nongovernmental organizations supervision, and a solidly invested field projects, conduct outreach, and to provide leadership in: agency champion to provide leader- coordinate volunteer efforts. Addi- • organizing, providing logis- ship, support, feedback, reward, and tionally, results indicate that all units tical support for, and sometimes field presence. Given considering establishing new or implementing project work. these requirements for success, citi- enhancing existing citizen steward- • training volunteers. zen wilderness stewardship programs ship programs would benefit from are not to be entered into lightly. knowing who is interested in what 5. Coordination—Provide leader- They most certainly cannot be types of stewardship opportunities, ship in coordination at the local, thought of, or marketed as, “cheap what opportunities are available, and regional, and national levels by labor.” Rather, successful citizen how stewards can be trained. In light designating agency champions wilderness stewardship programs are of these implications, the following on each project site. partnerships—and partnerships are six recommendations are offered: all about relationships, and establish- 6. Motivation and Accountability ing and cultivating relationships take 1. Embrace components of success • figure out what motivates both time and dedication. Units and avoid barriers—Ensure that some agency employees to unwilling or unable to dedicate time units considering development continue developing volun- to this endeavor are discouraged from of citizen wilderness stewardship teer programs, in spite of all even attempting to launch citizen programs are aware of and follow the reasons they have not to wilderness stewardship programs. to the degree possible the identi- do it, then institutionalize it. Those units having successful citizen fied components of success. • figure out what motivates wilderness stewardship programs • distribute electronically through volunteer participation, and stand as a testimony to what can be wilderness mailing lists. provide those incentives. achieved for wilderness. Their suc- • post on wilderness.net. • define accountability and cesses come when time is dedicated build it into performance to cultivating relationships with vol- 2. Explore nonfederal funding in elements. unteer organizations, preparing field support of citizen stewardship • include “actively promoting projects, conducting outreach, and program coordinator positions— and managing volunteers” in coordinating volunteer efforts. We Given current limitations of wilderness managers’ posi- are thankful for their inspiring exam- federal funding, pursue private tion descriptions. ples to help ensure an enduring funding in support of these posi- • reward success. resource of wilderness. tions with organizations such as • conduct a two-way review of the Outdoor Industry Association. each project upon comple- tion to evaluate success. CONNIE G. MYERS is the director of the 3. Identification—Launch efforts Arthur Carhart National Wilderness to recommend a process to suc- Although citizen wilderness Training Center located in the James E. cessfully. stewardship programs will not com- Todd Building, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, • identify organizations inter- pletely compensate for federal Montana 59812-3168, USA; email: cgmy- ested in participating in staffing and funding shortfalls, they [email protected]. wilderness projects and they are one means to continue advancing need in order to be involved. wilderness programs in light of these DON HUNGER is the Senior Director for • identify projects to be com- austere times. A word of caution to Partnership Development, The Student pleted and requirements for those eager to launch such a pro- Conservation Association, 1201 Cornwall participation. gram: The most successful citizen Avenue, Suite 104, Bellingham, WA • match projects with inter- wilderness stewardship programs 98225, USA; email: [email protected]. ested volunteer organizations. include a nongovernmental cham-

36 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Walking with Magqubu Adult Reflections on Boyhood Memories

BY DOUG WILLIAMSON

Introduction km2 (216 miles2). In the fall of 1961, six slightly uncouth 16- to 17- year-old The landscape is boys, including the author, went on a wilderness trail hilly, rugged, and (walking trek) in Kwazulu/Natal. For the author, the trail intersected by river was a seminal experience. In this article I try to describe valleys. It supports the experience, then go on to discuss the physical, psy- a rich diversity of chological, social, existential, and spiritual influences that plant and animal are likely to have been at work in the context of the whole life. experience. In the 1940s the area was ravaged The Location by the veterinary Doug Williamson The trail was in the iMfolozi Game Reserve in northern holocaust that was KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The climate in this part of unleashed on game reserves in Natal (Gush 2000; Player the country is subtropical, and annual rainfall totals about 1997) in an ill-considered campaign to eradicate the tsetse 690 mm (27 inches), with rain falling most months of the fly by exterminating wildlife. When we visited the area in year. The iMfolozi Game Reserve has an area of around 560 1961, it must still have been recovering from the effects of the extermination campaign.

Boyhood Memories Those of us going on the trail were 16- to 17-year-old boys from St John’s College in Johannesburg, where Ian Player (founder of The Wilderness Leadership School, The WILD Foundation, and the World Wilderness Congress) had also been at school. Like the other boys, I hitchhiked on my own from Johannesburg to Mtubatuba in northern KwaZulu-Natal, something we thought nothing of in those days, but is now scarcely imaginable. In Mtubatuba we met up with Ian Player, who had kindly undertaken to drive us to iMfolozi, although “trailists” were normally expected to make their own way to the reserve. I remember Ian, who was then in his mid-30s, as quiet, serious, and unassum- ing. This meant that, although one intuitively respected him, one was not intimidated by him. On arrival at iMfolozi, he introduced us to Hugh Dent, a lean, bearded, mild-mannered man, and to Magqubu Ntombela, a short and stocky Zulu man, with a calm, self-possessed look on his face. He was to be “the Magqubu Ntombela and Ian Player on trail in iMfolozi game reserve photo by eyes and ears of the trail party” (Player 1997, p. 197), Vance G. Martin. while Hugh Dent would be the interpreter, both in the

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 37 quite uncanny. When he pointed to something in the distance, say a group of rhinos, we would usually struggle to locate it, or sometimes even be unable to do so without the help of Hugh’s binoculars. We also learned about his amazing stamina. Despite the fact that he was more than 60 years old, we struggled to keep up with him. On both the nights we slept out, it started getting dark when we were still quite far from our camp for that night. In the most nonchalant way imaginable, Magqubu just started running. After a long day of walking this seemed a bit much and it elicited much moaning and cursing from us youngsters, but Watching Cape buffalo on the Wilderness Trail in the iMfolozi game reserve. Photo courtesy of Wilderness Leadership School. we would not otherwise have made it to the camp before dark. sense of interpreting Magqubu’s Zulu had left skid marks as it slid down a The overnight camps were per- for us and our English for him, and little bank into the water. fect—arriving at dusk to find in the sense of interpreting the natu- On the trail, Hugh would stop us everything ready for us, settling into ral world to us. from time to time to point out or the camp, sitting on the ground Hugh explained how the trail explain some feature of interest. He around the campfire, having a simple was organized. It was a pleasant sur- was a refined and sensitive person supper, chatting, being entertained by prise to learn that we would not have who had studied portrait painting in Magqubu’s miming of rhinos mating to carry our backpacks. While we London and lectured in art at the and other animal behaviors, and were on the trail our gear, food, and Durban Poly-Tech College, and it was finally, deep and well-earned sleep on tents and other gear would be carried my impression that he was some- the ground in small tents. by donkeys to the campsite selected times rather startled by the questions My memory that they gave us a for that night. This sounded like a and responses that we delivered in bit of a tough time is confirmed by a splendid arrangement to me, but my our uninhibited boarding school note that Hugh Dent made on the clandestine hopes of a comfortable vocabulary. Such as when he was Game Count Record Sheet that he jaunt were not fulfilled. explaining to us the significance of a filled in for this trail. He gave this sheet to my co-trailist Geoff Robinson, who recently passed it on Having been so influenced by wild places to me, still in good condition. On it there is a note about the route of the makes me wonder, “what about them trail which reads: “S.W. Section— so engages and moves me?” Big Circle!” A colleague who knows IMfolozi well regards the information on The trip gave us quite a hard rhino dung midden. He started by say- Hugh’s Record Sheet as an important time. Of course we did stop to look at ing: “This is where the rhino comes historical document because it docu- things, have a drink, or a lunch along to have a…umm...err...”, at mented that the populations of break, but most of the day we were which point we made a couple of different antelope species have walking steadily through the hilly quite robust suggestions. He politely changed radically over time. Species and sometimes rocky country. The ignored these and finally settled on: that were rare in 1961 are now com- weather was quite hot and such was “This is where the rhino comes along mon, species that were common in our thirst that, at one point, we did to have a bog.” 1961 are now rare or absent, probably not hesitate to drink from a muddy Magqubu was always in the lead. because of habitat change. pool, on one side of which a rhino We learned that his eyesight was

38 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 Adult Reflections It is 45 years since our wilderness trail in IMfolozi with Magqubu Ntombela and Hugh Dent, and it is my most vivid memory of that time. Having visited the Kruger National Park several times before going on this trail, it was not my first bushveld experience, but it was my first experience of seeing wildlife on foot rather than from a car. Following this IMfolozi experience, although I was not conscious it was happening, I was clearly drawn to wild and remote places. Immediately after finishing high school at the end of 1961 the quest began—in January 1962 hitchhiking to Tanganyika, to climb Kilimanjaro; in July 1962 joining a two-week Overlooking the Black iMfolozi River. Photo courtesy of the Wilderness Leadership School. walking expedition in the Richtersveld—a spectacular arid walking in the bush or along the then field study of the red lechwe on the mountain wilderness in a bend of the unspoiled coast of northern Zululand western edge of the Linyanti Swamp Gariep/Orange River near to where it or hiking and climbing in the moun- in northern Botswana. At the time, enters the Atlantic. In December tains. the area was uninhabited because of 1962 and January 1963, I was travel- Throughout this period my inter- the presence of the tsetse fly and was ing around East Africa visiting parks, est in natural history was growing wonderfully remote and rich in including Serengeti, Ngorongoro, and being deepened by reading wildlife. Queen Elizabeth National Park, and widely about its multiple aspects. The Having been so influenced by climbing Mount Kenya. culmination of all this was a decision wild places makes me wonder, “what And so the travels continued for to abandon my professional career as about them so engages and moves my entire university career and early a lawyer and to embark on a career in me?” Thinking about this has led me professional life as a lawyer. In addi- conservation. This involved going to infer that multiple influences con- tion to substantial trips, there were back to college and eventually getting tribute to what one experiences in many weekends spent camping and a doctorate in zoology, based on a wild places—only some of which can be touched on here. They include the physical characteristics of the area, specifically: “Natural character, remoteness and the absence of overt human influence are the main attributes of wild land” (Scottish National Heritage 2003). Influences that affected us psy- chologically on our IMfolozi trail included the challenge of meeting the physical demands of the experience and the satisfaction of doing so; the danger of a close encounter with a black rhino, a leopard, or a really dangerous snake, such as a black mamba; and the uncertainty about how such an encounter would work Wilderness Leadership School trailists in camp in the iMfolozi. Photo courtesy of the Wilderness Leadership School. out. There were also social influences

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 39 world. In this world, human domi- an entity with its own predilections nance is attenuated, and many and sensations, albeit sensations that nonhuman intelligences, in the form are very different from our own. of myriad species of mammals, birds, (Abram 1997, pp. 6–10) reptiles, fish, and insects, are actively sustaining themselves and each expe- The shaman is deeply immersed riencing the world in their own in this world and is capable of, for unique way (Abram 1997). By recog- instance, “feeling the flight of a raven nizing and respecting these or a falcon as if you are it” (Taylor intelligences and the animate world 2005, p. 161). of trees, shrubs, grasses, herbs, At this level of engagement one mosses, and fungi, which are an enters the realm of spirituality, but it expression of the land itself, we enter is not necessarily an incorporeal or into this more-than-human world. supernatural spirituality. From his Those of us raised in an urban interactions with traditional shamans setting have to work to become aware in Asia, David Abram infers “that the of and comprehend these spirits of an indigenous culture are autonomous intelligences, but in cul- primarily those modes of intelligence tures closer to the land there are or awareness that do not possess a individuals, hunters, and shamans, human form” (1997, p. 13). In other for instance, who are deeply words, the spirits are the living non- informed about and involved with human members of the them. That Magqubu was such an more-than-human world in which Magqubu Ntombela Zulu Enduna (chief and game scout) individual is clear from Ian Player’s human communities are embedded. 1990–1993. Photo by Vance G. Martin. descriptions of his uncanny ability to In similar fashion, my own per- sense the proximity of unseen ani- ception of human spirituality is that arising from the composition of our mals and anticipate their behavior it is a manifestation of the animate group, our isolation from the mun- (Player 1997). and material more-than-human dane world, and the challenges and In shamanistic societies, the world out of which we emerged, an experiences we shared. We ended up shaman is primarily a mediator attribute of embodied human intelli- with increased understanding of our- between the human community and gence (Lakoff and Johnson 1999), selves and each other. the more-than-human world in rather than of a disembodied, incor- Another influence was what, for which it is embedded, and only sec- poreal mind or spirit, caged within want of a better word, one might ondarily a medicinal practitioner. the body. It is primarily concerned think of as the existential component with the values one lives by, how one of the experience—the fact that one His magic is precisely this heightened relates to others, including nonhu- literally entered into a different receptivity to the meaningful man others, and the way in which world. One could describe this world solicitations—songs, cries, gestures— one finds meaning and purpose in simply as a game reserve, set aside by of the larger, more-than-human field. life. In this sense, a spiritual experi- people to conserve wild species of Magic...is the experience of existing in ence is one that ultimately catalyzes a animals and plants. But this is more a world made up of multiple change in one’s values and opens new or less the perspective of a human- intelligences, the intuition that every pathways to meaning and purpose. dominated world in which humans form one perceives—from the swallow So, as I now understand it, the enter as spectators or tourists. A swooping overhead to the fly on a IMfolozi wilderness trail all those richer perspective is that of human as blade of grass, and indeed the blade of years ago was a spiritual experience, a participant in a more-than-human grass itself—is an experiencing form, as well as an adventure, a social inter- action, and an ecological education. The way this experience worked Following this IMfolozi experience, although I was for me was not through visions or dreams, but by engaging me with the not conscious it was happening, I was clearly natural, more-than-human world drawn to wild and remote places. and by initiating the growth of an intense delight in it and an enduring

40 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 commitment to contribute whatever I acquired appropriate academic credentials can to the struggle against its destruc- for a career in conservation, he spent a tion. IJW decade in Botswana, implementing research projects on the behavioural ecol- REFERENCES ogy of red lechwe and the ranging Abram, David. 1997. The Spell of the behaviour and habitat needs of gemsbok, Sensuous. New York: Vintage Books. Gush, Reg. 2000. Mkhuze—The Formative springbok and wildebeest in the Kalahari, Years. Hilton, South Africa: Reg Gush. serving as the officer-in-charge of research Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. 1999. in the Department of Wildlife and National Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Parks, and managing a combined cattle Thought. New York: Basic Books. and game ranch in the Tuli Block. Then, Player, Ian. 1997. Zululand Wilderness: after three years in the late Professor Peter Shadow and Soul. Cape Town, South Jewel’s research group in Cambridge Africa: David Philip Publishers. Scottish National Heritage. 2003. Policy University, he spent five years managing the Statement: Wildness in Scotland’s King Khalid Wildlife Research Centre near Countryside. www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/ Riyadh in Saudi Arabia. Thereafter he spent polstat/pd-wsc.pdf. Taylor, Peter. 2005. Beyond Conservation: A three years as a freelance consultant before Wildland Strategy. London Sterling, VA: working for the Food and Agriculture Night watch around the camp fire, wilderness trail iMfolozi Earthscan Publications Limited. Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) game reserve. Photo courtesy of the Wilderness Leadership for ten years, firstly as a Wildlife Expert on School. DOUG WILLIAMSON was born and raised a combined range improvement and in Johannesburg, South Africa, matriculat- wildlife management project in Syria, then purposes) to vast ecosystems (wildebeest ing from St John’s College in 1961 and as Forestry Officer responsible for Wildlife migration in the Kalahari) and from utterly graduating from the law school of and Protected Area Management in the practical problems to the most abstract pol- Witwatersrand University in 1966. After a FAO’s headquarters in Rome. In the course icy considerations. Having reached the brief stint of legal practice he decided to of all this experience he was exposed to mandatory retirement age of the FAO, he is abandon the law and make a commitment problems and issues at scales ranging from now once more working as a freelance con- to working in conservation. Having the molecular (DNA analyses for taxonomic sultant.

From VETERINARY FENCES on page 23

Murray, M. 1988. Management Plan for Silberbauer, G. B. 1981. Hunter and Habitat in JOSEPH E. MBAIWA is a senior research Central Kalahari and Kutse Game the Central Kalahari Desert. New York: fellow, Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Reserves. Kalahari Gaborone, Botswana: Cambridge University Press. Conservation Society. Spinage, C. 1991. History and Evolution of the Research Centre, University of Botswana, Owns, M., D. and Owns,. 1980. The fence of Fauna Conservation Laws of Botswana. Private Bag 285, Maun, Botswana. death. African Wildlife 34: 25–27. Gaborone: Botswana Society. Currently, however, he is at Texas A&M Perkins, J. S. 1996. Botswana: Fencing out of Taylor, R. T., and R. B. Martin, 1987. Effects of University, Department of Recreation, Parks the equity issue, cattleposts and cattle veterinary fences on wildlife conser- ranches in the Kalahari Desert. Journal of vation in Zimbabwe. Environmental and Tourism Sciences, 2261 TAMU, Arid Environments 33, 503–17. Management, 11(3): 327–334 College Station, TX, USA. Email: Perkins, J. S., and S. M. Ringrose,. 1996. Williamson, D., and B. Mbano. 1988. [email protected]. Development Cooperations Objectives Wildebeest mortality during 1983 at and the Beef Protocol: The Case of Lake Xau, Botswana. African Journal of Botswana, a Study of Livestock/Wildlife/ Ecology 26: 341–44. ONALETSHEPHO I. MBAIWA can be con- Tourism/Degradation Linkages. Gaborone: Williamson, D., and J. Williamson. 1981. An tacted at P.O. Box 305, Maun, Botswana. University of Botswana. Assessment of fences on the large herbi- Scott Wilson Resource Consultants. 2000. vore biomass in the Kalahari. Botswana Email: [email protected]. National Resource Project. Gaborone, Notes and Records 31: 91–94. Botswana: Scott Wilson Resource ———. 1984. Botswana’s fences and the Consultants and Environment and depletion of Kalahari wildlife. Oryx 18: Development Group. 218–22.

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 41 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Announcements

WILD Office Moves to Colorado and Conservation, and the Wilderness The WILD Foundation is pleased to Institute. Her work on Wilderness.net announce that its headquarters office provides an important example of is now based in Boulder, Colorado, in how the university can serve the pub- the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. lic.” Wilderness.net has improved Vance Martin, WILD’s president, is wilderness management, educated enthusiastic: “This move has been wilderness users, and connected under consideration by the Board of wilderness researchers across the Directors for over a year, as we country. (Source: Laurie Yung, direc- wanted our headquarters to be in a tor, Wilderness Institute, University larger and more engaged local com- of Montana.) munity, and more centrally based in the US to reduce travel time and U.S. Forest Service Names New costs. We are very mindful of using University of Montana president George M. Dennison Wildland Managers donations efficiently. The Greater gives Lisa Eidson an award for Outstanding Service. In May of this year, U.S. Forest Photo by Alan Watson. Denver area—including Boulder, Service Chief Dale Bosworth named Golden, and Fort Collins—is perfect two individuals to national director for us, with numerous universities, a educates between 150,000 and positions. vibrant corporate community, and a 200,000 visitors each month about Christopher Brown is the new population enthusiastic about nature the value of public lands preserva- national director for wilderness and conservation and committed to tion. Wilderness.net provides science, wild and scenic rivers. Brown comes WILD’s core mission to protect and policy, management, and educational to the Forest Service from the sustain wilderness, wildlife and tradi- resources online through a partner- National Park Service (NPS), where tional cultures worldwide.” New ship with the Arthur Carhart he served as acting assistant director contact details: The WILD Foun- National Wilderness Training Center of recreation and conservation and dation, P.O. Box 20527, Boulder, CO and the Aldo Leopold Wilderness managed the NPS’s national rivers 80308, USA . Phone: (303) 442-8811; Research Institute, the wilderness and trails programs. He also served as fax: (303) 442-8877. Street address: education and research arms of the chief of the rivers and watersheds 3025 47th Street Suite D-1, Boulder, federal government, respectively. division. As a contract employee with CO 80301, USA. Web address: Wilderness.net is a shining example the NPS, he was chief planner on the www.wild.org. of a university–federal government Appalachian Trail. Prior to his NPS collaboration serving a number of career, Brown worked for American Eidson Receives Award for Work different audiences—scientists, land Rivers, Inc., as conservation director with Wilderness.net managers, K–12 and university-level and acting executive director. He Lisa Eidson was given a staff award educators, students, NGOs, policy holds a bachelor’s degree in anthro- for Outstanding Service to the External makers, and members of the public. pology from Amherst College, a Community by the University of Laurie Yung, director of the master’s in elementary teaching from Montana. Eidson oversees Wilderness. Wilderness Institute at the University the University of Chicago, and a mas- net (www.wilderness.net), a collabora- of Montana, reported that “Lisa’s ter’s in forestry from Yale University’s tive project to provide wilderness work on Wilderness.net has fur- School of Forestry and Environ- information via the Internet to a variety thered the mission of the University mental Studies. In his new Forest of off-campus audiences. Wilderness.net of Montana, the College of Forestry Service position, Brown will oversee

Submit announcements and short news articles to GREG KROLL, IJW Wildernss Digest editor. E-mail: [email protected]

42 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 management of a third of the National purposes of recreational, scenic, scien- lawsuit, and www.wildernesswatch.org.) Wilderness Preservation System and tific, educational, conservation, and Another pertinent ruling was handed more than 4,000 miles of the National historical use,” the court ruled that the down by the 11th Circuit Court of Wild and Scenic River System. He will section 4(c) “prohibited uses” take Appeals. Cumberland Island National also lead the Forest Service’s 10-Year precedence. At issue were 11 small Seashore, which lies off Georgia’s Wilderness Stewardship Challenge, rock and mortar dams in the Emigrant southeast coast, is the largest unde- which aims to bring every Forest Wilderness of the Stanislaus National veloped barrier island on the eastern Service wilderness area to a minimum Forest, California. They were built seaboard. The NPS contended that stewardship level by 2014. between 1920 and 1951 to increase allowing tourists to “piggyback” Jim Bedwell is the Forest lakes’ water storage capacities and to along on NPS administrative trips on Service’s new national director for maintain late-summer stream flows— a preexisting one-lane dirt road recreation and heritage resources. He principally for the benefit of stocked through designated wilderness permit- will be responsible for maintaining trout and anglers. The Forest Service ted “visitor access and interpretation” quality recreational opportunities argued that the dams could be main- and would have “no net increase in within the agency’s forests and grass- tained and operated because they impact.” A three-judge panel ruled, lands, from primitive backcountry served one or more of the Act’s section however, that the regularly sched- recreation to developed activities 4(b) “public purposes.” Judge Ishii, uled, motorized tours offered to park such as alpine skiing. He will also however, found that due to the 4(c) visitors “cannot be squared with the oversee programs that protect and prohibitions, the Wilderness Act language of the Wilderness Act.” The interpret the Forest Service’s many expressly forbids the Forest Service ruling is also significant for its con- archaeological and historic sites. from taking any action to rebuild, clusion that “the only reasonable Bedwell was most recently forest repair, or operate the dam structures reading of ‘historical use’ in the supervisor on the Arapaho and within the Emigrant Wilderness. The Wilderness Act refers to natural, Roosevelt National Forests and plaintiff’s request that the dams be rather than man-made, features.” Pawnee National Grassland in north- removed from the wilderness was (Source: www.ca11.uscourts.gov/ ern Colorado. With a bachelor’s denied. (Sources: www.wilderness- opinions/ops/200315346.pdf.) degree in landscape architecture from watch.org; the Stockton Record, June the University of Arizona, he began 28, 2006; and Sierra Mountain Times, U.S. Bureau of Land Management his Forest Service career in 1979. June 30, 2006.) Decision Overturned by Appeals From 1996 to 2000 Bedwell served as Two other recent rulings inter- Board the agency’s chief landscape architect pret the Wilderness Act. In Olympic In 1998 two individuals purchased a at national headquarters. He has also National Park, Washington, the 60-acre (24 ha) private inholding worked extensively in international National Park Service (NPS) decided completely surrounded by Arizona’s programs, most notably in Latin that two 1930s-era shelters that had Mount Tipton Wilderness, with the America and Jordan, where he collapsed under snow should be stated intention of creating a com- trained local natural resource man- replaced by flying two prefabricated mercial horse ranch. The 31,320-acre agers in public land management. shelters into the Olympic Wilderness. (12,675 ha) wilderness was estab- The park administration contended lished in 1990 and is administered by Federal Judges Rule on Conflicting that the shelters were essential for the Bureau of Land Management Interpretations of Wilderness Act visitor safety and would enhance the (BLM). In 2002, at the landowners’ The U.S. Wilderness Act of 1964, area’s wilderness character. U.S. dis- request, the BLM approved the recon- which created the National Wilder- trict court judge Franklin Burgess struction of an old jeep track through ness Preservation System and dictates disagreed. In his decision, he noted the designated wilderness to provide its management, has been interpreted that the two shelters “had collapsed access to the inholding by the by some land managers and environ- under the natural effects of weather landowners, construction crews, mentalists in conflicting ways. In a and time, and to reconstruct the shel- employees, and clients. Although the possibly precedent-setting ruling, fed- ters and place the replicas on the sites BLM’s own environmental analysis eral district court judge Anthony Ishii of the original shelters by means of a had determined that wilderness val- addressed how the “public purposes” helicopter is in direct contradiction ues would be impaired “by the sights, of the Act relate to the “prohibited of the mandate to preserve the sounds and other evidence of motor- uses.” Although section 4(b) of the wilderness character of the Olympic ized vehicles within the wilderness,” Act states that wilderness areas Wilderness.” (Sources: www.drizzle.com/ the agency contended that occasional “should be devoted to the public ~rdpayne/opa-news.html#shelters_ 4-wheel-drive travel over the proposed

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 43 route prior to wilderness designation amphibians are located on the tropi- When irate wilderness users took comprised “regular and continuous cal continents that contain the photographs that identified the heli- use,” thereby providing private land tropical broadleaf forests, which har- copter by its registration number, the owners the right to motorized access. bor the majority of the earth’s species; pilot ran back to the aircraft and A 2002 appeal to the Department of and (3) extinction rates are at least quickly took off. The visitors Interior’s Board of Land Appeals by 100 to 1,000 times higher than natu- reported the incident to Yosemite several conservation organizations ral background rates. (Sources: National Park rangers, and special resulted in a 2006 ruling that BLM’s www.iucn.org/en/news/archive/2006/ agents opened the investigation. decision was “plainly unsupportable.” 05/02_pr_red_list_en.htm and (Sources: Criminal Investigation The board noted that under BLM’s www.arkive.org.) Unit, Yosemite National Park, and Wilderness Regulations, “Once a www.washingtonwatchdog.org/ wilderness area is created…the inholder Realtors for Wilderness documents/cfr/title36/part2.html#2.17.) will receive BLM’s approval only for a The 625-member Aspen (Colorado) mode of access that is ‘non-motorized.’” Board of Realtors has formed a special “Videophilia” May Explain (Sources: www.ibiadecisions.com/ committee called Realtors for Decreasing Interest in Nature Ibla/Ibladecisions/168IBLA/168IBLA Wilderness to support efforts to pre- A recent study by University of 016.pdf, and www.wildernesswatch. serve federal lands. They aim to raise Illinois ecologist Oliver Pergams and org/hot%20topics/issue%20updates/ funds for Wilderness Workshop, the Stroud Water Research Center ecolo- tipton2.html.) valley’s most prominent local envi- gist Patricia Zaradic suggests that ronmental group. The committee has Americans are spending less time in IUCN Red List Tracks Species called on the Colorado Roadless Area natural surroundings because they Decline Review Task Force to protect all 84 are spending more time watching tel- The World Conservation Union inventoried roadless areas in the evision, surfing the Internet, and (IUCN) has released its 2006 Red List White River National Forest. In a let- playing video games. The study was of Threatened Species, stating that “it ter to the task force, Realtors for commissioned by The Nature Conser- brings into sharp focus the ongoing Wilderness said: “Much of the added vancy, and was funded through a decline of the earth’s biodiversity and value of real estate in our resort econ- National Science Foundation grant. the impact mankind is having upon omy is a measure of the quality-of-life The ecologists found that by 2003, life on earth.” It identifies 16,119 benefits of the absence of roads and per-capita visitation to U.S. national threatened species worldwide, stating development on public lands that parks had declined about 25% since that those facing extinction are joined surround our area.” (Sources: its peak in 1987. More than two by familiar species such as the polar www.wildernessworkshop.org/newsl dozen possible explanations for the bear, hippopotamus, and desert etters/WW_NL_may_06.pdf, and The trend were tested, including such gazelle, as well as ocean sharks, fresh- Aspen Times, June 16, 2006.) variables as family income and the water fish, and Mediterranean aging of the population, but flowers. The most dramatic declines Fisherman Fined for Landing researchers found that 98% of the have been suffered by freshwater fish: Private Helicopter in Yosemite drop in park visits could be attributed 56% of the 252 endemic freshwater Wilderness to Internet use, video games, movie Mediterranean fish are threatened A southern California–based helicop- rentals, and rising fuel prices. “It’s with extinction. Marine species are ter pilot was charged in U.S. fairly stunning,” Pergams said, while proving to be just as much at risk of magistrate’s court for violating the cautioning that correlation is not the extinction as their land-based coun- code of federal regulations when he same as causation. “We may be seeing terparts: “The desperate situation of landed at Mildred Lake in California’s evidence of a fundamental shift away many sharks and rays is just the tip of Yosemite Wilderness. Under a plea from people’s appreciation of nature the iceberg,” said Craig Hilton-Taylor agreement on March 14, 2006, he was to ’ ‘videophilia’ which we here define of the IUCN Red List Unit. Recent sentenced to serve one year’s court as the new human tendency to focus success stories include the white- probation, to pay a $2,000 fine, and on sedentary activities involving elec- tailed eagle and possibly the Indian to perform two days of unpaid com- tronic media.” (Sources: www.nature.org/ vulture. Key findings to date include munity service flight time with his wherewework/northamerica/states/ (1) the number of threatened species aircraft. At about 7 p.m. on July 1, indiana/press/press2494.html, and is increasing across almost all the 2005, the pilot landed adjacent to the Reuters, June 20, 2006.) major taxonomic groups; (2) most lake, disembarked with a young boy, threatened birds, mammals, and and then began fishing the lake.

44 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Book Reviews

Last Great Wilderness: The Campaign the campaign for ANWR. Kaye Wilderness Forever: Howard Zahniser to Establish the Arctic National thoughtfully sets the social, political, and the Path to the Wilderness Act Wildlife Refuge and environmental context for all By Mark Harvey. 2005. University of By Roger Kaye. 2006. University of major events in the story and explains Washington Press. 340 pp. $35.00 Alaska Press. 283 pp. $29.95 (cloth). that national and state settings for this (cloth). P.O. Box 50096, Seattle, WA P.O. Box 756240, Fairbanks AK controversial campaign. 98145-5096, USA. 99775, USA. Although caribou are often thought of as the keystone species to Howard Zahniser doesn’t have the The political history of the wilderness the biological and ecological argu- cachet that other wilderness writers movement to establish the Arctic ments about preserving ANWR, Kaye and lobbyists such as John Muir or National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is points out a deeper and more complex Robert Marshall enjoy. Yet, as the carefully recounted based on exten- series of values about wilderness and brains and brawn behind the passage sive research, including in-depth how the campaign for ANWR brought of the Wilderness Act, “Zahnie” (as he interviews with many of those who those into the debate and controversy. was nicknamed), had at least an equal were part of the campaign to desig- This book works on several levels, as impact on the development of wilder- nate ANWR. The book takes its name an intriguing story about saving a spe- ness preservation in the United States. and environmental theme from a cial wild place, as a historic case study While he didn’t have the physical 1953 article by George L. Collins and about advocacy for wilderness, and as stamina of the previously mentioned Lowell Summer entitled “Northeast an archetype of what wilderness lions of wilderness travel—a child- Arctic: The Last Great Wilderness” means to an entire environmental hood illness with a bone infection and and about the northeast region of the movement. Anyone interested in the later heart problems saw to that—few territory of Alaska (Sierra Club wilderness movement would benefit could match his tireless efforts as a Bulletin 38:13–26). The work of these from reading this well-documented speaker and lobbyist dedicated to the two men, joined by Olaus and and illustrated story of the campaign wilderness ideal. Margaret “Mardy” Murie, would to protect ANWR. Understanding the Zahniser began his career as an begin and focus a modern-day move- past of ANWR also gives the needed editor and public relations specialist ment that resulted in an executive background on what is at stake in the in various federal government depart- order establishing the Arctic Wildlife current controversies of oil develop- ments in Washington, D.C. He was Range in 1960 and followed by an ment in and around ANWR. This asked to write a monthly column in expansion and redesignation as the book is a “must read” for wilderness Nature magazine, which whetted his ANWR in 1980. advocates who want: inspiration about boyhood appetite for nature and con- The chronological approach to the work of wilderness visionaries and servation issues. In the spring of 1944 this history is pro-wilderness in per- movement leaders, a historic perspec- members of The Wilderness Society, spective and rich with the names of tive on saving ANWR, or just to better worried about administrator-editor many wilderness leaders in the United understand what it is like to be an Robert Sterling Yard’s failing health, States. The history involves such leg- active part of the wilderness move- asked Zahniser to take over as execu- endary wilderness leaders as Bob ment over recent decades. The Last tive secretary and editor of The Marshall, Howard Zahniser, Justice Great Wilderness is well documented Wilderness Society. In the early days, William O. Douglas, and many others. and is destined to be a classic on the there were several internal battles The book weaves together the political history of ANWR up to the between Zahniser and board mem- chronology of the national movement 1980s. bers over his philosophy of with events and people in Alaska and, wilderness (a very inclusive, perhaps more specifically, the complexity of Reviewed by CHAD P. DAWSON, managing less purist position than many other events and proponents that focus on editor of IJW; email: [email protected]. board members), his desire to expand

DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 45 the membership of The Wilderness Beyond Conservation: A Wildland the best hope of rewilding, and the Society, and his later tireless efforts at Strategy Trees For Life project, started in lobbying (many board members were By Peter Taylor. 2005. Earthscan. 297 pp. 1987, provided the impetus for many concerned that his efforts would lead $35.00 (cloth). Macmillan Distribution Ltd, more recent projects. Another inter- to tax issues with the IRS., which for- Direct Customer Services, Brunel Road, esting section of the book briefly bade nonprofit organizations to lobby Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire reviews the history of species intro- on political issues). RG21 6XS, United Kingdom. ductions in Great Britain, with the Despite these occasional internal author even going as far back as pre- skirmishes, Zahniser eventually Rewilding efforts in the New World historic elephants and hippos became a full board member of The have proven to be extremely chal- roaming the island. The role of cur- Wilderness Society; indeed, Harvey lenging, both on ecological and social rent NGOs in supporting (or more clearly notes that he became an levels. For example, deciding which correctly, often not supporting) rewil- increasingly essential leader of The species might be reintroduced, get- ding efforts is also fascinating. Wilderness Society. Zahniser spent ting public support for reintroduction Amenity rather than wilderness or many days each year visiting various or restoration projects, and deciding biodiversity is still the main focus of wilderness hotspots (e.g., Echo Park) what a restored environment should environmental NGOs and govern- and discussing wilderness issues with look like have proven to be another ment agencies in Great Britain. high level political appointees and example of a “wicked” or “messy” This book is very different from bureaucrats. He managed to trans- problem. the many books published in the form The Wilderness Society from a Although still extremely difficult, New World on restoration and rewil- very small group of core members to several factors have allowed restora- ding. Taylor notes that he went a nationwide group of public defend- tion and rewilding projects to occur. through “a personal transformation ers of wilderness, one that had a The amount of publicly owned lands in understanding and values” while respected and powerful presence in and waters, the availability of existing researching the book, and “departs the nation’s capital. Perhaps his great- corridors, and a relatively short his- from the normal accepted form of est asset was his cheery disposition tory of European settlement and low conservation discourse and objectiv- and his innate diplomacy when deal- population levels in the New World ity” (p. 16). The book often reads like ing with others. He would need all have all facilitated these projects. a neo-Romantic call to “restore some- this patience with the eight-year Beyond Conservation provides a thing central to the human soul” (p. 16), Wilderness Act effort! glimpse of the extraordinary chal- and reverberates with a desire for Mark Harvey provides excellent lenges facing those individuals and humanity to acknowledge “the insights into the personal background groups attempting to create restora- sacredness of nature, and its power to and character of Zahniser and provides tion and rewilding projects in Great heal the human condition” (p. 162). a detailed historical analysis of how his Britain, where public land is almost The reader should not expect a scien- personality helped shape his actions on nonexistent, higher population levels tific analysis or a state of knowledge behalf of the Wilderness Society. At and densities are the norm, and land- review on rewilding/restoration; the first, I was somewhat disappointed that scapes in much smaller regions have book is a curious blend of historical more effort at documenting the been affected by settlement for many analysis, current state of related proj- numerous drafts of the Wilderness Act centuries. In these three nations ects, and personal cri de coeur for a was not attempted in this authoritative (Scotland, Wales, and England), little new environmental spirituality, phi- biography. But Harvey’s decision to dis- remains of the “natural” landscape losophy, and policy in Great Britain. cuss Zahniser’s other wilderness battles and biodiversity. As such, it provides an interesting, certainly provides a more complex and Despite these and other chal- much different perspective on rewild- complete picture of his (and The lenges, it is impressive to read about ing and restoration than New World Wilderness Society’s) role in the the number of restoration and rewild- readers will be accustomed to reading. American wilderness movement. ing projects that are occurring in Those interested in either the history Great Britain. To me, it is the greatest Reviewed by JOHN SHULTIS, IJW book edi- of the wilderness movement or the strength of this book; reading about tor, email: [email protected]. Wilderness Act should not delay read- the numerous case studies and exam- ing this excellent biography. ples of rewilding and restoration projects throughout Great Britain Reviewed by JOHN SHULTIS, IJW book edi- gives hope to New World rewilding tor; email: [email protected]. projects. Scotland seems to provide

46 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 NOLS Wilderness Ethics: Valuing and on pioneers in thought, wilderness steward and protect wilderness, wild Managing Wild Places visionaries, and current perspectives rivers, and scenic trails. By Jennifer Lamb and Glenn Goodrich. and values. The discussion on the The final two chapters turn to 2006. Stackpole Books. 242 pp. vital importance of education to fos- emphasizing how to apply this infor- $19.95 (paper). 5067 Ritter Road, ter wilderness ethics and values is mation to improving the Mechanicsburg PA 17055, USA. presented in a straightorward and opportunities for wilderness educa- easily understood manner. Although tion in the land management process This is a revised version of a book such a philosophy is at the heart of and to increasing citizen involvement originally published as An Introduction NOLS and its experiential programs, and advocacy for wilderness and wild- to Wildland Ethics and Management by the material is presented in a univer- land stewardship for present use and S. C. Brame and C. Henderson in sal tone both meant to frame the future generations. Overall, this book 1992 by the National Outdoor discussion around wilderness ethics is a sound general description that is Leadership Schools (NOLS). The pur- and to encourage wilderness instruc- informative, easy to read, and engag- pose of the book remains focused on tors, educators, and visitors to ing without losing the reader in too two themes: (1) an introduction to personal application. much of the nuance and complexity the main ethical concepts of wildland The complexity of federal land of federal agency management. This and wilderness preservation and man- management among the four federal book is an excellent primer for out- agement; and (2) the federal land agencies—Forest Service, National door recreationists, conservationists, management agencies and three Park Service, Bureau of Land and wilderness educators so that they national management systems— Management, Fish and Wildlife can understand the complexity of National Wilderness Preservation Service—is handled in four chapters wilderness and wildland stewardship System, National Wild and Scenic meant to highlight the agency mis- and use this overview as the basis for Rivers System, and National Scenic sion as it relates to stewardship of individual and collective action to Trails System. wildlands and wilderness in the U.S. support management of these special A well-structured introduction Synoptic overviews of each agency places on federal lands. starts the reader with a personal con- include enough factual information nection with wildlands and to make understandable the follow- Reviewed by CHAD P. DAWSON, managing wilderness and then expands the ing chapter on the three special editor of IJW; email: [email protected]. scope of the presentation to define management systems on federal lands and develop a wilderness ethic based central to the message of the book: to Renew or Subscribe to the International Journal of Wilderness

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DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 International Journal of Wilderness 47 Continued from GRIZZLY BEARS on The 2007 page 29 McCool, S. F., A. M. Braithwaite, and K. C. WILD Foundation Calendar Kendall. 1989. An Estimate of Backcountry Day Use of Glacier National Park. Research Report 4. Missoula, MT: Institute for Tourism and Is NOW Available Recreation Research, University of Montana. .00 National Park Service. 1998. Final General $10 Management Plan, Environmental Impact (plus packaging and postage) Statement Glacier National Park: Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, the World’s First International Peace Park, a World Heritage Site. West Order Yours Today! Glacier, MT: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Each month features a strikingly beautiful photo taken by members of Servheen, C. 1993. Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of the International League of Conservation Photographers. You’ll see why the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife these photographers are internationally known for their amazing images Service. of the wild places around us. VanOrmer, C. 2002. A Differential study of backcountry day users’ and backcountry overnight users’ attitudes, motivations and behaviors towards grizzly bears in Glacier National Park. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow. Wing, M. G., and R. Johnson. 2001. Quantifying forest visibility with spatial data. Environmental Management, (USD) 27(3): 411–20. $10 Wing, M., and B. Shelby. 1999. Using GIS to plus packaging and postage integrate information on forest recre- P&P charges: ation. Journal of Forestry, 97(1): 12–16. $1.50 US orders $3.50 all others NICK SANYAL is assistant professor of heritage and harvest studies, Department of Conservation Social Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow ID, 83844-1139, USA. Email: [email protected]; phone: (208) 885-7528.

EDWIN E. KRUMPE is professor and principal scientist of wilderness management, University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center, Department of Conservation Social Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow ID, 83844-1139, USA. Email: edkrumpe@ uidaho.edu; phone: (208) 885-7428.

CHAD VANORMER is recreation planner for the U.S. Forest Service on the Green Mountain and Finger Lakes National Order by contacting: Forests, 231 North Main Street, Rutland, The WILD Foundation VT 05701-2412, USA. Email: cvanormer P.O. Box 20527, Boulder, CO 80308, USA @fs.fed.us; phone: (802) 747-6700. Phone: (303) 442-8811; fax: (303) 442-8877 Web address: www.wild.org.

48 International Journal of Wilderness DECEMBER 2006 • VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3