RE YE S C O LL-TELLECHEA

~e mernbering Sepharad

Accompanying Christopher Columbus on board the Sal/ta Marfa as it left the Iberia n Pe ni ns ula on August 3,1492, was Luis de Torres. De Torres, a polyglot , was the expedition's inkrpreter. Like many other Iberian JeWS , de Torres had recently converted to Christianity in an attempt to preserve his right to live in Sepharad, the land Iberian Jevvs had inhabited for twelve hundred years. The Edict of Expulsion, dated March 31, 1492, deprived Jews of all their rights and gave them three months to put their affairs in order and go in to exile. Implicit in the edict was exemption if jews con­ verted to Ch ristianity. It was only implicit, of courSe, becaLlse neither the laws of th e land nor the laws of the Catholic church provided for forced conversion. Although conversos would be granted full rights of citizen­ ship, the Inquisition, in turn, had the right to investigate and persecute the "new" Ch rist ians in order to prevent deviations from church doctrine. Those who did not accept conversion would be expelled from the land forever. The fate of Sepharad was irreversible. Now We can only remember Sepharad. Remembrance cannOt restore that which has been lost, but it is essen­ tiul to recognize the limitless power of human action to create as well as to destroy. Memory is not a maner of the past but a fundamental tool for analyzin g the prese nt and marching into the future with knowledge and conscience. Warnings about previous catastrophes caused by human ac­ tions are not enough to ensure a sate future. Remembrance should not be limikd to the destructive chapters in the past, as it often is. The histori­ ography of Sepharad has been overshadowed by the historiography of the Inquisition. That is to say, many kllOw about the end of Sepharad, but far fewer know aboul its creation, its development, and the conditions that made her ve ry exist ence possible. Certainly, knowledge of the past can -1 I nelliSpain, for the nation we call Spain had not yet been also embrace her life. born. Sp ai.n as \I/ e know it today was not yet an official entity in 1492. Sepharad was an imagined community that was contemporary with jev"s had inhabited the Iberian Peninsula since at least , the third cen­ man)' kingdoms. 2 Sepharad lived within those kingdoms and across them. tury and lived continuously in it for at least twelve hundred years -longer At one time or another, Sepharad encompassed Hispanic Jews (from Ro­ than they had lived in any other area of the world. During the Middle man Hispania), Andalusian jews (those from Muslim al-Andalus), Castil­ Ages, the Iberian community became the most important Jewish commu­ ian Jews, Aragonese Jews, Portuguese jews, and Navarre Jews . They shared nity in the world. It was larger than all the other Jewish communities of traditions and ways of thinking. They recognized each other as members Europe combined. To rder to the peninsula they inhabited, Jews used the of the Sephardic community, even if they were subjects of different kings, Hebrew word Sepharad, from verse 20 of the Book of Obadiah. To refer to inhabitants of difierent lands, and spoke different languages. their culture, tradition and their own kind, they used the term Sephardim, Christianity came to the Iberian Peninsula with the Romans, who meaning "from Sepharad." called the region Hispania By the fourth century Christianity had become For centuries, the Iberian Peninsula was occupied and successively the official reli gio n of the Roman Empire, which included Hispania. In controlled by Romans, Visigoths, Muslims, and Christians. The Sephar­ the fifth cent ury the Roman Empire fell, and Hispania was occupied by dim, therefore, always lived under the rule of non-Jewish peoples. The non-Chrislian Visigoth tribes. But in 586 Recaredo, king ofthe Visigoths, Sephardic contribution to Jewish and Western ci vilization at large remains converted to Christianity. Soon after, in 613, King Sisebuto ordered forced unparalleled to this day. conversions in all of his dominions. This was the first official persecution Nevertheless, Sepharad was crushed on tvlarch 31, 1492. Although gen­ suffered by the Iberian Jews. erations of historians have studied evidence left behind, more than five In 711 Arab colonizers began conquering Christian Hispania and soon hundred years after the end of Sepharad they are still attempting to find occupied most of the peninsula. For almost eight hundred years, from answers to fundamental questions. Why did it happen? How did it hap­ 711 to 1492, the lands of the Iberian Peninsula changed hands numerous pen? There is no agreement among experts on these or on many other times, and Iberian Jews, Christians, and Muslims lived together in cities, iss ues regarding Sepharad, and great confusion reigns in the realm of towns, and villages. All peoples needed to adapt rapidly to each new cir­ popular knowledge.1 Confusion, in turn, facilitates the manipulation of cumstance - a new ruler, new laws, a new war with new allies and new ene­ public opinion and knowledge. Remembrance is at stake. More academic mieS , a new language, and often a new religion. Only pluralistic societies scholarship is required, as is in-depth revision of popular versions of it s produce citizens able to survive this kind of living conditions. Only rulers history. It is a matter oftransmission of knowledge. Knowledge is essential who understand plurality can effectively rule over such societies. And , in if we wish to anticipate and avoid catastrophes such as that of Sepharad. the end, only the daily and conscientious actions of average citizens can Furthermore, we must seek answers to other fundamental questions provide the context tor coexistence. regarding Sepharad. For not only is it her end that is of great importance. Against all odds, medieval Iberians maintained long-lasting friend­ Of critical relevance to us, and to future generations, is the knowledge ships and alliances and bought and borrowed from each other. Jews, Mus­ of her very existence, of the social conditions and actions that gave birth lims, and Christians lived together, worked together, and fought togelher. and nurtured that civilization. How did Jews, Muslims, and Christians co­ There is ample historical evidence of this daily coexistenceJ exist in the Iberian Peninsula ? What conditions and actions made coexis­ Most Jews lived in small villages farming and sheep breeding. Some tence possible? What conditions and actions were necess ary to produce Jews lived in to wns, where they were often shopkeepers, grocers, dy­ the sophistica ted advances in all areas of knowledge, culture, and art that ers, and weave rs. Daily cooperation enabled collaboration on a difi"crent characterized Jewish, Muslim, and Christian Iberia? How were those life level. On the Iberian Peninsula, ?vluslims, Jews, and Christians shared th eir 6 I [.?,L'IIIC'lIliJaillt: ::io:pli'll'< ul It E Y lS C OL L-TELL lC H lOA (7 knuwledge and actively sought to compkment teach other's knmdeJge ut J uba. Their Illi~sion w.e, [ 0 enter into intellectual di:.tlogue with the native the world and of humarLKind, In the great cities of medienllberia, such as J.: ws and to contribute to Andalusi culture. And, together with the Sephar­ Cordoba, Granada, Toledo, Barcelona, and Salamanca, interethnic groups dim, the newly arrived dhim 11lis set the stage for the Jewish religious re­ ot scholars worked incessantly on the transmission of knowledge old and nais~ance in Muslim territory. new, Their patrons were Muslim caliphs, Christian hugs, rabbis, and rich Among those who chose to move to al-Andalus was Dunash ibn men otall kinds, Muslim artisans built Jewish temples, and Jewish temples lab rat, born in Fez anJ train ed ill Baghdad. Dunash's greatest accomplish­ were dedicated to Christian kings, Some Jewish scholars, such as Maimo­ ment was the writing of Hebrew verse that follO\ved, not Hebrew meter, nides, wrote in Arabic. Christian leaders employed rabbis to translate the but the meter employed by Muslims in Arabic poetry. Soon Jewish poets Bible as well as Arabic manuscripts otenormous scientific and philosophic began adopting the forms and genres of Arabic poetry. But they wrote in importance, Hebrew, thus creating a new type of Hebrew literature. Then the Jews of Of co urse, mistrust and envy were also present in medieval Iberia, as al-Andalus devel oped a new type of synagogue poetry. Instead of using in all human affairs at all times. But it can be said that in rhe Middle Ages the language of rabbinic li terature , they chose to adopt biblical Hebrew as Iberia \vas home to several pluralistic, multicultural societies. Moreover, their c1assicall a nguag~, an d this, in turn, produced the renaissance of the the end of plural and mu lticultural Iberia historically coincides with the language of the Heb re\,' Bible. Among the most important Hebrew poets age of intolerance, the manipulation of inherited know'ledge and coUec ­ of Sepharad are Samu C:'1 ~Jgi d (933-1055), Salomon ibn Gabirol (ca. 1020­ tive memory, religious fanaticism, and greed and imperialism in the nallle ca. 1057), and Ivloses ibn Ezra (ca. 1055-ca. 1135) . uf une god and of one (Christian) nation. Hasdai ibn Shaprut must also be credited tor the initiation of the great Two hundred years after first entering the penimula, an Arab rukr scie ntit"ic corpus produced in Hebrew in al-Andalus. Under his patronage, began the process of independence of the Islamic Iberian state, al-Andalus, translations of fundamemal Arabic works into the Hebrew language were from Baghdad, which was then the center of the Islamic world. In the tenth proJuced. In addition, H.:brew astrolabes were constructed and Hebrew century, 'Abd ai-Rahman III founded an illdependent caliphate whose t ronomical tables devdoped. capital was Cordoba. Under his rule, Jews and Christians were consid­ The Cordoba calipbal.:' split in the eleventh century and Muslim Iberia ered dhilllmis (People of the Book) who were to be protected. They were \\'J5 fragmC:'nted into twenty small kingdoms, with the cultural center in granted freedom to worship and to practice traditions in exchange for Granada, For some time, fa vorable circumstances lor the distribution, obedience to Islamic rule and payment of special taxes, And they were pru Jucrion, and sharing of knowledge among Jews and Muslims remaine d granted access to education. The interaction with Andalusi Muslims pro­ in place. vided the Sephardim with access to vast areas of Eastern and \Vestern The Ari~t o telian \,'urlJ"iew that permeakd medieval Arabic civiliza­ knowledge: astronomy, astrology, medicine, philosophy, art , commerce, ti un deeply influenced Je wish th ought. The best example is of course the literature, geography, algebra, and history. In fact, for a long period, the great Moshe Ben j'vlai mon (b. Cordoba, 1135), known to Christians as Mai­ Jews of al-Andalus used the Arabic language even when writing un reli­ mOll ides anJ to Mus li.ms as Abu Imram j\!usa ben J\!laimun ibn Abdala. gious subjects. But it was also in that l'vluslim land that Hebreh secular Arguably the most accomplished of the Sephardim, Maimonides \vro tc poetry was born, and it was in that land that biblical Hebrew was reborn a systematic code of Jewish Law (Mishne Torah) , a commentary 0 11 the and chosen as the class ical language for all Jews. ~ l i 5 hnah , several treal ises un medicine, and The Guide to the Perplexed, a Biblical Hebrewcame to life again, i.n part, because 'A bd ai-Rahman III mJS terpiece of Judaic philosophy. pursued pluralistic policies that enabled the production, distribution , and De~pite all these cul tural, social, and scientific advances, [here lVe re sharing of all kinds of knowledge among his subjects. 'Abd al-Rahman constant wars between th e Iberian J\luslim kingdoms. Two new contin­ chose Hasdai ibn Shaprut (b. Jaen, 910 ), one of the greatest Sephardi.m of gems of ArJbs, the Al mohads and AlmorJ vids, arrived in Jl-Andalus. With all times, to be the representative of the Jewish community at the royal th .:'m, a fundal11ental i ~l i.n terpretation of Islamic rule was imposed, and J court. With the support of the caliph, Hasdai brought toreign Jewish phi­ policy of persccutioll anJ IlJrced conversion was initiated. Daily life be­ lo sophers, scientists, grammarians, poets, and talmudic scholars to Cor- came unbearable for C h r i~ l ians and Jews :.tli.ke. Many kft the land, among ~ I nelllemberillg Sepharud I{EYES COLL- TELLE C HE A { 9 them Maimonides.' Some converted to Islam. l\.e1igious fundamentalism mon Bonafed and the conVersos Salomon Piera and Vidal Benveniste 9 and the inability to li ve in a pluralistic society marked the beginning of In the kingdom of Aragon the art of Hebrew manuscript illumination the end for al-Andalus.s reached its apogee. The majority of the codices produced were. of course, As pluralism disappeared from al-Andalus. the cultural center of Bibles commissioned by Christians. However. the production of Hebrew Iberia moved to the north. to the kingdoms ruled by Christians: Cas­ prayer books and medical and scientific treatises also continued. In 1348, tile . Navarre. Aragon. and Portugal. Andalusi Jews. fluent in Arabic and for example. we fi nd Levi ben Isaac Hiyo copying Maimonides's Guide to with ample knowledge of Muslim customs. laws, and thought. now began the Perplexed for a Jewish palron, Menahem Bezalel. lO serving the Christian cOurts as translators, administrators. and diplomatic How could this be achieved? Daily life. as well as intellectual life. was advisers. Jewish refugees from al-Andalus settled in Christian territories. still possible for the Sephardim.They were still legal subjects under the di­ At the same time. sensing the weakening of Muslim al-Andalus, Christian rect jurisdiction of the kings. Their communities were still vibrant. Thei.r kings began to increase their incursions into Muslim territory. Once again religious practices and traditions were legal. Jews served the kings in offi­ Christians, Muslims, and Jews lived together in villages, towns, and cities. cial capacities. They were part of the land. Between 1336 and 1357 Samuel Once again they had to adapt to constantly changing circumstances. Halevi, treasurer of Peter I, ki.ng of Castile, financed the construction of a Arabic science and thought reached Christianity through the transla­ new synagogue i.n Toledo. Samuel dedicated it to the Christian king and ll tion into Latin of Arabic texts.6 Many of the translators were Jewish. The employed Muslim artisans (mudejars) in its construction. The dedica­ Sephardim now used Hebrew instead of Arabic as their language for writ­ tion, which was written in Hebrew. uses Arabic meter. Although Halevi ing. But in Toledo (Castile's capital), under the rule of King Alfonso X and his family were later i.mprisoned, tortured, and executed on orders (1 252-1284), all kinds of texts were now being translated into Latin as well from the same king. the Jewish temple built and decorated by Muslims and as into the vernacular Castilian language. Again. i.nterethnic groups of dedicated to a Christian king has managed to survive to the present time. '2 scholars and translators were formed. Thus Iberian Jews, Muslims. and Jews were still free to worship and to practice their traditions. They Christians together were responsible for the transmission of knowledge bought and sold and freel y practiced their professions. Friendships were into Latin and Castilian. The first great figures of Iberian Jewish science still being made and alliances kept. Pluralistic relations still preva iled, l3 were the Aragonese Abraham bar Hiyya and Abraham ibn Ezra in the which enraged the fanatics. Thus this was a time when synagogues were twelfth century. Two Castilian jews, Isaac ibn Sid and jehuda ibn Mosca, being built and at the same time destroyed. Fanatic Christian preachers the astronomers who produced the famous Castilian astronomical tables traveled the lands inciting Je \-\~ to convert and Christians to violence.'4 for King Alfo nso X, followed them. Soon Jews began to contribute to Cas­ The Christian kings interyened numerous times, but the situation only tilian literature as well. Such was the case of Shem Tob bell Ardutiel (Don worsened. Sen Tob de Carrion). author of Pro verb ios morales 7 On lvla rch 15, 1391, the infamous anti-Jewish Father Ferran tv-Iartinez, As Christians ga ined in the ongoing territorial wars with Muslims, preached in Seville. 's Following his sermon, anti-Jewish violence exploded anti-Jevnsh and anti- Muslim legislation spread. Christian fundamental­ in the city. Seville's Jewish quarters were sacked on June 6. Then the vio­ ism began to take center stage. In some instances, the Christian kings pro­ ience spread to the Jewish neighborhoods of all Christian kingdoms. Mass tected Je ws . In fact, in most of the Christian territories. Jews were legally conversions to Christianity toUo wed. These conversions would dramati­ under the direct jurisdiction of the kings. cally complicate matters lo r the Iberian Jews who remained jews as well During the early fo urteenth century, conversion to Christianity as for those who converted. spread among the Sephardim living in the kingdoms of Castile and Ara­ Because ofthe mass conversions, by the fift eenth century the ranks of gon. Some rabbis and other important leaders, such as Rabbi Abner of Iberian Christians had expanded considerably. The conversos. or "new" Burgos (Alfonso de Vall adolid) and Rabbi Salomon ha-Levi ~ (Pablo de Christians. acquired the $J.me social and political rights that the "old" Santa Maria), converted publicly. Christians enjoyed and, therefore, could avoid all the restrictions that were lo Despite the deteriorating situation, Hebrew poetry continued [0 being imposed on Iberian jews. However, religious fanaticism did not fl ourish. Among the most important Hebrew poets of the period are Salo- stop with co nversion; it only i.nc:reased. fueled by envy, bad faith. igno­ lO i RClllelllucrillg ScpharTortosa. The goal was to determine which was the superior and Castilian Inquisition was established , against the opposition of the Castil­ true faith. Representing the Christian side was Jeronimo de Santa Fe, a ian conversos. Evidence shows that its methods of operation were orga­ first-generation converso whose Jewish name had been Joshua HaJorqui. niz.:d terror and fa bricated acc usations against conversos.2l This formal dispute among scholars ended with thousands of conversions As the Inquisition organjzed th e persecution of the "newest heretics," to Christianity. m e conwcsos, inquisitors also sought to convince the monarchs of the As the Sephardic communities were dwindling dramatically as a result need to expel the Jews. There was 100 much interaction between Jews and of conversion, Je wish mysticism and Kabbalah were replacing traditional fo rmer Jews. The Inquisition had no jurisdiction over Jews,22 and it was Jewish learning. There is evidence of an increase of messianic speculation tht: Jews, said the Inq uisitors, who we re preventing conversos from being among the Sephardim as well.l7 Perhaps this was an attempt lO imagine a trut: Clu ist ians. Isabel and fernando granted the InquiSitors' wishes. future free ofunpredictability. However, biblical and talmudic scholarship First, the Sephard im were expelled from Christian Andalusia (then did not cease. part of the kingdom of CastUe) in 1482; then they were expelled from In 1433 Rabbi Moses Arragel completed a translation and commen­ the kingdom of Aragon in 14 1> 6. But expulsions were not enough for the tary of the Jewish Bible for a Christian patron, Luis Gonzalez de Guzman. Inqu.isitors. And, again, the), got from Isabel and Fernando what they An'agel worked under the supervision of two friars. Even later, in 1473, wanted. In 1492 all Sephardi.l1l we re expelled from all of Castile and Ara­ Abraham Zacut (1452-1515?) wrote a set of Hebrew astronomical tabl.:s gon , as we ll as from all o rher terri w ries under the control of the 1110n­ for the University of Salamanca.lo Amid the chaos and the t'.:ar, perhaps archsY Only if the), convened to Christianity would they be allowed to there were some pockets of plurality. Perhaps some judged the end of rema.in in their lands. There is evidence that the Jewish community had Sepharad impossible. Perhaps some were determined to resist. We need not anticipated the e ):pu ls i on.2~ to know more. immediately, some Sephardim opted for exile, some for conversion. By the end o t" the fi ft eenth century, the "ne\v" Christians were as much 01 chose \ .-110 chose exile, most left , by land or sea, for Portugal, Navarre, the target of the Christian zealots as 'dere those Jews who resisted conver­ or North Africa. So me never made it to safety. Some were unable to reach sion. Some conversos might have thought ofconversion as a tool to avoid exile and returned to convert and save their lives. Others reached what what they considered irreversible circumstances. But, again, the future they thll ught was safet y in Portugal and Na varre. 2s proved unpredictable. Conversos and their descendants were accused by Bu t just six years latt:f, in L-I 97, as a condition of the marriage between Christian fanatics of being heretics who were still practicing their old reli ­ hll1 g f., lanod of Po rtugal and Isabel (daughter of isabel and Fernando), a ll gion in whole or in part. Christian heretics were under the jurisdiction of j.:ws who wished to remain so \\'ere expelled from the kingdom of Portu­ the Roman InCj uisition while Jews were not. it was only a matter of time gal. A year later Jews who were no t willing to convert Ivere expelled from until prominent Christian voices rose to demand the establishment of an l\avarre. Sepharad was irreversibly gone. Inquisition in Castilel 9 Recent conversos as well as those born Christian Too mallY fu ndam.:m al questions remain unanswered. We do not but of converso descent were now trapped by the very same accusation: kno\\' enuugh about the life ofSepharad and, in spite of the wealth of writ­ heresy. ln g, we do no t know enough about her death. In my opinion, an accurate By this time, Christians controlled much of the Iberian PeninsulJ. remembrance of Sepharad's .::onstruction and destruction will material­ furthermore, the strategic marriage between Isabel, queen of Castile, and ize, in the present or in Lhe futU re , only when and if interethnic teams Fernando, king of Aragon, had united their separate kingdoms. Muslim of stud.ents seek the necessary knowledge together. The historiography o f Iberia was reduced La a single kingdom, Granada. And the relations be­ Sepharad requires su.:h co llaboration. Our current political circumstances tween Jews and conversos were openly hostile.2u m ighr seem contra ry to this collaboration, but at the same time it is this 12 I N.c lrL

America, January 2003. J os~ Alperovich, an Argentinean federal ~ella­ \"9 ;-. un the soci.J. success 01 co nversos, ~ee Roth 1995· tor, is running for the governorship of the province of Tucuman. The elec­ 17 Sec Roth 1995· Lll . 2..l<': UW ', tab l e~ I, c: re to dc.:omp.my Columbus on his 1492 expedition. tions are set to take place in March or April 2003· While most electoral 19. A Calaloill IngLlliition had been active si nce the twelfth century. In polls are on his side, Alperovich is facing an old new challenge. In spi te 14l!j th e iniam0ll.> Tomas Je TO f<.J. uemada was appointed General Inquisitor for of popular support , some leaders are questioning his qualifications. Their Aragon -CJla[urud. S<,<" Roth 1995. opposition stems from the fact that Alperovich is Jevvish and, thus, they 20. On this i:.sue, ~e e Roth 1937; Roth 1995; Netanyahu 1995; Kamen 1997. say, canno t comply with Article 80 of the provincial constitution, which 21. Clc C: Roth 1995. requires the governor to take a Christian oath. For Alperovich's chal­ 22.. Thc lnguil.i tion only had jurisdiction OVCf the Christians, "o ld" and lengers - whose leader is Tucuman's Roman Catholic archbishop, Mon­ "nel\." Jew ~, as long as they remained within their faith, could not be persecuted. signor Luis Villalba - this means that the governor must be Catholic. On(e converted, however, they fe ll strictl y under the Inquisition's control. Article 80 was written in 199027 23. See t.h e Edict u( h-pul sion in Raphael 1992, pp. 189-193. 24· ~ ec: Roth 1995· 25. Thae is no agrc' eme U[ among historians about the number of Jews who

1'0TES left the' penin~u1a in 14 92 and after. 26. I\ ly gratitude to Shaari Nert'tin, Donna Penn, and Susan Krause for their

1. For differing and sometimeS OppOSik intcrpretdtiollS, SC:e Roth 1937; 8Jer help I'lith this work. 1;)61-1;)66; Netanyahu 1995; Roth 1995; Gitlitz 1996; Kamen 1~}9 7 · 2.7. .-\S reported b>· the HoJ,o/ulI Globe, Jdnuary 14, 2003 , p. A14· 2. [n l.J92 Queen Isabel and King Fernando, known as tht' C"tholie I>.10n­ archs, had jurisJidion over lUost parts of the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian territories of Portugal and Navarre were not under their cont ro!, and l\luslim Gra­ SI:.Lc CTED B I B LI O GR AP HY nada was co nquered only in 1492. In other words, Fernando and babel were not sovereigns of "Spain." Immediately before their marriage (1469), the situati on Are fl.:il , Hctnnah. 1 ~ 58. Tilt! Hunu.IIl COlldieioll. Chicago: Unlvasity of Ch icago was even more fragmented. Castile and Aragon were independent Christian king­ Pr<:::>s Ipdpaba.:k eJitiun, 1989J. doms, with ditfere m laws and custOms. Even earlier, in th e twelfth, eleventh, and B..ter, Yi.zhak. 1!:iOl-1966. A HijlO ry or ehe jews ill Chri;Udli Spa ill Philadel phia: tenth centuries, th e fragmentation was more pronounced. jel,-is h Publi(ation Society of America. 3. Set' Mann, Gl ick, and Dodds 199 2; Roth 1995· C.l.:it ro, Am~ r i (O . 198). E;p,m ll ~1l ;U hisroria: Cri;eiullos. mom; Yjud(os. Barcelona: 4. Maimo nides left in 1148 and settled in Egypt, ",hert' he died ill 1204· Grijalbo 1'.lonJaJuri. 5. The end would come in 1492 with the conque st of the last surviling l\lu,lim Dodd:;, k rril}'nn. 1992. '·l\!uJeJar Tradition and the Synagogues of Medieval kingdom, Granada. Spain : Cultuc.u ldel1lit), and Cultural Hegemony." In Conv/vencia: jews, MU5­ 6. Some of th ese transL:ttors were Petrus Allonsi (b. 1062, (OI1l'crt), Ma ir Ab u­ iiI/IS ,lIld Chris/lall;; ill .\ledievul Spa ill, ed. Vivian Mann, Thomas Glick, and lalla (d. 1244), Abraham ibn al -Fahkhar (d. 1240), Ivkshulam Piera, and Abraham J.:rrilynn J)udds, 113-1.3 2- l\.: w York: George Hrazilla in association with the bar Hiyya. Jewish j\1~eum . 7- See Sen Tob [1345J 19 74­ Eimcri..: . Ni..: uL.iu 1913 . EI A/ulILwl de los 111 s, Christians, and Muslims inlviedievallbcria: Co n­ 11. See Dodds 1992. \·jl'en..:i ;) through the E > \~s of Sephardic Jews." In COllvivellcia: jews, M u slims 12. See Estow 1995· UII.I Chris/i,w,; ill .\kdlt.' I·,11 Spain, ed. Vivian (>"'Iann, Thomas Glick, and Je rri­ l4 J Remem/'erirrg Sep ham d

lynn Dodds. 2- 3R. New York: George Braziller in association with the Jewish lv[useum . Gitlitz, Da\·id. 1966. Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-jews. Philadel­ phia: Jewish Publication Society. Glick, Thomas. 1992. "Sc ience in Medieval Spain: The Jewi sh Contribution in the Context oi Convi venci a." In COllv ivencia: jews, Muslims and Christians il1 Medie1'ai Spa in, ed. Vivian Ma.nn, Thomas Glick, and Jerrilyn Dodds, 83-112. New Yo rk: Geo rge lkazill er in associat ion with the Jewish Museum. Kamen, Henry. 1997. Til e Spanish }nqllisition: A Historical Revision. New Haven: Yale Un iversity Press. ~ l a n n , Viv ian, Thomas Gli ck, and Jerri!y nn Dodds, cds. 1992. Conviven cia: jews, Mrislims U11 d Chr istians in Medieval Spain. New York: George Braziller in as­ sociation with the Jewish Museum. :-.Ieta nyah u, Benzion. 1955. The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth-Century Spain )lew York: Random House. Raphael, D3\'id, ed. 1992. Tile Expulsion 1492 Ch ronicles. North Hollywood, Calif.: Carmi House Press. Roth. Cecil. 193, . r ile Spa nish lnquisition . New York: Norton . Roth, Norman. 1995. COllversos, Ir/quisition and the Expulsion of the jews from Spain. l'ladiso n: University of Wisconsin Press. SciJeindlin, Rartnond. 1992. "Hebrew Poetry in Medieval Iberia ." In Convivel1 cia: Jews, .'IIt/dims IlIld Christians ill Medieval Spa in, ed. Vivian Mann, Thomas Gl ic k. an d Jerrilr n Dodds, 39- 60. New York: George Braziller in association with 1h e Jewish t. luseum. Sed -Rai na, Gabriell e. [992. "Hebrew Illuminated Manuscripts from the Iberian Peninsul a." In CO Ifl 'ivencia: jews, Muslims and Ch ristians in Med ieval Spoin, ed. Vivian Mann, Thomas Glick, and Jerrilyn Dodds, l33-l56. New York: George Brazill er in associ ation with the Jewish Museum. Sen Tob de Carrion. Glasas de sabiduria 0 Praverbios morales y atras rim as, ed. Agustin Ga rd a Calvo. Madrid: Al ianza , Il345] 1974· Vernet, Jua n. 1999. Lo quC' Europa debe al islam de Espana . Barcelona: £1 Acantilado. 1Jldex

.'\.-\:\. .)t't' Asoei'le ion de Amigo;, de Amster, Enrique, 159 .-\lelll Jnia al-Andalus, 5-8 .-\b ner of ~ u rgos, Rabbi, Ii Andersen, Lars, 36-37 A.; jo [megralista Bras ileira, 67, 6li , 09 Anschluss, 51 A.; au :i u(ial Nacionalista of Brazil , 66 anti-Semitism: in Arge nl~ Accio ll ~:at cili ca , 164, 165 61-73, 16}, 172-173, Adiu K,Tida, 221- 234 Chile, xv, 42; on the Itlo:. Agam, 'ladcov, 159 Peninsula, 9-12; in L.t. Aguelu, .-\ monio Esteban, 152 American fi.crion, 134 Aguini" 1I1..lrcos, 150-151, 15 7, 150, l!H Anwandta, Karl, 77 AhLlmadd, An uro, llo Arabic language, 6, 8, 71; pvc" :\izenberg, Ed na, xv, xx , Hil, 1113 Aragon, 9, 11, 12112 Alcazar (Spanis h fonre»s), 82 Aranovich, Claudia, 159 Al eichem, ShaJu m, xix, It)9 , 191 ,194 Araucanian Indians, 77 .-\Ic:m.ul . l\l ig ud, 92 Argentina, 12; and the A I\Il A~ - AI",;,anGri, lorge, 83 149-162; and Gabriel \.u...... Alex.ll1der (king of Yugoslavia), III xxi, 207-219; popular ' A U'on~o X,ll culture in , xv, 177-20}; ro' • . Ali.lO.LJ. Anlieolllun is la Argentina. :'':c wlllg movements, ami · ~ Triple A and Nazism in, xii, XiV- l\ . ~ All dlllJ LibertJdora l'\..u.: ionalislJ, 107 61-73,80,81; women \, mel Allen, \\'oody, 152, 194-195, 222 J}I-144; ill World War II, - ­ Allt!ndc, Sail'ador, xii, 83 8} .-\\on$o, l-krnando, 26 Arragd, Rabbi Moses, 10 Alpau\'ieh , Jos~, 12 A,hktlldzi Community COU ll , Alpt!r"on, l- lordt!pi, Ill" , 106 110 AbugJrJ)" Julio, 191 Ashkenazi JeWS, 4} , 71, 72, I·B Al\I IA. S<'c Asociacioll .l;iulual in Cuba, 221-223, 229, 230: brJdila Argentina l'vkxico, 92,97,101,102, 10) •• 240 I iv1.:111 ary, Oblil'iVIl,

A~o(iArgentinas (DAIA), 165, 166,168, Baldrich, Alberto, 166 Caimari, Lila, 168 Colonia DigniJ...ld, x"v ii i, 03- 84 169, 172 Banchik, Delia, 160 Canetti, Elias, xvii, 17 Columbus, Christopher, xi ii, 3. 25, 47, Deutsch, Sandra McGee, xviii bar Hina, Abraham, 8 Carabineros (Chilean police), 82, 85 ) 1; :; lame o L .>8 Diaspora, xii, xiii, xvi, xvii, 18, 105, 231 Barros, Ernesto, 78 Cardoso, Juan, 27 comm u ni sl ~/ c o mm uni sm: in C nina , Diaz, Francisco Javier, 80 Barros, Tobias, 79-80 Carroll, Lewis, 140 35. 45; in ,,-\ rgenlina, 72• 140, 165, dictalOrships, xii-xiii, xviii, 64, 68, Barthou, Louis, 81 Carter, Jimm)', 224 106, 170; in Cuba, 225, 1.29; in nn;. See also right-wing Baumgarten, l\ lurray, xvii Castile, 10-11 , 12n2 Euro pe. 1) 1, 117 movements. See also under !lames Begin, Menachem, 159 Castilian language, 8, 19, 24 C.... n ~<:rv a[ i ve Judaism. 93. 95, 97, 9/1, vf specific dictators Behar, Alberto, 231 Catholics/Catholic church, xiii, xv, 77; 99.102 DINA (Chilean secret police), 81, 83 Behar, Mori, 232-233 cartoon about, 197-198; in Cuba, COnlr~ r a.s , :-' l,lIlud , 83 Dines, Alberto, 195 Behar, Ruth, xx-xxi 225, 227; and discrimination COl\versos, xvi, A,,\' Ii , 3, 9-10, n , 21,24, Direccion General de Investigaciones, ben Ardutid, Shem Tob, 8 against women, 71; relationship 25-27. See ,l /.;O SerharaJ/ 80 Belll'~nisre, Vidal, 9 of, to right-wing movements in ~ e phar d.i..: Jews Dirt)' War (Argentina), 64-65, 68, 153, Berman, Sabrina, XLX Argentina, xiv, 63,65, 66, 67, Cooder. Ry, 226 157 Beth Israel Community Center 73 n7; and religious lllstruction, Copelio, Cardinal Santiago Lu i ~, 168 Docto ro\·", E. L., 15 7 (BI CC),91- 1OO 163-175; and Sepharad, 3; a.s Slate Cordoba, 0 - 7 Dolinsky, Dina, 161n4 Bezalel, Menahem, 9 religion in Latin America, xx; Cornwell, John, 0 Dominican RepubliC, 82 Bible: Aleppo Codex, 53; Hebre\\', 7; and the Utashe regime in Lorrea, Juan EJ uard0, 86 Drake, Mike, 232 and Jewish hUlllor, 195, 201; O ld Yugoslavia, 81, 1>2 OrTl!a, Raq ue I, 1:1 Duhalde, Eduardo Luis, 210 Testament in, 26 Cerda, Carlos, 87 Cones, Heman, 26 Duran, Diego de, 26 BICC. See Beth Israel Communit), Cervantes, j\[iguel de, 19, 182; The ( ossa , Roberto, 187 Center Adventures of Dvn QUixot2, 15 LoS Lanllni. Humben o , 191 eastern Europe, xi, 40; folklore of, 122; Bil'lllajer, tvlan:eio, 160, 186 Chab, Victor, 160 CUJ.renla, La , 1:1 2 iood of, 193; identity and Blaine, James G., 78 Chile:, xi; David Brailovsky\ IiI;" 111 , Cubd, X.X, xxi, 221 -234 assimilation of Jews from, 4 1,42 , l3'nai Erith, 94, 228 34,35,38-44; dictator,hip of Cuell ar, Jose l o mas de, 12 -1 1I5, 116, 165 , 222 ; and Jewish Bolivia/Bolivians, xviii, 65, 71) Pinoche:t in, xii-xiii, 61>, nIl7; Cl~h o ~ l vvak i d , 58 humor, 195,201. See also Bonafed, Salomon, 8-9 right-wing movements, anti­ Czechoslovakia; East Germany; Borges, Jorge Luis, xv, 183, 104 Semitism, and Nazism in, xv, DAIA.. S" ,' Dd~ga ..:i o n dt: Hungary/Hungarians; Poland; Bortnik, Aida, 150,203 xviii, 65-68,70,77-1)8 Aso..:i a..: ione-:, Isradilas Russia/Russians; Yugoslavia Bosque Pumalin Foundation, 86 Chilean ConscTvative Pari)" 66 Argo: nLi nas East Germany, 87-88 2~2 I A/ell/ury, Oblivioll, tllld !": Ivi,h Culture ill Lalill AII/ericd IND E X (243 cco, Ulllberlo, I)) gaucho jUl/ios, xx, 156, 177- 178 , Harris, DJI'id A,. l It! ibn Abdala, Abu Imran Musa ben Ecuador, 56, 57 181-189, 194, 195 , 197 Harris, Robert, 209, 218 l\[aimun. See Maimonides Edict of Expulsion, ) Gcmara (Jewish text), 104 Hawley-Snlllot laritf Act of 1930 , 78, ibn Ezra, Abraham, 8 ED UCEC Set' tundacion cducaciOll Gendler, Everct, 95 79 ibn Ezra, Moses, 7 Cie:llcia y Ecologia Gerchunotl, Alberto, xv, :a, 161n4, He:breo, Leon , 1, ibn Gabirol, Salomon, 7 Egypt, :ai, 12 177,178,181-185, 187,194; Los Hebrew la nglliige, 57, 7l; biblical/ Old ibn Labrat, Dunash, 7 Eichdbaull1, Samuc:l, 160, 18 4, 1i:l6 gauchos judios, xx, 177-178, Test ament , 6 , 26, 53; clas$":; in , 57, ibn Mosca, jehuda, 8 Eichmann, Adol f, xviii, 51, 209 181-1 85,194 95, 98 , 227, 231 ; evolut io n of, as J ibn Shaprut, Hasdai, 6-7 Eiscnhower, Dwight , 58 Ge:rman language, 40, 41, 51, 78 result of exile, 23; glossar r of, 195; ibn Sid, Isaac, 8 EIguc:ra, Sergio, 86 Germany/ Germans, 50, 53 , 61, 6~, 95; Iilerat ure and poetry in, 6, 8-9, Inca Garcilaso, 134 Eli , Nliriam, 2)1 ties of, with Chile, xviii, 77-78, 156; gram mar, 56; p ra ycr s /~a vi ce s Inquisition, xiv, xvii, 3,10,11 , Encue:lHro, 159-160 79-81,83. See a/50 East Germany said in, 40, -p, 43, 54, 94; ~ cienljti c l]nnI9,22, 17, 20-21 , 24 , 26 , 27, Enriqu c: z Gomcz, Al1lllniu , 20-21 Gershwin, George:, 160 '''ritings in. /_ :lit': ,llso Bible: 40, 157, 222 Enrique:z Paz, Enrique. S":I! Enriquez Giardindli, Ivlc:mpo, 133, 134 Heb rew Integralistas. See A~ ~I.O Integralista Gomez, Autonio Glantz, Jacobo, 115-116, llS - 119, Hebrew Unive rsil Y, 53 Brasileira bquivd, Laura, 192-193 120-121 Heker, Lilima, 133 Ln ternational Eucharistic Congress, 164 Glantz, Lucia, 115-116, 121 Heliodoro \ ·aD e, RJiad, 25 International Organiz1. $4, Fernando), II 161n_!. 181, :84, 186-11:l7, 203 Goldemberg, Isaac, 195 86,8;;, 135. Set' also Holocaust; Isabel (queen of Castile), 10, II, 12n2 FeldJ11an , Shimshon, ICI-102 Goldman, Moises, 169 Nazis; World \Var II Islam. See Muslims fe:minism, 68, 69, 71. Se t' (iL, ,) womc:n Goloboff, Gerardo l\1Jrio, 1~6 Hiyo, Lev i ben b aJ.e , 9 Is rael, xvii, 24, 49-50,55,56,72; attack Fernando (killg of Aragon ), 10, 11, Gunzalez de Guzmall, Lui~, 10 Holocall ~t , xv iii , 57, 64, \6 0, 107, 23J ; on embassy ot", 150, 156-157; 12112 Granada, 6, 7, 10, 12nn2,5 denial of, by certain people and crc:ation of, 4]; Cubans moving tilms/tilmmaking, 188, 203, 221-23 -1 Guardo, Richardo, 169 groups in Latin Am erica, xii, 61 ­ to, 228, 2]1; films about, 233; Finguerc:r , Manuda, 133 , 201 Guiraldes, Ricardo, 183 62; Gabriel \'ala ns i's pen:eption; hUlllor of, 195; people of, in exile, Fosado, Gisda, 229, 232 of, lOo..i, 209; in Latin American 18, 22; president of, 42; printing foster, David William, xx, 139, 179, Habii, Alberto, 231 tict ion, xi:\:, 1)-40 157; testimonil:s oi Bible in, 53; relations of, with 180 Habif, Eliza, 231 abour, 1;;:1, 161n2 . See ,liSt} Hiller, Argentina, 152 , 159, 172 , 173; Franco, francisco, xvi, 82 Halac, Ricardo, 11:> 7 Adolf; l\.lZis; \\'orlJ War II relations of, with Chile, 81, 87; Franco, jeall, 178-179 Halacha (jewish text), 104 Homer,15 l relations of, with Spain, xvi; War Fre:i Ruiz-Tagle, Ed ua rdo , 04 Halevi, Samuel, 9 Hudal, Bi ~hop _-\Ioi~, III of Independence in,57 Frondizi, Arturo, 169 ha-Levi, Yehuda (also referred LO as humor. St. .. Jewish humor Israel, C B., 77 Fundacion EduclCion Cie:ncia y Abraham ben Eliae:r ha-Lel'i, Hungary/Hungaria.ns, 40, 94 ltzigshon, Sara, 184 Ecologia (ED UCl:.C ), 86 Rabbi Salomon ha-Lcvi) , 8, 17, Hutcheon, Linda, 13/ fundamenralism, religious, 7-C, 157 22 jdbotinsky, Vladomir, )) , 56, 159 Halorqui, joshua. See Santa F";, [bartez, Carius, ,9, S-h 1>6 -87 jacobinos, 66 Gamboa, f'c:derico, 124-125 jeronimo de lbarguren, C.lr l u ~ . 62, /3 Jerusalem, 53, 56, 57 Garb.:r, Pablo, 208-209 Halpern, joseph, xi, xiv Iberian Pe nllbu!J, 3- 12 . Sc:.: t1 /'() jewish Colonization Association, 180 Garcia , Genaro, 25 Hanukkah, 96 Port u~al / pl)rtug ucs e; Sp ai n Jewish foods, xi, 72,192-194 244 I ivlt:IlLUIY, Oblil'iUII, alld }elVi,h Cu lru re ill Lal ill Alllerica 1N J) E X ! 245 j.:wish humor, xii; in Bueno; Aire>, Casliilan language; Ge rman :'I. 1.ldConservative Judaism; con versos; language; Russian language; !..j Soc ialista Diaspora; g,wciLos judios; Heb rew Spanish language; Yiddish l'. lairs, ~a ncy, 137 Moguilevsky, Marcelo, 160 language; Holocaust; Israel; language :>.laiz-Peria , Magdalena, ll6 Ivloisesville , 153, 154, 188 Jewish foods; Jewish humor; Laplace, Victor, 187, 188 Ma lach, Lie b, 190 , 191 Mo ll oy, Sy lvia, 134, 140 kabbalism; Orthodox Judaism; Latin America. See Argentina; Bolil'ia/ fo. IJ.DReform Judaism; Sepharad/ Bolivians; Brazil; Chile; Colombia; l> lanel exodus, 224 Morales, Diego de, 26 Sephardic je "v,'s; Zionism Cuba; Dominican Repub lic ; l\ lanlnez, Fal her FerrJ n, 9 Mo rale s, Gonzalo de, 26 Jimenez Rueda, Ju lio, 25 Ecuador; Panama; Peru/Peruvinas Marrint'Z , Marcial, 80 Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, 65,71 JodI, Alfred, 80 Lavrin, Asuncion, 68 -69 l'.lanina Estrada, hequiel, :'.13, 214 Mount, Grac:me, xv iii Jorgensen, Beth E., 118, 119 Lebanon/Lebanese, 156, 157 t-.larr lnt'Z Luviria, Gustavo, ]03, 166 Movimic:nto Nacional Socialista Joyce, James, 140 Lenin, Vladimir Il yich , 55 l\iarx, Groucho, 195 (MNS), 67, 68 Jusid, Juan Jose, 187. 188 Leo XIII (pope), 167 Marxism, 164, 16 7 Movimiento Nacionalista Chilena Justo, Agustin P., 166 Lerer, Samuel, 97, 98 l\lcCJrth) is m , 92 (MNCh),84-87 Lerner, Cesar, 160 t-.!el1loria A.ctiva, 15 0, 151, 100 Muller, Wolfgang, 83 kabbalism , 10, 17, 18, 19, 20 , 21,23,140, Les Luthias, 181 !>. Ienem, Carlos Sa ul, 15 0. 10 1Jll , 210 IVIuniz Huberman, Angelina, xvi, xvii 154 Levin, Eliezer, 195 l> k n~ l1dez Piua!, Ramon, 23 Muslims, 156, 157; and attack on Kannegiesser, the Reve rend Martin, 78 Levinton, Sol, 159 r.lcngdc. Joseph, xv iii A.MIA , 156-158; on lberian Kaplinsky GU!erman, Sofia, 15 0, 15 1 Levy, Carios, 150 , 151 -15 2 r. le rcado, Tunu lla, 133 Pc:ninsula, 4-8, 10; Jews living Ka rtun, Mauricio, 187 Lewis, Oscar, 229 messid..l1 ism, 21-22, 26 , 1h m2 among, 222 Katz, Peter, 99 Lib erman, Raqud, 191 , 192 metempsychusis, 20, 21 Ke hillah, 101 , 102, 103 Liebman, Se)fmOU r B. , 22, 25 r. IcAico, 225; Beth Is rael d llU Ol unity Nacionalistas, 61 - 73 Kehillot,111 Liga Patriotica Argelltma (Li gui,tas), ill, ,:viii, 91- 100; Catholicism i.n, Nac istas. See tviovimiento Nacional Keter Ara m Zova. S li d,lIe Ages, 4-6 seeking refuge in Latin America, Kristallnacht, 52, 53 Lopez, Gregorio, 26 fl lidd k East, 156. Set.' .//':;0 israel ; A-vii i, 47. See also Hitler, Adolf; Kulli, Jac 0bo, 22, 24 Lopez Rega, Jose, 187-188 Eg ypt; Lebanon/Lebane5e Holocaust; World War II Kuperman, Basia, 160 Louis XliI (king of France), 21 I\ Ji gnogna, Euuardo, 203 neoliberalism , 207-219 Lu go nes, Le opoldo, 183 mili tary dictatorships. SEe New York Ci ty, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 58, labor unions, 62-63 Luri a, Isaac, 20, 22 dicta torships 221, 228, 232 Ladino language, xiii, xvi , 17, 22,23, I\ lirdman, Victor, 18<) Nicholas II (czar of Russia), 132, 135, 195 l\lacKay, Luis, 169 t. li ~bn ah , 7 14 2, 143n2 languages. See Arabic la ngu age; Mactas, Rebeca, 186 i\ liyara, Albe rt o Jo,e, 151 , 161 Nunez y Dominguez, Jose, 25 246 I Memu/y, OVlii'iulI, allJ }.;wish Culture ill LUlili Allleri,'" INDEX I 2-4 7

UCdlla, Diego de, 26 Progress ive- Democratic Pany Sagaris, L.1kc:, /)3, ILl Sosa, l'vkrcedes, 180 OllOire Jarpa, Sergio, 83,84,87 (Argentina), 16 7 Sahagun, Bernardinu de, 26 Soviet Union, 80,116-117,195, 225. Set: O'Rourke, Dc:nnis, 229 Protestantism, 225 Sallchez, Carlos, 84 also Russia/Russians Orthodox Judaism, 39 , 40, 94, 95,97, Purim, 96 Sama Fe, Jero nimo de, 10 Spain, 79, 159, 181, 223, 225; 102, 197, 199 Santa Teresa, 193 Catholicism and, 227; emergence: O~t[()~ky , Loncho, 135 Rabinovich, luail, 118 Santeria, 225, 226, 230 of, 5; expulsion of Jews fr0111, xiii , Otefo-Krauthamlllc:r, El izabeth, 116 Radical party (Chile), 78, elo Schafer, Paul, 8j , 86 xvi-xvii, 18, 20, 21, 22 , 24,222, Ottone, Antonio, 183 Rahman. 'Abd al -, 6 Schalom, Myrtha, 192 230 (see also Sepharad/Sephardic Ramirez, Fernando, 85 Schapiro, Mariana, 15:> Jt:ws); kabbalism in, 17; relations Paldtinians, xv Ramirez, Pt:dro Pablo, 165 Scht:cter, Joel (J ack ). 95 of, with Israel, xvi Pan,und, 35, 38, 47-60, 171 Rauff, Walter, xviii, 81, 86 , 87 Schelling, Viv ian, 178 Spanisil Inquisition. See Inquisition Panallla Canal, 47, 53 , 54, 58 RaZllovich, Diana, 201 Scholaticism, 21 Spanish language, xiv, xvii, 39,41,51, Papiernik, Charles, 161m Recaredo (Visigoth king), 5 Scholt:m, Gershum, 20 52, 55,93,118,154, 183,191,221; Passover, xxi, 96, 222, 228 RelOrtll Judaism, 94 Scliar, Moacyr, 195, 2 01 church services in, 43, 97, 98,99; Pavclic, Ante: , 81 Reik , Tht:odor, 117. 119,120 St:t:wald, Gisela, 83 film in, 233; literature in, 139, 150, Pavlotzsky, Jose , 11l4 - Hl5, Ib6 Rein, Raanan, xox Seinfeld, Jerry, 194, 1') 5 178,182,227; newspapers in, 78; Pay no, Malluel, 124 Reiria, Carmen, xvi Semana Tragi(;a, 63 , 64 presavation of, by Sephardic PeCdr, Samuel, 195 Revolution of 1930 (Argentina) , 63 St:pharad/Sepha.rdic jews, xii . xiii , Jews, 16-18,22-23,24 Peres, Shimon, 87 Rt:yes, Cipriano, 174n9 xvi-xvii, xxi, 103, l:) t. Hl :>. ; in Spinoza. Baruch, xvii, 17 Peron, Eva ("Evita"), 82, 161l right-wing movements, 61 - 73, 166, Chile, 40-41 ; in Cuba, 221-224, Stalin, Joseph, 55 Pero n, Isabel, 188 187-188, 209-210. See a/so anti­ 229, 230, 231-2}); culture of, xii; Star of Da vid, 49,57, 154 , 193 Peron, juan, 71, 82, 15·'\. 164, 187,213, Senlitism; dictatorships; Nazis; history of, 3-12; and humo r, 195, Stavans, llan, 137, 179 214; anti-Semitism of, xviii, 81, IJam es of specific 1I/O,'en/ eIlIS alld 201; It:gac y ot, 15-2;- ; Orthodox Steimberg, Alicia, 133, 138, 195 166 - 16~ 168-173, 209 po/ilicul pLlTlies synagogues ufo 9 2; women, 71. Strier, Mirra, 152 Peronislll. See Peron, juan Rilke, Rainer Maria, xiii See also Sp ain Subacaseaux, Elizabt:th, 87 Pe:ru/Peruvians, 65-66, 78 , 79, 195 Rinsky, Bt:njamin, 169 Sepulveda, Jos"; , 85-:)6 Succot, 96 Peter I (king of Castile), 9 Rios, Conrado, 79-80, III Sarano, Miguel, :)4 , 116 Suez, Peria, xix, 131-144 Piazzolla, Astor, 181 Rios, juan Antonio. 79 Setton, Guido, 100 Svesct:n , Vlado (or Vladimir), 81,82, Pick, Richard, 95 Riva Palacio, Vict:ntt:, 25 Shazar, Zalman, 42 86 Piera, Salomon, 9 Roman Empire, 4,5 Shekhinah, 18, 19 , !...j Symbolists, 115 Pimpindla, 180 Rosh Hashanah, 50, 156 Shua, Ana Maria, 133, 150. 160. 192, Szichman , Mario, 190, 195 Pinochet, Augusto, xii-xi:i, ).;viii, xx, Roth, Philip, 222 193- 194, 195 , 201 68,73117,81- 84, 86- 88 Rowe , William, 178 Silber, Daniel, 160 Talmud, 104, 140, 195, 201 Pius Xl, 167 Rudadf, i\'[arcdo, 194 Singer, Isaac Bashc\' is, 1119 Tatum, Charles 1\1., 179 Pius XII, 81, 1l2, 169 Russia/Russians, xi, 153; in Argemina, Sisebu to (V isi go lh ki ng), 5 Tavonaska, Gregorio, 161n4 Plager, Sylvia, 160, 177, 178, 192-193 , 63,156; in Chile, 40, 41; czarist Snt:h, Paloma, 160 Temple of Jerusalem, 20 , 22 194,201-202 pt:rsecution of jews in , 185; in lite Sneh, Perla, 15 0 tt:rrorism, xiv-xv, 149-162, 202, 215 Poch, Leon, 195 and work of Margo Glantz, 115, Sobremonte, Tomj, 1r<::'\ ino de, 26 Tetragrammaton , 23 Poland, 40, 190, 191 , 222 11 6 -117,119. See elisa Soviet Union socialism/socialists, 63. ,2, 165, 166 Third Reich. See Nazis Portugal/Portuguese, 11 , 66. See

Toker, Eli ahu, lSI, 194,201, 202 Wang, Diana, IS!, 159 , 160 Toledo (medieval Iberian city), 6, 0 Wast, Hugo. See Martinez Zuviria, Tompkms, Douglas, 85-86 Gustavo Torah, 19 , 26, 50, 104 , 106 Wenders, Wim, 226 Toribio Medina, jose, 25 women: authors of Argentina, 131­ Toro, Alfonso, 25 144; involvement of, at B<:th Torquemada, Tomas de, 131119 Israel, 98,99; in right-wing transmigratio n of the so ul, 20 movements, 63, 68-72 Travolta, john, 126-127 World Council of Synagogues, 95 Triana, Rodrigo de, 25-26 World War I, 62, 65,66, 78; jewish Triple A, lS7 migration to Mexico tollowing, Trujillo, Rafael Leonidas, 82 93; Russian-German front Tsur, Yaacov, 172 during, 37 Tur, Danayda, 230-231 World War II, 35, 52, 53; Argentina's Tur, jose Levy, 230-231 role ill, 79, 163; Chile's role in, Turkey, 230, 232 and after, ;..:v iii , 77 - 88; end of, 50; jelvlsh migration to tvlexico Uchmany, Eva Alexandra, 25 following, 92; "myth" of the Union Democr,itica, 166 Holocaust, 61,78; survivors of, United Kingdom, 78, 79, S4 xxi. See also Hitler, Adolf; United Synagogues of Conservative Holoca ust; Nazis Judaism, 95 University of Buenos Aires, W7 Yiddish language, 51,72,93, ll2, ll5, University of Chile, 39, 85 1l7, 144, 191; in Argentina, xiv ; University of Concepcion, S5 and Diana Wang, 160; glossary University of Salamanca, 10 o f, 195; library of works in, 147, University of Vienna, 50 152; in literature, 156, 182 , 1114, Utashe government (Croatia), 81, 86 193; in th"ater, 160; used as a means of .:xcl uding o thers from Valansi, Gabriel, xx-xxi, 207-219 conversation, 132, 139; writers, Va ld~s, juan de, 24 189, 19 0 VJ ll adolid, Alfonso de. See Abner of 10m Kippur, 59 Burgos, Rabbi Yrigoyen, HipolitO, 164 Va nguardia Popular Socialista. S2e Yugoslavia, 81, 82 Movimiento Nacional Socialista Vaughan, Urni , 229 Zacut, Abraham, to Ve rgara, Carlos, 80 Zeitlin, Israel, 190 Victoria, Francisco de, 26 Zevi, Sabbatai, 23, 24 Villalba, Luis (Monsignor), 12 Zionism, xv, 33, 39, .p, 50, 53, 134,152 Visigoths, 4, 5 Zoller, Helen, 93, 95, 96 Vives, juan Luis , 24 Zorrilla, China, 187 Zwi Migdal, 189, 191 Zykobky, Belle and l>.like, 91