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Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42828-6 — Making Peace, Making Riots Anwesha Roy Index More Information

Index 271

Index

Abhay Ashram of Comilla, 88 anti-communal resistance, 22, 171–175 abwabs, 118 Arya Samaj Relief Society, 80 Adim Ripu, 168 Azad, Maulana, 129 agrarian society in East Bengal, 118 Aziz, Mr, 44 Agunpakhi (Hasan Azizul Huq), 76 Babri Masjid/Ram Janmabhoomi issue, Ahmad, Khan Bahadur Sharifuddin, 41 248–249 Ahmed, Abul Mansur, 122, 132, 134, 151, Badrudduja, Syed, 35 160 Badurbagan Sporting Club, 161 Ahmed, Giyasuddin, 136 Bagchi, Jasodhara, 16 Ahmed, M. U., 75 Bahadur, Maharaja Manikya, 57 Ahmed, Muzaffar, 204 Bahuguna, Sunderlal, 240 Ahmed, Rashid, 119 Bandyopadhyay, Manik, 85 Ahmed, Shamsuddin, 136, 165 Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar, 92 Ahmed, Syed, 121 Bandyopadhyay, Tarashankar, 85 Aj Kal Porshur Golpo (Manik Banerjee, Sanat Kumar, 198 Bandyopadhyay), 86 Bannerjee, Ashalata, 82 Akali Dal, 129–130 Barman, Upendra Nath, 36 ‘Akhand Hindustan,’ idea of, 130 Basu, Jyoti, 166 Ali, Asaf, 129 Batabyal, Rakesh, 14, 19 Ali, Captain Yusuf, 191 Bayly, C. A., 13 Ali, Tafazzal, 165 on pre-history of communalism, 2–3 All Bengal Muslim Students League, 55 Bell, F. O., 76 All Bengal Secondary Education Bill Bengal Protest Day, 109 cost of living in, 31 All India Muslim League, 123 political scenario of, 30–31 All India Spinner’s Association, 88 short-term changes in population and All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), prices, 31 202–203, 205, 218 Bengal famine. see famine of 1943-44 in Amrita Bazar Patrika, 32, 38, 41, 45, 72, Bengal 88, 110, 115 Bengali Hindu identity, 1 Amte, Baba, 240 Bengali Hindus, 32, 72 Anjuman Mofidul Islam, 73 Bengali language, 135

272 Index

The Bengali Merchants Association, 56 C. R. Das’ Hindu-Muslim Pact, 1923, 12 Bengal Money-lenders Act of 1940, 31, Calcutta Emergency Relief Organization, 122 174 Bengal Provincial Congress Committee Calcutta Relief Committee, 80 (BPCC), 15, 172, 188, 201 census operations of 1941-42, communal Bengal Provincial Hindu Mahasabha, 86, animosities, 39–41, 43 89, 95, 102n137, 151 Chakravartty, Gargi, 17 Bengal Provincial Hindu Mahasabha Chakravartty, Renu, 82, 205–206, 219 Relief Committee, 80 Chakravarty, Ambika, 205 Bengal Provincial Muslim League, 46, 93, Chakravarty, Nikhil, 160 121–122, 128, 130–131, 136, 190 Chandra, Bipin, 4 Bengal Provincial Students Federation masses, attraction to communalism, 4 (BPSF), 55 on nationalism, 5 Bengal Relief Committee, 80 participants in and victims of a Bengal Scheduled Caste Party, 61n70 communal riot, 5 Bengal society, 15 view of communalism, 4–5 Chatterjee, Kamala, 205, 219 Bengal Tenancy (Amendment) Act, 1938, Chatterjee, N. C., 39, 109, 113 31, 122 Chatterjee, Partha, 118, 207 Bengal Women’s Food Committee, 80 Chatterjee, Ram, 169 Bhadralok Hindus, 15 Chatterji, Joy, 14 Bharat Sevashram Sangha (BSS), 19, 33, Chatterji, Joya, 167 38, 56, 90–91, 112, 174, 200–201, Chatterji, Nirmal, 219 248–249 Chatterji, Phanindra, 155 protest against Civil Supplies Chatterji, P.K., 162–163 Department, 91 Chattopadhyay, Sarat Chandra, 1 unification and militarization of Chaudhuri, Manoranjan, 113, 219 Hindus, role in, 91 Chaudhury, Hamidul Huq, 93 Bhattacharya, Annada Shankar, 171 Chintamani (Manik Bandyopadhyay), 86 Bhattacharya, Ardhendu, 188 Chipko Movement, 240 Bhave, Vinoba, 241 Choudhury, Ray, 75 Bihar riots, 216 Choudhury, Tapan Ray, 74 Biswas, Makhan Lal, 201 Chowdhary, Nurul Islam, 136 Biswas, Rasik Lal, 35 Chowdhury, Leela, 82 Biswas, Rasiklal, 61n70 collective violence, 175 Bose, K.C., 155 communal animosities, 13 Bose, M. K., 173 Hinduization of caste politics during Bose, Nirmal Kumar, 215, 217, 219 relief work, 91–93 Bose, Sarat Chandra, 153 communal antagonism, waves of Bose, Sugata, 28, 122, 139 census operations of 1941-42, 39–41, British Cabinet Mission, 137–139, 149 43 Burman, Shyama Prasad, 112 educational reconstruction, 35–37 Butalia, Urvashi, 15–16 Hindu Mahasabha activities, 37–38

Index 273

on Holi celebrations, 43 Dacca riot of 1941, 18, 22, 26, 33–34, 123 pro-Hindu and pro-League attacks on Hindus, 47 newspapers, 41–42 attacks on mosques and temples, 45 Communal Award of 1932, 15 attacks on police and armed forces, 52 communal collective identities, 116 attacks on women, 29 communal identities, 13 background, 26 communalism, debates around, 2–7 cases of conversions, 51–52 in Bengal, 10–15 cases of stabbing, looting and arson, 27, communalism, transformation of 44–45, 47, 50–51 and Bengali Hindu Bhadralok, 15 casualties, 48–49 forms and phases, 14 characteristics, 50–55 through riots and collective violence, 14 disturbances, 43–49 Communist Party of India (CPI), 74, 95– Enquiry Committee on, 53–55 96, 125–126, 166, 173, 204–205 impact of, 49 composite nationalism, theory of, 11 looting of hats or bazaars, 29 Congress, 30–31 pattern of violence, 29, 31–32 Congress Constructive Workers relief and rehabilitation, inter- Association, 56 community solidarity and Congress Socialist Party, 125 goodwill, 55–58 Congress Working Committee, 127 rumours, role in spreading attacks and ‘contradictory common-sense’ of counter attacks, 44–45, 49, 56 subalterns, 247 in rural areas, 46 conversions, during riot, 51–52 scale of violence and level of organization, 54 C R Formula, 113 signs of escalation of conflict, 34 Dacca slogans during, 44, 47, 51–52 communal disturbances of 1926 and Das, Monmohan, 61n70, 111–112 1930 and related violence, 27–28 Das, Noni Gopal, 48 Debt Settlement Boards, 30 Das, Suranjan, 13, 18, 153, 162, 166–167 factors contributing to violence in, communal animosities, 13 26–29 communal identities, 13 jute industry, 28 difference between riots of 1940s and Krishak Samiti Activities, 29–30 ones that preceded them, 13 Muslim and Hindu population of, 26 religious identity, 13 pattern of violence in, 28–29 short-term changes in population and political scenario, 30–31 prices, 31 rate of transfers of raiyati holdings, 28 study of riots in Bengal from 1905 to rural credit system, 28 1947, 13 socio-economic statuses of Hindus and Dasgupta, Subhoranjan, 16 Muslims, 26–27 Datta, Dhirendra Nath, 165, 191 Wahabi and Faraizi movements, Datta, Pradip Kumar, 7, 248 influence of, 26 communal collective identities, 7 Dacca Anushilan Party, 48 identity formation, 7

274 Index

study of riots, 10 looting, cases of, 73 understanding of communalism, 7 middle-class families, effect on, 77 Dawn, 190 plight of women, 78–79 Denial Policy, 69–70 politics of relief and rehabilitation, Depressed Classes of Bengal, 20, 59n50 80–97 ‘Hindu unity’ amongst, 19 relief organizations, 73 Sangathan activities, 18 rising price of rice, 73, 75, 77, 125, 184 Dewal, 75 rural education, impact on, 78 Dhaka riot of 1941, 13 signs of starvation, 77 Direct Action Day program, 10, 148–153, trafficking in women, 79–80 166, 168 withdrawal of boats and its impact, 69 Dixit, Prabha fasting, analysis of, 236–241 development of communal Food Drive, 125 organizations, 5–6 Freitag, Sandria B., 8 Muslim communalism, 6 analysis of riots, 8 understanding of communalism, 5–6 collective action, 8 Dutta, Dhirendra Nath, 188 Gandhi, 127, 200–201 Dutta, Kamini Kumar, 51, 53, 57, 188 attitude towards violence against East Bengal, 122–123, 126, 131 women, 224–225 East Pakistan, 133, 135, 140 on Bihar situation, 216–217 Edbar, Upendranath, 92, 115 Calcutta fast, 1947, 232–241 elections of 1937, 119–120 comparison of Draupadi and Sita, 224 elections of 1946, 136–137 fast in Delhi in 1948, 239 impact on Muslims, 226–230 Famine Enquiry Commission, 70 issue of conversions, 224–225 Famine Enquiry Commission Report, message of dying with self-respect, 223 75–76 message to the people, 215–216 famine of 1943-44 in Bengal, 19, 68, 126 mild attack on, 215 affected people, 77 peace strategy, 217–225 attacks on villagers and assaults on personal life and his peace mission at women, 70 Noakhali, 230–232 begging, cases of, 74 philosophy of nonviolent resistance, cases of prostitution, 79–80 239–240 causes of, 70 visit to riot affected areas, 214–215 cyclone, effect of, 71 Gandhi, study of, 22–23 death rates, 75–77 Gandhian nonviolence, 22 destitutes, cases of, 75, 78–79 ‘Ghar Wapasi’ (homecoming), 2 diseases, incidence of, 76 Ghar Wapsi (homecoming), 249 economic crisis, 73, 75, 77, 125, 184 Ghose, Surendra Mohan, 151, 172 famine corpses, 73 Ghosh, Ganesh, 205 famine relief system, 253–258 Gill, Sardar Niranjan Singh, 218 food crisis and epidemics, 76 ‘given-ness’ of communalism, 7 impact on fishing, 69–70 go-korbani (cow-slaughter), 10

Index 275

Gopalachari, Raja, 235 Gupta, H. K., 77 Gossman, Patricia, 170 Gupta, Kamala Das, 223, 225 pirs and religious leaders, role in Gurner, Walter, 191 communalism, 8–9 Habu, Sheikh, 168 rise of communalism amongst Muslims Haldar, Gopal, 204 in East Bengal, 8 Hande, Subedar Narayan, 193 violence, role in political mobilization, 9 Hardiman, David, 238 Goswami, Snehalata, 82 Hardwick, Donald Ross, 165 Great Calcutta Killing of 1946, 1, 5, 8, 10, 13, 18, 26, 148, 199, 208, 233, 235, Hashim, Abul, 126, 130–131 247 Hazare, Anna, 240 anti-communal resistance, 171–175 Herbert, John, 43 arson and stabbing incidents, 156–157 Herbert, Sir John, 33 blame game, 164–166 Hindu, 129 cases of looting, 154–158 Hindu Bhadralok communalism, 13–14 crowd behaviour in, 166–170 Hindu Conference, 40 differences between Hindu and Muslim Hindu Mahasabha, 1, 32, 56, 89, 107, 114, crowds, 167 127, 153, 165–166, 201 earliest disturbances, 154 attitude towards Muslims, 32–33 fire incidents, 156 on census operations of 1941-42, 39–41 goondas categorized as heroes and Hinduization attempts, 112 protectors, 168–169 movement for physical regeneration, 38 guerrilla tactics, 158 physical training camps, 38 middle-class participants, 167 post Dacca riot, 49 Muslim casualties, 156 relief work, 86–87, 92 para-wise attack, 155–156 rise in membership, 37 peace moves, 171–172 Sangathan activities, 2, 38, 113, 115 police actions, 162–163, 170 Hindu Mahasabha Relief Committee, 80 professional criminals, 159–160 Hindu Mahasabha’s Sangathan movement, rescue and relief operations, 171–173 2 rescue centres, 173 Hindu Milan Mandirs, 112 rumours, role in spreading attacks and Hindu Militia, 33 counter attacks, 153, 156, 158, Hindu Mission, 19, 90–91 160–161 Hindu–Muslim relations, 1–2 weapons used, 156–157 Hindu-Muslim-Sikh divide, 2 workers’ and common people’s heroism Hindu-Muslim unity, 11 against rioters, 173 Hindus, unification and militarization of, Guha, A. B., 50 91–93 Guha, Samar, 188 Hindu Satkar Samiti, 73 Gujarat massacres, 2002, 2 Hindu Shakti Sangha, 89–90 Gujrat Seva Samity, 80 Hindustan National Guards, 167, 234 Gupta, Ashoka, 198–199, 203–204, 206, Hindustan Standard, 172, 216 219, 223 Hindustan Times, 129

276 Index

Hindusthan Standard, 38, 41, 171, 191, 200, Lahiri, Ashutosh, 89, 108 214, 235 Lahiri, Bela, 205 hunger, impact on Bengal society, 68 Lahiri, Maya, 206 Huq, Fazlul, 30–31, 39–40, 56, 119–124 Lahiry, Ashutosh, 192 Lahore resolution of 1940, 21, 117, 122, Ibrahim, 121 139 Indian People’s Theatre Association land wars, 3 (IPTA), 84 Latif, Abdul, 44 Indian Red Cross Society, 174 Islamia College Muslim Institute, 174 Lawrence, Pethick, 164, 197 Ispahani, M. A. H., 93 Lokpal Bill, 240 Japanese invasion Mahasabha, 18 physical damages, 72 Mahasabha Conference of 1939, 32–33 treatment of the corpses, 72 Mahila Atmaraksha Samiti, 80 War rumours of, 71–72 Mahila Atmaraksha Samiti (MARS), 80, Jinnah, 120, 124, 127–132, 136, 151, 165 82–84, 96, 205 Jogananda, Swami, 112 Mandal, Birat Chandra, 112 Joshi, P.C., 78, 125 Mandal, Jogendranath, 61n70, 115 jute demand, 118 Manwantar (Tarashankar), 85 Marwari Relief Society, 56, 80 Kakar, Sudhir, 169 McPherson, Kenneth, 12 Kar, Gobinda, 48 Mehta, Dinshaw, 240 Karim, Fazlul, 185 Mia, Maulvi Mukkbul, 197 Kasim, Kazi Abul, 216 Milan Mandirs, 92 Kaur, Rajkumari Amrit, 234 military atrocities of 1942, 71 Khadi Pratishthan, 88 Modern Review, 41 Khan, Faiz, 44 Mookerjee, Shyama Prasad, 1, 36, 38–39, Khan, Maulana Akram, 40 42, 52–53, 57, 80, 89, 95–96, 106, Khan, Mujibur Rehman, 132–133 123–124, 127, 151, 201, 217 map of Pakistan, 134 Panchasher Manwantar, 89 Khan, Sikandar Hayat, 121 Mridha, Maulvi Ahmed Ali, 106 Khan, Syed Ahmad, 11, 117 Mukerjee, Gopal ‘Patha,’ 167 Khan, Tamizuddin, 93, 105 Mukherjee, Anukul, 169 Khanna, Durgadas, 171 Mukherjee, Debendranath, 219 Khilafat movement, 12 Mukherjee, Gita, 171 Kishoreganj riot, 1930, 118 Mukherjee, Gopal ‘Patha,’ 159 Klitgaard, Robert, 238 Kripalani, Acharya, 191, 198 Mukherjee, Ishan, 71 Kripalani, Sucheta, 191, 206, 218 Mukherjee, Janam, 72–73 Krishak Praja Party (KPP), 30, 119–120, Mukherjee, Kalipada, 56, 172 126, 132, 136 Mukherjee, Kanak, 79 Krishak Samitis, 29–30, 118 Mukherjee, Phanindranath, 40 Muslim mass contact programme of, Mullick, Manick, 171 121 Mullick, Mukunda Behari, 19, 92, 111

Index 277

Mullick, Pulin Behari, 115 causes, 184 multiplicity of ‘nations,’ idea of, 130 evacuation and arrival of refugees to Murapara incident, 34 ‘safer zones,’ 191 Muslim Chamber of Commerce Relief first reports of, 187 Committee, 93 inaction of police and Bengal Muslim communalism government, impact of, 194–197 in India, 6 lack of jail accommodation, 197 Muslim separatism and, 10–11 patterns of violence, 192–200 Muslim Jagarani, 122 press reports, 190–191 Muslim League, 30–31, 87, 94, 124 relief work, 200–208 breeding of hatred against the Hindus, riot situation, 186–192 36, 153, 160, 185–186 slogans during, 192 Conference at Sirajganj, 122–123 weapons used, 193 on Direct Action Day, 10, 148–153 Non-Cooperation movement, 12 as a true ‘mass’ organization, 132 Nyayatirtha, Srijib, 95 Muslim National Guards, 94, 124, 132, ‘othering’ of violence, 9 150, 167–168, 234 Pabna College incident, 33 Nag, Girish, 110 Pai, Sushila, 218 Nakazato, Nariaki, 153, 163 Pakistan, formation of Namasudras, 20, 33 British Cabinet Mission, 137–139 Nandy, Ashis, 161, 168 Lahore resolution of 1940, 117, 122, Narayan, Jaya Prakash, 125, 153 139 Narayan, T. G., 74, 77 as a Muslim nation, 131, 136, 138–140 Narayanganj-Dacca Hindu Relief role of Muslim League, 124–140 Committee, 56 Wavell Plan, 126–129 Nari Seva Sangha, 83 Pakistan movement, 116–140 Narmada Bachao Andolan, 240 Pakistan resolution, 122 Nationalist, 201 Pal, Bipin Chandra, 11, 117 National Red Cross Brigade, 174 Panchasher Manwantar, 68 national self-determination, 97 Pandey, Gyan, 239 ‘nation within a nation,’ idea of, 134 relationship between nationalism and Nayar, Sushila, 218 communalism, 6 Nazimuddin, Sir, 88, 107, 124, 136, 150 study of violence, 9 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 225 subjective conceptualization and Nikhil Banga Praja Samiti, 119 construction of nationalism, 6–7 Niyogi, Jnananjan, 88 Parasuram, 219 Noakhali Krishak Samitis, 121 Parekh, Bhikhu, 238 Noakhali riots, 1946-47, 1, 8–9, 13, 16–18, Park, Md. Ali, 107 21–22, 26, 118, 162, 214, 247 Partition Riots, 13 affected thanas, 186–187 Patita-Pawan group, 249, 250n11 cases of looting, 194, 197, 199 Patkar, Medha, 240 casualties, 190 patriotism, 11

278 Index

Paundra-Kshatriyas, 33 student efforts, 55 Peace Committee, 34 relief and rehabilitation, post famine of People’s Age, 173 Bengal, 80–97 People’s Relief Committee, 74 bleaching powder, shortage of, 81 People’s Relief Committee (PRC), 82 communal politics around, 88–89 Poona Pact, 34, 40 Communist party’s relief work, 82–83 Pradhan, Gairuddin, 55 Communist womens’ relief work and Pratibimba (Manik Bandyopadhyay), 86 service, 82 Progressive Assembly Party, 123 Congress workers’s relief work, 86 Progressive Writers’ Association (PWA), 85 contributions by Bengal Cultural Squad Provincial Hindu Sabhas, 33 and IPTA, 84–85 ‘psychological crystallization’ of communal free kitchens, 81 identity, 13 Government of India’s contribution, 87 Puddapukur Relief Centre, 174 gruel supplied, 81–82 Punjabi, Mina, 168 Hindu Mahasabha’s relief work, 86–87 Punjab Relief Committee, 80 ‘Khichuri’ kitchens and milk canteens, Purba Pakistan (East Pakistan) 83 Renaissance Society, 132–134 milk distribution, 81 Pyarelal, 218, 232 monetary relief and service, 82 non-governmental relief organizations, Quit India Movement, 125 88 Radical Democratic Party, 125 organizations involved, 80–84 Rafique, Muhammad, 165 press reports, role in communalizing Rahman, Fazlur, 35 relief measures, 93 Raj, Rao Bahadur Shiva, 127 problems around relief work, 81 Rakshi Dals, 92, 112 relief centres, 80 Ramakrishna Mission, 56, 80, 82, 93, 200 relief work by and among women, Rashid, Abdur, 121 82–83 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), 2 sanitary conditions and epidemics, 81 Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh, 153 religious identity, 13 Rasool, Abdulla, 204 rent-collecting and moneylending groups, Ray, Acharya Prafulla Chandra, 109 118–119 Ray, Ajit, 171 Rezzak, Abdur, 121 Ray, P. K., 153 riots and collective violence, 8–10 Ray, Ranen, 89 rights over ‘sacred space’ and, 10 Red Cross Society, 206 transformation of communalism Rehman, Habibur, 169 through, 14 relief and rehabilitation, post Dacca riot, riots between Namasudras and Muslims, 55–58 112, 114–115 Congress activities, 56–57 riots of Bengal in 1946-47, 9 Maharaja Manikya Bahadur relief Roy, B.C., 155 work, 57 Roy, Dhananjoy, 112 Relief Committees, 56 Roy, Khoka, 204

Index 279

Roy, Kiran Shankar, 56, 151 Congress opinion, 36 Roy, M. N., 125 controversies over, 105–106 Roy, Patiram, 38, 92 Hindu Mahasabha leaders’ opinion, 37 rumours, role in spreading attacks and Muslim opinion, 34–35 counter attacks, 17, 44–45, 49, 56, pro-Hindu and pro-League 71–72, 114, 153, 156, 158, 160–161, newspapers, 41–42, 106–107, 197 110–111 public protests, 109–111 Sabuj Chakra, 174 as a retrograde measure to establish saffron wave, 2 Pakistan, 108 Sangathan movements, 12, 18 Scheduled Caste leaders’ opinion, 35, Sankharis, 32 111–112 Sarkar, Nalini Ranjan, 56 Secondary Education Bill (SEB) of 1944, Sarkar, Sumit, 10–11, 240 20 Sarkar, Tanika, 28 Secondary Education Board, 105 Sarwar, Golam, 8, 119, 121, 123 self-restraint, idea of, 237 Savarkar, Veer, 32, 37, 93 Scheduled Castes, 19–20, 33–34, 43, Sen, Atul, 36, 115 61n70, 89 Sen, B. R., 73–74 as an ‘oppressed’ minority, 128 Sen, Lal Mohan, 205 communal tensions between Muslims Sen, Manikuntala, 82, 171, 205–206, 219 and, 93 Sen, Shila, 31 differences between Hindus and, 109 Sengupta, Kedareswar, 49 famine and, 92 Sharmila, Irom Chanu, 240 grievances of, 113–114 Shimla Conference, 127, 130 introduction of separate electorates for, Shivaji Utsav, 117 105, 108–109, 111 Shuddhi movement, 12 within Mahasabha movement, 113 Sikh massacres, 1984, 2 militant, 110 Simpson Report, 198 on Secondary Education Bill, 35, 105, Singh, Ananta, 205 111–112 Singh, Guru Gobind, 112 suspension of Hindu Conference, Singh, Tara, 127 114–115 Singha, Kshetra Nath, 111 as victims of Caste- Hindu domination, Sircar, H. N., 163 106 Soviet Union, 134–135 Scheduled Caste Secondary Education Sriramulu, Potti, 240 Committee, 35 Star of India, 42, 46, 93, 106, 124, 131–132, Scheduled Castes of Bengal, 20 136 Secondary Education Bill (1940), 34–36, Statesman, 42 251 Stock Exchange Relief Committee, 80 caste and community politics around, Suhrawardy, Begum Shaista, 164–166 104–116 Suhrawardy, H. S., 107, 131, 136–137, Caste Hindu bloc’s opinion, 36 149–151, 160, 164–166, 198, 215, Caste-Hindu domination in, 105 232–235

280 Index

Swadeshi Andolan in Bengal (1905-1908), United Muslim Party (UMP), 119 117 unity of India, 6 Swadeshi Movement in Bengal 1903-08, untouchability, 33, 59n50 10 Urdu, 135 Tagore, Rabindranath, 1 Urdu-Nagari controversy, 11 Tebhaga Struggle of 1946, 125, 207, 248 violence during riots, 9 Thakkar, A. V., 218 violence in communal riots, 170 Thakur, Pramatha Ranjan, 35, 41, 61n70, 115 Wahhabi and Faraizi movements, 117 Tippera riot, 21–22, 28, 49, 77–78, 121, Wavell Plan, 126–129 184–185, 188, 207 Whitehead, Andrew, 159 Tuker, Sir Francis, 149 women, experiences during partition, two-nation theory, 136 15–17