For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven, 1770-1900 Volume 1

For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven, 1770-1900 Volume 1 Michael Bennett Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Canberra © 2003 UNIVERSITY OF CANBERRA FORM B Certificate of Authorship of Thesis Except as specially indicated in footnotes, quotations and the bibliography, I certify that I am the sole author of the thesis submitted today entitled— For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 in terms of the Statement of Requirements for a Thesis issued by the University Higher Degrees Committee. Signature of Author Date ___23 April 2003____________ For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Abstract This thesis presents a narrative of Aboriginal economic responses in the 19th century to the colonisation of the Shoalhaven and Illawarra regions of New South Wales. It explores the competing claims of articulation theory and dependency theory about the intersection of colonial and indigenous economies. Dependency theory claims that settlers destroy the indigenous mode of production to permit the expansion of their own economic system. They exploit indigenous labour which then becomes dependent on capitalist sources of subsistence. Articulation theory, as modified by Layton (2001) to recognise the bi-directional nature of contact, posits that the rate of capitalist penetration into indigenous economies is variable and that the non-capitalist mode of production may be preserved to create a self-supporting source of labour. The contrasting theories are assessed in this thesis by determining the contribution different strategies made to Aboriginal subsistence. Historical evidence is used to assess each strategy. The main source of information is from Alexander Berry's Shoalhaven estate, where Aboriginal people lived from settlement in 1822 until they were moved to a reserve in the early 1900s. The analysis suggests that contrary to previous research, Aboriginal people gained the majority of their subsistence from fishing, hunting and gathering until 1860. Strategies that depended on the colonial economy such as farm work, trading, living with settlers and stealing made only minor contributions to Aboriginal subsistence. After 1860, European land use intensified and Aboriginal people were further alienated from the land. The contribution of hunting and gathering contracted as a result. Dependency on government assistance increased, particularly after the foundation of the Aborigines Protection Board in 1882. Fishing remained an important source of food and cash. Maritime resources were not commercially exploited to a significant extent until the closing years of the 19th century when Aboriginal people were provided with boats and nets to assist their efforts. The historical evidence demonstrates that articulation theory offers a more realistic approach than does dependency theory when analysing the intersection of colonial and indigenous economies. This is because articulation theory can predict variable outcomes. The variable outcome suggested by the Shoalhaven and Illawarra data are that hunting, gathering and fishing economies have the resilience to withstand the colonial encounter if sufficient resources are made available. Abstract i For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Acknowledgements I must first thank my supervisor Brian Egloff for his thoughtful and intelligent guidance over the course of my studies. His insightful comments about the necessity of an appropriate theoretical discussion in the conclusion were particularly appreciated. I also enjoyed his hospitality on many occasions at his wonderful home in the bush to the south of Queanbeyan. Thankyou Brian. Thankyou also to the staff of the Mitchell Library, NSW State Records, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies and the National Library of Australia for their assistance in locating material in their institutions. Their efforts are sincerely appreciated. I must also thank Barbara Nicholson of Port Kembla for giving me access to her large personal collection of documents and books relating to the Aboriginal history of the Illawarra. I also benefited from her hospitality and numerous discussions about the nature of my research. I thoroughly appreciate her support and encouragement. Greg Eldridge and Barbara Le Maistre encouraged me to return to University after working at NSW National Parks and Wildlife. I am thankful for their friendship and guidance. Greg patiently read the first draft and provided excellent advice on presentation and structure. I benefited from Barbara's immense knowledge about Aboriginal history and the economic development of the colonial NSW. She also gave the opportunity to talk to the Illawarra and Shoalhaven Aboriginal communities about my research and helped to focus my thoughts on the opening and concluding chapters. For final preparations I must thank Michael Therin. His advice on presentation proved invaluable, not to mention his laser printer. Michael also helped to prepare the maps and then gave me a job when I finished. I could not ask any more of him. The photographs of Shoalhaven Estate (front page of both volumes) and of the remains of Coolangatta Homestead were expertly taken by Helmut Eder. I thank him for his artistic skills and his interest and support. Acknowledgements ii For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Finally I must thank all my friends and family, from the members of my tennis, soccer and volleyball teams, to the Ferrari clan, Ross, Michael T, Helmut, Niki and Tia. And most of all I express heartfelt thanks to those closest to me including Mum, Dad, Jane, Matt, Benjamin, Granma, Nan, Aunty Carol and Thanda. Their constant love and support keeps me strong. Acknowledgements iii For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Table of Contents: Volume 1 Abstract i Acknowledgements ii Table of Contents iv Chapter 1: Introduction and Theory Introduction 1 The Study Area 1 Aboriginal Groups 1 Geology, Environment and Climate 3 Thesis Structure 4 Theory 5 Substantivism and Formalism 5 Modernisation, Dependency and Articulation 6 Australian Case Studies 9 Options and Strategies 16 Adaptive Response 18 South Coast Studies 19 Theoretical Perspective 21 Sources and Methodology 23 The Context of Historical Documents 24 Summary 25 Chapter 2: Archaeology and Anthropology Introduction 26 Modes of Subsistence 26 Social Change and Intensification 32 Hinterland 37 Summary of Archaeology 40 Anthropology 40 Conclusion 47 Table of Contents iv For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Chapter 3: Early Colonial History, 1770-1822 Introduction 48 First Sighting and First Contact 48 Timber 51 Violent Contact 52 Settlement Begins 54 More Exploration 57 Conclusion 58 Chapter 4: Shoalhaven and Illawarra 1822-1830 Introduction: First Settlement at Shoalhaven 60 Further Exploration 60 Alexander Berry and Edward Wollstonecraft 63 Settlement at Coolangatta 65 Farm Development, Aboriginal Work and Punishment 68 Raids and Response 75 The Expansion of the Shoalhaven Estate and Aboriginal Work Days 79 Other Strategies on the Shoalhaven Estate 84 Further Settlement of the Shoalhaven District 84 Fishing, Hunting and Gathering in the Shoalhaven 85 Illawarra in the 1820s 87 Blanket Distributions and Census 90 Conclusion 93 Chapter 5: Shoalhaven and Illawarra 1830-1840 Expansion of the Shoalhaven Estate 95 Scarcity of Aboriginal Work: 1830-1836 96 Provision Store Books: 1838-1838 100 European Economic Development 106 Aboriginal Work on Small Properties 107 Comparison of Aboriginal Work on Small and Large Farms 114 Working for Settlers: Whaling, Guiding and Tracking 115 Migration 118 Theft and Violence 118 Table of Contents v For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Fishing, Hunting and Gathering 119 Summary 121 Population 121 Aboriginal Population at the Time of First Contact 122 Blanket Returns 123 Blanket Returns for 1834 124 The Causes of Population Decline 126 Blanket Return of 1836 130 Blanket Return for 1837 132 Blanket Return for 1838 135 Blanket Return of 1840 138 Blanket Return of 1842 140 Blanket Return of 1844 140 Implications 141 Chapter 6: Shoalhaven and Illawarra 1840-1848 Introduction: Development of the Shoalhaven Estate 1840-1848 143 Aboriginal Labour 144 Aboriginal Labour on Brundee Orchard Farm 151 Preservation of the Aboriginal Economy 153 Economic Development in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 153 Select Committee into Aboriginal Affairs 154 Other Economic Strategies 156 Migration 157 In the Frame 158 Summary 159 Chapter 7: The Expansion of Aboriginal Work Practices 1848-1860 Introduction: Development of the Shoalhaven Estate – 1848-1860 161 Aboriginal Labour: 1848-1858 163 Aboriginal Work Patterns 165 Quantification of Work Days 178 Goods and Wages 181 Distribution 193 Table of Contents vi For a Labourer Worthy of His Hire: Aboriginal Economic Responses to Colonisation in the Illawarra and Shoalhaven 1770-1900 Economic Recovery of the Illawarra

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