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Messages, Signs, and Meanings

A Basic Textbook in Semiotics and Communication

3rdedition

Volume 1 in the series Studies in Linguistic and Cultural Anthropology

Series Editor: Marcel Danesi, University of Toronto

Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. Toronto Disclaimer: Some images and text in the printed version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook. Messages, Signs, and Meanings: A Basic Textbook in Semiotics and Communication Theory, 3rdEdition by Marcel Danesi

First published in 2004 by Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. 180 Bloor Street West, Suite 801 Toronto, Ontario M5S 2V6

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Copyright 0 2004 Marcel Danesi and Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be photocopied, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise, without the written permission of Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc., except for brief passages quoted for review purposes. In the case of photocopying, a licence may be obtained from Access Copyright: One Yonge Street, Suite 1900, Toronto, Ontario, M5E 1E5, (416) 868-1620, fax (416) 868- 1621, toll-free 1-800-893-5777, www.accesscopyright.ca.

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National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Danesi, Marcel, 1946- Messages and meanings : an introduction to semiotics /by Marcel Danesi - [3rd ed.]

(Studies in linguistic and cultural anthropology) Previously titled: Messages and meanings : sign, thought and culture. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-55 130-250-0 (pbk.)

1. Semiotics. I. Title. 11. Series.

P99.D26 2004 302.2 C2003-907010-7

Cover design by Hothouse Canada Page design and layout by Brad Homing

04 05 06 07 08 5 4 3 2 1

Printed and bound in Canada by AGMV Marquis Imprimeur Inc.

All royalties from the sale of this book will be donated to St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital. Clothes

Nudity is the of the other side; nudity is a shroud. Milan Kundera (I929- ) PRELIMINARY REMARKS

Llke any other common object or artifact, we interpret dothes as signs, standing for such things as the personality, the social status, and overall character of the wearer. Once again, the semiotician’s basic method of asking what, how and why something means what it means applies to clothes. To get a concrete grasp of how clothes signify, imagine the following situation. Suppose you had an appointment for a job interview at the head office of a bank. In addition to appropriate grooming, the question of how you would is hardly a trivial one. It will depend, first, on whether you are male or female. This is because the involved is gendered. So, let’s assume you are a male. What is the appropriate dress code for a “male head office bank employee”? Here are the lunds of options (clothng signifiers) that constitute ths code:

Dress Code Selections and Options

Shirt white or some other conservative color, long , no designs, preferably buttoned at the Tie conservative color that should match the , tied neatly around the neck with a standard knot; its use is becoming increasingly optional gray or blue, or some other color that does not stand out

- 177 - 178 MESSAGES, SIGNS, AND MEANINGS

Pants matching color black (preferably with shoelaces)

There is, needless to say, some latitude to the options and selections you can make. But you know for certain that you cannot put on or wear a red or yellow jacket, because if you did the chances are that you would not even get past the door of the job interviewer with whom you have an appointment. Although conformity with the dress code will not guarantee you a job in a bank, it will at least get you past that door. Dressing for the occasion is indeed a social requirement. Along with appropriate grooming practices, it is a primary means of presenting persona. Now, let’s switch the situation from the standpoint of gender. Suppose you are a female. What is the appropriate dress code for a “female head office bank employee”? Here are some of the kinds of options ( signifiers) that constitute the female code:

Dress Code Selections and Options

Blouse soft colors, preferably white Jacket gray, blue, or some other conservative color or pants color should match the jacket Shoes preferably with high or semi-high heels and a dark color

Although there are some differences in the female dress code, there are also many similarities-many more than there once were. This suggests that the job type now cuts across gender categories. Indeed, dressing “unisexually” originated in social trends that date back to the counterculture 1960s, designed to symbolize equahty in the job workplace, in the family, and in society generally. In effect, this vignette was designed to impress upon you that clothes make the person. Clothing is more than mere bodily covering for protection. It is a sign system that is interconnected with the other sign systems of society through which we can send out messages-about our attitudes, our social status, our political beliefs, etc. Ths is why are required by special groups like sports teams, organizations, religious institutions, and the like. And this is why we dress for occasions such as job interviews. CLOTHES 179

The purpose of this chapter is to examine what clothes mean. The branch of semiotics that focuses on the meaning of material objects and artifacts is sometimes called artfoctLia1 semiotics or, in the present case, simply clothing semiotics.

CLOTHING VS. DRESS

Because clothes are put on bodies, and because (as we have seen) bodies are signs of Selfhood, clothes can be defined as signs extending the basic meaning of bodies in cultural context. Clothes and the bodies they enfold are thus imbued with moral, social, and aesthetic significance. In the body was glorified as a source of pleasure; in it was perceived as a source of moral corruption. As a consequence, the two cultures represented the body in different ways. The Christian Church has always played on the duality of the body as a temple and as an enemy of the spirit. The perception of the body as something morally significant is typical of tribal cultures too. As the anthropologist Helen Fisher (1992: 253-254) observes, even in the jungle of Amazonia Yanomamo men and women wear clothes for sexual modesty. A Yanomamo woman would feel as much discomfort and agony at removing her vaginal string as would a North American woman if one were to ask her to remove her underwear. Similarly, a Yanomamo man would feel just as much embairassment at his penis accidentally falling out of its encasement as would a North American male caught literally “with his pants down.” As these considerations bring out, clothmg and decorating the body for social presentation is a basic form of Self-representation. It is also intrinsically intertwined with sexual, romantic, and courtship meanings. When a young Zulu woman falls in love, she is expected to make a beaded resembling a close-fitting collar with a flat panel attached, whch she then gives to her boyfriend. Depending on the combination of colors and pattern, the necklace is a courtship device designed to convey a specific type of romantic message: e.g., a combination of pink and white in a certain pattern would convey the message You are poor, hut I love youjust the same (Dubin 1987: 134). At a biological level, clothes have a very important function indeed-they enhance our suivivability considerably. They are, at ths denotative level, human- made extensions of the body’s protective resources; they are additions to our protective bodily hair and skin thickness. As Werner Enninger (1992: 215) aptly points out, this is why clothing styles vary according to geography and topography: “The distribution of types of clothmg in relation to different climatic 180 MESSAGES, SIGNS, AND MEANINGS zones and the variation in clothes worn with changes in weather conditions show their practical, protective function.” But as is the case in all human systems, clothes invariably take on a whole range of connotations in social settings. These are established on the basis of the various dress codes (from Old French dresser “to arrange, set up”) that inform people how to clothe themselves in social situations. Predictably, dress codes vary across cultures. To someone who knows nothing about Amish culture, the blue or charcoal Mutze of the Amish male is just a jacket. But to the Amish the blue Mutze signals that the wearer is between 16 and 35 years of age, the charcoal one that he is over 35. Similarly, to an outsider the Russian kdbak appears to be a brimless red . To a rural Russian, however, it means that the wearer is a medical doctor. It is interesting to note, too, that clothing, like other types of signs, can be used to lie about oneself: con artists and criminals can dress in three-piece to look trustworthy; a crook can dress like a officer to gain a victim’s confidence, and so on. To discourage people from deceiving others through clothing, some societies have even enacted laws that prohibit misleading dressing, defining who can dress in certain ways. In ancient Rome, for instance, only aristocrats were allowed to wear purple-colored clothes; and in many religiously oriented cultures differentiated dress codes for males and females are regularly enforced. For some semioticians and cultural historians, the history of clothing is the history of a culture. Let us take, therefore, a rapid and highly selective trip through the maze of Western clothing history as a case in point. After the fall of the Western in AD 476, invaders from the north introduced fitted and hoods into clothing styles. Shortly thereafter, the klite of the adopted Oriental traditions of dress, with no apparent concession to sexual attraction or to utility. After Charlemagne (AD 742?-8 14) became Holy Roman in AD 800, a relatively uniform style of dress appeared in Europe. Charlemagne’s own everyday attire consisted of an undertunic and an overtunic, with cross-gartered to the . This introduced the “ style” to other European monarchs. Court ladies also started wearing long tunics, under supertunics hitched up to show the tunics beneath. A cloth concealed the hair. These garments made up the basic of the European aristocracy throughout the . In the 1100s the Crusades had a startling effect on , as crusaders brought back luxurious Oriental fabrics and new styles. The Oriental long, trailing tunic became the main form of aristocratic dress in the 1300s and evolved into the , which survived into the 1600s as the basic male outer garment. Its modern version is the or vest. The period also produced CLOTHES 181 an early form of the for women. Throughout the Middle Ages, long slurts reached to the floor to hide women’s ankles. In the , the development of new fabrics and materials brought about a desire for elaborate clothing styles. By the early 1600s, fashion had literally become the craze with lace edges, frills at the neck and sleeves, collars that eventually became the and the , and breeches for men. This period also saw the introduction of the wig for men. Light colors and fabrics characterized the 1700s, typified by the loose . Soft lace replaced the starched, formal ruffs of the previous century. With the French Revolution (1789-1799) came radical changes, as men began wearing for the first time in 600 years. No basic change in men’s clothing has taken place since. Women’s fashion reverted to what was deemed the “classical style,” a look featuring thin fabrics and bare arms-emphasizing a new sexual freedom for females. Up until the nineteenth century fashion was, clearly, mainly the privilege of the aristocracy. The Industrial Revolution, however, projected fashion for the masses into the realm of economic possibility. Since then fashion crazes for everyone have become an intrinsic feature of modern living. Outside the Western world, however, clothing styles continue to be anchored in religious andor ritualistic traditions. Where non-Western cultures have come into conflict with Western ideas, traditional garments have tended to be displaced. Nevertheless, in Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East many aspects of traditional dress have survived. During the 1950s, a new paradigm of dress codes cropped up in Western society that mirrored the power of youth culture. That was, in fact, the period when the clothes worn by rock ‘n’roll musicians and adolescent media personages became the dress models for teenagers to emulate. In the 1960s, adolescent clothing styles started to make their way into the mainstream, as the clothes worn by hippies became items of general fashion almost overnight. Since then, those who dictate fashion are hardly aristocrats; they are adolescents in tandem with the media. In the mid-1 970s teens wishing to be members of so-called “punk groups” would have had to dye their hair with bizarre colors and cut it in unconventional ways; they would have had to wear unusual clothes and various kinds of bizarre props (e.g., safety pins stuck through their nostrils) to send out counter-culture messages. Although the punk movement started as a political statement from working-class youths in England, by the time its symbolism was acquired by a larger segment of the teen subculture, the punk dress code had become all things to all classes. Elements of that code are now part and parcel of many other lunds of dress codes. The same story repeats 182 MESSAGES, SIGNS. AND MEANINGS itself in relation to all other teen dress codes, from -hop to girl power codes.

DRESS CODES

The broad range of connotations associated with dress codes is inextricably interconnected with social trends and political movements. Until the early 1950s, females in our culture rarely wore pants. The one who “wore the pants” in a family meant, denotatively and connotatively, that the wearer was a male. With the change in social role structures during the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, women too began to wear pants regularly, sending out the new social messages that this entailed. The reverse situation has never transpired. Except in special ritualistic circumstances--e.g., the wearing of a Scottish kdt-men have never adopted wearing women’s slurts in modern-day Western society. If they do, then we label it as an act of “transvestitism.” A double standard still lurks below the surface. Dressing for social reasons is a universal feature of human cultures. Even in cold climates, some people seem more interested in decorating their bodies than in protecting them. In the 1830s, for example, the famous British biologist Charles R. Darwin (1809-1 882) traveled to the islands of Tierra del Fuego, off the southern tip of South America. There he saw people who wore only a little paint and a small made of animal slun, in spite of the cold rain and the sleet. Darwin gave the people scarlet cloth, which they took and wrapped around their necks. Even in the cold weather, these people wore clothing more for decoration than for protection. No one knows exactly why or when people first wore clothes. But they probably began to wear clothing more than 100,000years ago-and probably for much the same reasons we wear clothes today. Early people may have worn clothing to protect themselves, to improve their appearance, and to tell other people something about themselves. For example, a prehistoric hunter may have worn the skm of a bear or a reindeer in order to keep warm or as a sign of personal slull, bravery, and strength as a hunter. By the end of the Old Stone Age-about 25,000 years ago-people had invented the needle, which enabled them to sew skns together. They had also learned to make yarn from the threadlike parts of some plants or from the fur or hair of some animals. In addition, they had learned to weave yarn into cloth. At the same time, people had begun to raise plants that gave them a steady supply of materials for CLOTHES 183 malung yarn. They had also started to herd sheep and other animals that gave them . So, almost from the beginning of history, people have worn clothes not only for protection, but also for identification and identity. Today, bus drivers, mail carriers, nurses, police officers, and wear special clothing to help other people recognize who they are. Dress also conveys people’s beliefs, feelings, and general approach to life. Confident people often show more independence in choosing their style of dress than do those who are shy or unsure of themselves. The confident individual is likely to try new clothing styles. A shy person may seek security by following current styles. Others may be unconcerned about their dress and care little whether they dress in what others consider attractive clothng. Some people wear plain clothes because of strong beliefs about personal behavior. Such people believe it is wrong to care about wearing clothes as decoration. They believe that, instead, people should be concerned with other matters. Members of the Amrsh religious group have this lund of belief system. Amish men wear plain, dark clothes, and Amish women wear long, plain . In all societies, certain items of clothing and the colors used have special meanings. For example, people in may wear black clothes. Most brides in the US wear white ; but the people in would interpret the use of this color in clothing as a sign of mourning. In this regard, the hat is a clothing item that requires special mention. vary widely in material and style, depending largely on climate and people’s customs. For example, a Russian farmer wears a fur hat to protect himself from the cold. A South American cowboy wears a felt gaucho hat as part of his traditional , and the American cowboy wears a wide-brimmed hat for protection from the sun. The members of a nation’s armed services wear a hat as part of their uniform. The hats of coal miners, fire fighters, and matadors indicate the wearer’s occupation. Many clowns wear colorf‘ul, ridiculous hats to express fun and happiness. To the Amish, the width of the hat brim and the height of the can communicate whether the wearer is married or not. Throughout the centuries, the desire of people to be fashionable has resulted in many lunds of unusual hats. During the 1400s, many European women wore a tall, cone-shaped hat called a . This hat measured from 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 meters) high and had a long, floating veil. The Gainsborough hat became popular with both men and women in the late 1700s. It had a wide brim and was decorated with feathers and ribbons. Hats are, and have always been, props in dress codes, communicating various things about the people 184 MESSAGES, SIGNS, AND MEANINGS who wear them. Most people wear a hat that they believe makes them look attractive. This is why much protective today, such as fur hoods and rain hats, is both attractive and stylish. Even the of police officers and military personnel are designed to improve the wearer’s appearance. No one knows when people first wore hats. People in various cold climates may have worn fur hoods as far back as 100,000 years ago. Through the centuries, people have worn headgear to indicate their social status. In , the nobility wore as early as 3100 BC. They have also worn them to be fashionable. Some ancient Greeks wore hats known as pelos for fashion. These were usually made from wool fibers. Pelos can still be found in parts of southern Siberia today. They are similar to the brimless, tasseled hat known as afez. By the fourteenth century, people wore hats increasingly for fashion, resulting in the development of a large variety of hats and frequent changes in hat styles. People in one area often adopted the hat styles worn in another. During that century, for example, women in western Europe wore a type of hat that resembled a . They adopted this style from the headgear worn by people who lived in the Mddle East and the Orient. During the twentieth century, hat styles varied more widely than ever before. In the 1920s, women wore a drooping, bell-shaped hat called the cloche. In the 1930s, they wore the harlequin hat, which had a wide, upturned brim. A variety of hats were worn in the 1940s and 1950s.The became a central accouterment of male teen style, during the heyday of the rap movement in the mid to late 1990s, when it symbolized clique solidarity.

NUDITY

The human being is the only animal that does not “go nude,” so to speak, without triggering off some form of social repercussion (unless, of course, the social ambiance is that of a nudist camp). Indeed, nudity can only be interpreted culturally. We are all born nude, but we soon learn that nudity has negative connotations. Moreover, what is considered “exposable” of the body will vary significantly from culture to culture, even though the covering of genitalia seems, for the most part, to cross cultural boundaries. To see how we assign meanings to nudity, consider the “art” of stripteasing (male and female). A semiotician would ask of course: What does it represent? Why do people attend (or desire to attend) performances whose sole purpose is the removal of clothing to reveal the body or parts of the body? The CLOTHES 185 semiotician would, as usual, seek answers to these questions in the domain of signification. Stripteasing is an act of erotic “clothing removal.” In an audience setting it has, first and foremost, something of a pagan ritualistic quality to it. The dark atmosphere, the routines leading up to the act, and the predictability of the performance itself, with its bodily gyrations and mimetic portrayals of sexual activities and sexual emotions, constitute a hedonistic performance. There is no motive for being at such performances other than to indulge in a fascination with the sexuality that clothing conceals. As the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) suggested, clothing the body has, paradoxically, stimulated curiosity and desire in the body itself. Covering the body is an act of modesty. But this has in effect imbued it with secret desirability. So, at a striptease performance, the shedding of clothes does several symbolic things at once: it removes imposed moral restrictions on sexuality; it reveals those covered bodily parts that have become desirable; it engages viewers in a communal ritual similar to the many carnivals put on throughout the world. The nude body is, in a word, a powerful sign. This is why visual artists have always had a fascination with the nude figure. The ancient Greek and Roman nude statues of male warriors, Michelangelo’s (1475-1564) powerful David sculpture, Rodin’s (1840-1917) nude sculpture The Thinker are all suggestive of the potency of the male body. It is this lund of body image that enhances the attractiveness of the male in our society. A male with a “weakling” body is hardly ever perceived as sexually attractive. On the other side of this semiotic paradigm, paintings and sculptures of female nude figures have tended to portray the female body ambiguously as either: (1) soft and submissive, as can be seen in the famous ancient Greek statue known as the Venus de Milo, which represents Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty (Venus in Roman mythology), or (2) feral and powerful (as can be seen in the sculptures of Diana of Greek mythology). It is (2) that came to the forefront again in the 1990s. Known as the “girl power” movement, representations of women in pop culture now emphasize the second type of the two representations. Human anatomy clearly evokes a coded system of meanings. This system undergirds representations in virtually all areas of human social life. The body is a truly powerful sign system in itself! Artists know this better than anyone else. Even in his scientific drawings, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-15 19) always emphasized the inherent beauty of idealized human proportions, as can be seen, for example, in his classic drawing called Vitruvian man: 186 MESSAGES, SIGNS, AND MEANINGS

Encircled by two ideally perfect geometric figures, the circle and the square, da Vinci’s painting brings out the idealized form of human anatomy perfectly. The modern-day fascination with erotic materials is a contemporary testament to our age-old fascination with nudity as a sign system of such perfection. In my view, those who see danger in such materials, and seem to be prepared to become everyone else’s moral guardians by censoring them, are probably more overwhelmed by the connotative power of nudity than most others. Censorship is an attempt to control the form and contents of representational activities, by claiming to have the best interests of society at heart. Gazing at the human body depicted in sexual poses or activities reveals, to this semiotician at least, the signifying power of the clothing vs. nudity opposition. Indeed, in sexual representations, clothing plays a central role in emphasizing sexuality, not hiding it. This is why shoes, , and other gear are used in erotic representations. Only when such depictions are restrained does a perilous fascination with gazing surface. Aware of this, some, called “nudists,” have even gone so far as to advocate the practice of not wearing clothes on principle. The proponents of nudism maintain that clothing should be abandoned when not absolutely necessitated by the rigors of the weather, as clothing serves to focus erotic attention on the body, thereby exciting an unhealthy interest in sex. The shame customarily associated with nakedness in much of modern society results, according to nudists, from centuries of cultural conditioning against complete exposure of the body in public. By correcting in its practitioners this false sense of shame, nudism aims to enhance their self-assurance and furnish them with a new appreciation of the essential beauty and dignity of the human body. Whatever the case, the interplay between clothing and nudity as sign systems cannot be ignored. They are intertwined and interconnected with the entire signifying order of a culture. CLOTHES 187

FASHION

As discussed above, fashion was, until at least the Renaissance, the privilege of the rich. Since the early decades of the twentieth century, however, it has become an intrinsic component of daily life. Fashion statement has become personal statement. Fashion can be defined as the prevailing style or custom of dress. It is a kind of “macro” dress code that sets style standards according to age, gender, class, etc. To understand how fashion codes emerge, let us return briefly to the code with which we started off this chapter-the business suit, and specifically the male business suit. The subtextual message underlying the apparel text is, of course, dress for success. How did this subtext crystallize in our culture? A look at the history of the business suit provides an interesting answer to this question. In seventeenth-century England there existed a bitter conflict in social ideology between two forces-the Royalist “Cavaliers,” who were faithful to King Charles I, and the Puritans, who were followers of Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), the military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649). This conflict was a battle of lifestyles, as the two waning camps sought to gain political, religious, and cultural control of English society. The Cavaliers were aristocrats who only superficially followed the teachings of the Anglican Church. Their main penchant was for a life of indulgence (at least as the Puritans perceived it). They wore colorful clothes, flamboyant feathered hats, beards, and long flowing hair. This image of the Cavalier as a “swashbuckler” has been immortalized by literary works such as The Three Musketeers (Alexandre Dumas, 1844) and Cyrano de Bergerac (Edmond Rostand, 1897). The Puritans, on the other hand, frowned precisely upon this type of fashion, because of the “degenerate lifestyle” that they perceived it represented. Known as the “Roundheads,” Cromwell’s followers cropped their hair very short, forbade all carnal pleasures, and prohibited the wearing of frivolous clothing. They wore dark suits and dresses with white and collars. Their clothes conveyed sobriety, plainness, and rigid moralism. The Cavaliers were in power throughout the 1620s and the 1630s. During this period the Puritans escaped from England and emigrated to America, bringing with them their lifestyle, rigid codes of conduct, and clothing styles. In 1645 the Puritans, led by Cromwell, defeated the Royalist forces and executed the lung in 1649. Subsequently, many Cavaliers also emigrated to America. Since the Puritans had set up colonies in the northeast, the Cavaliers decided 188 MESSAGES. SIGNS, AND MEANINGS to set up colonies in the south. The hng’s son, Charles 11, escaped to France to set up a court in exile. For a decade, England was ruled by the Puritans. Frowning upon all sorts of pleasure-seelung recreations, they closed down theaters, censored books, enforced Sunday laws, and forbade the wearing of flashy clothng. With Cromwell’s death in 1658, the Puritans were eventually thrown out of power and England welcomed the exiled lung, Charles 11, back in 1660. Known as the Restoration, the subsequent twenty-five year period saw a return to the lifestyle and fashions of the Cavaliers. For two centuries the Puritans had to bide their time. They were excluded from holding political office, from attending a university, from engaging in any socially vital enterprise. Neveitheless, throughout the years they maintained their severe lifestyle and dress codes. By the time of the Industrial Revolution, the Puritans had their revenge. Their lifestyle-based on thrift, diligence, temperance, and industriousness, which some have called the “Protestant work ethic”-allowed them to take advantage of the economic conditions in the new industrialized world. In America and in England, Cromwell’s descendants became rich and eventually took over the reigns of economic power. Ever since, Puritan ethics and fashion in the workforce have influenced British and North American culture. The origins of modern corporate capitalism are to be found in those ethics. The belief that hard work and “clean living” were necessarily interrelated, and that this combination led to wealth and prosperity, had become a widespread one by the turn of the present century. To this day, there is a deeply felt conviction in our culture that hard work and strict living codes will lead to success in both this life and the afterlife. The business suit is a contemporary version of Puritan dress. The toned down colors (blues, browns, grays) that the business world demands are the contemporary reflexes of the Puritan’s fear and dislike of color and ornament. During the “hippie” 1960s and early 1970s, the office scene came briefly under the influence of a new form of fashion. “Cavalierism,” with its emphasis in the wearing of colorful suits, of turtleneck rather than of white shirts, of longer hair, of sideburns, of Nehru , of medallions, and of beards made its pitch to take over the world of corporate capitalism. But this fashion experiment was bound to fail, as the Cavalier 1960s were overtaken by conservative neo-puritanical forces in the late 1970s and 1980s. The “business suit” model became once again the dress code for all of corporate North America, with only minor variations in detail. CLOTHES 189

The business suit somehow endures-perhaps because it is so tied to the history of capitalism. But, nowadays, even this fashion code has become rather eclectic. Take, for example, the length of slurts in the female business suit code. The mini, maxi, and normal length slurts are alternatively in and out of fashion. Evidently, a detail such as length of skirt is, in itself, meaningless. What appears to count is what it implies as a signifier about the ever-fluctuating perceptions of in the workplace. When the mini is “in,” it might imply an increased emphasis on sexual freedom in the culture at large. When it is “out,” then it might imply the opposite-a decreased emphasis on sexuality in the culture at large. Whatever the case may be, the point to be made here is that the specific elements and features of a fashion code will invariably have connotative value that is a derivative of larger connotative frames and codes within the culture. Fashion codes, as we have seen, can also constitute ideological statement. The hippies dressed to emphasize “love” and “freedom” in the 1960s. Motorcycle gang members have always worn jackets, , and various items such as knuckles to convey toughness. Clearly, clothing communicates. Like language, it can be endearing, offensive, controversial, delightful, disgusting, foolish, charming. As mentioned, fashion was the privilege of the aristocracy until the late Middle Ages. Before then, common people wore clothes that reflected the long-standing customs of their communities, and clothing styles changed extremely slowly. Fashion, however, causes styles to change rapidly for a variety of historical, psychological, and sociological reasons. A clothing style may be introduced as a fashion, but the style becomes a custom if it is handed down from generation to generation. A fashion that quickly comes and goes is called a fad. True fashions began to appear in northern Europe and Italy when a system of social classes developed in the late Middle Ages with the rise of the so- called bourgeois class. At this time, the people of Europe began to classify one another into groups based on such factors as wealth, ancestry, and occupation. The clothes people wore helped identify them as members of a particular social class. Before the late Middle Ages, only wealthy and powehl individuals concerned themselves with the style of their clothes. But when the class system developed, the general population began to compete for positions within society. Fashion was one means by which people did ths. One of the first true fashions appeared among young bourgeois Italian men during the Renaissance. While their elders dressed in long traditional , the young Italian males began wearing and short, close-fitting jackets called doublets. German soldiers 190 MESSAGES, SIGNS,AND MEANINGS set another early fashion when they slashed their luxurious clothes with knives to reveal another colorful garment underneath. Before the 1SOOs, many countries controlled fashon with regulations called sumptuary laws. Sumptuary laws controlled the amount of money people could spend on private luxuries. Many such laws were designed to preseive divisions among the classes and regulated fashion according to a person’s rank in society. In some countries, only the ruling class could legally wear silk, fur, and the colors red and purple. In Paris in the 1300s, middle-class women were forbidden by law to wear high headdresses, wide sleeves, and fur trimmings. Other sumptuary laws forced people to buy products manufactured in their own country to help the country’s economy. For example, an English law in the 1700s prohibited people of all classes from wearing cloth produced outside of England. But the lure of fashion caused many people to break this law. The cloth was so popular that people risked arrest to wear it. Essentially, then, most fashions originated in the past in the upper classes and trickled down to the lower ones. Ordinary people have always hoped to raise their social position by following the fashions of privileged people. In a way, this still happens. But today, such celebrities as singers and athletes, rather than aristocrats, set trends. Fashions considered appropriate for men and women have changed as standards of masculinity and femininity have changed. Until the late 1700s, upper-class European men dressed as elaborately as women did. It was acceptable for men to wear bright-colored or pastel suits trimmed with and lace, hats decorated with feathers, high-heeled shoes, and fancy jeweliy. But by the mid-lSOOs, men had abandoned such flamboyance in favor of plain, dark-colored wool suits. Society came to view this new fashion style as democratic, businesslike, and masculine. Until the early 1900s, European and American women rarely wore trousers, and their slurts almost always covered their ankles. By the 1920s, however, standards of feminine modesty had changed to the point that women began to wear both trousers and shorter . Contray to popular belief, political events seldom cause fashons to change. However, political events do sometimes speed up changes that have already begun, as we saw in the case of the business suit. For example, during the French Revolution (1789-1799), simple clothing replaced the extravagant made fashonable by French aristocrats. But simple styles had become popular years earlier when men in England started wearing practical, dark suits instead of elegant, colorful clothes. English people identified these plain suits with political and personal liberty. Because many French people admired CLOTHES 191

English liberty, this style was already becoming fashionable in France before the revolution. In the nineteenth century, the invention of mechanical looms, chemical dyes, artificial fabrics, and methods of mass production made fashions affordable to many more people. In addition, new means of mass communication spread European and American fashions throughout the rest of the world. The Industrial Revolution created a “fashion global village.’’ Since then, fashion shows and fashion magazines have proliferated. And, as semiotician Roland Barthes (19 15-1980) pointed out frequently in his clever writings, they change constantly because rapid turnover guarantees economic success. It is the only constant in fashion.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Like all sign systems, clothing is interconnected with the other sign systems of the semiosphere. For instance, it is intertwined with religious ceremonies and rituals-the clothing worn at a religious service, during certain religious feasts and festivals, for example, is designed to send out religious messages. It is also intertwined with daily life routines. Just thnk of what you do every day after you get up in the morning. Typically, after grooming yourself (showering, brushing your teeth, putting on make-up or shaving, etc.), the next thing you do is to dress yourself appropriately, selecting your clothes on the basis of what you are going to do that day (work, go out for recreation, go on a vacation, etc.). In other words, you synchronize your dress code to your lifestyle and social options on a routine daily basis. Clothing and fashion offer humans an opportunity to make messages and meanings of all kinds. The semiotic study of clothing shows, thus, that clothing is hardly just a study of physical survival. Rather, it is about the penchant for turning anything we put onto the body into a sign.