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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Foreign , Endangered Species Our Response: The Service has Program; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; reviewed the referenced material, and Fish and Wildlife Service 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420; we have incorporated this change. Arlington, VA 22203, U.S.A. telephone (2) Comment: One peer reviewer 50 CFR Part 17 703–358–2171; facsimile 703–358–1735. corrected our statement that ‘‘Recent observations and field surveys indicate [Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2010–0089; Individuals who are hearing-impaired or 4500030115; 1113F116] speech-impaired may call the Federal that broad-snouted is fairly Information Relay Service at 800–877– common in northern Uruguay, and is RIN 1018–AT56 8339 for TTY assistance 24 hours a day, also widely distributed in central and 7 days a week. western Uruguay.’’ The reviewer stated Endangered and Threatened Wildlife that ‘‘It should read: ‘is also widely and Plants; Listing One Distinct SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: distributed in central and eastern Population Segment of Broad-Snouted Peer Review Uruguay.’ ’’ Caiman as Endangered and a Second Our Response: We have revised the as Threatened With a Special Rule In accordance with our joint peer statement to incorporate this change. AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, review policy with the National Marine (3) Comment: One peer reviewer Interior. Fisheries Service, ‘‘Notice of stated that Uruguay had local Interagency Cooperative Policy for Peer regulations prohibiting the poaching of ACTION: Final rule. Review in Endangered Species Act the species and that local take was SUMMARY: Under the Endangered Activities,’’ published in the Federal insignificant and referenced Bortiero et Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA), Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), al. 2006. we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Office of Management and Our Response: The Service has (Service), reclassify the broad-snouted Budget’s Final Information Quality reviewed the referenced material, and caiman in from endangered to Bulletin for Peer Review, dated we have incorporated this into our final threatened in the List of Endangered December 16, 2004, we sought the rule. and Threatened Wildlife. As part of this expert opinions of three appropriate Previous Federal Actions independent specialists regarding the final rule, we have established two We listed this species as endangered distinct population segments (DPSs) of science in our January 5, 2012, proposed rule (77 FR 666). The purpose of peer on June 14, 1976 (41 FR 24062), in the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman response to a petition we received in latirostris): A DPS in Argentina and a review is to ensure that listing, downlisting, and delisting decisions are 1975 from the Fund for , DPS encompassing , , requesting that the Service list all , and Uruguay. This second based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We invited species that were included in Appendix DPS remains listed as endangered under I of CITES as endangered under the ESA the ESA. We are finalizing this action these peer reviewers to comment during the public comment period, on the (see additional discussion in CITES under the ESA based on the best section.). In 2007, we received a petition available data indicating that the specific assumptions and conclusions in the proposed downlisting of the from the Government of Argentina, Argentine population of the broad- dated November 5, 2007, requesting that snouted caiman no longer meets the Argentine population (DPS) of the broad-snouted caiman. We provide a we reclassify the broad-snouted caiman definition of endangered under the ESA. in Argentina from endangered to Intense management of the species in summary of the opinions of these reviewers below, and we considered threatened. The Argentine population of Argentina has brought the Argentine broad-snouted caiman has been listed DPS to the point where a change in their input and any additional information we received as part of this on Appendix II of CITES since 1997. status is appropriate. The broad-snouted caiman is still listed As of the effective date of this final final determination. in Appendix I of CITES in Bolivia, rule, the broad-snouted caiman will be Summary of Comments and Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. With included in the special rule for trade in Recommendations this petition, the Government of caiman species. Inclusion in this special Argentina requested reclassification of rule allows U.S. commerce in skins, We reviewed all comments we the species from endangered to other parts, and products of this species received from the public and peer threatened in that country only. The originating from Argentina, and reexport reviewers for substantive issues and petition contained detailed information of such specimens originating in new information regarding the proposed about the natural history and biology of Argentina, if certain conditions are met delisting of this species, and we address the broad-snouted caiman including the prior to exportation to the United States. those comments below. Overall, the species’ current status and distribution DATES: This final rule is effective July commenters and peer reviewers in Argentina. The Government of 25, 2013. supported the proposed reclassification Argentina cited reasons for the ADDRESSES: This final rule is available of the Argentina DPS of the broad- reclassification, such as the broad- on the Internet at http:// snouted caiman from endangered to snouted caiman populations in www.regulations.gov, and comments threatened. Argentina are healthy, habitat remains and materials received, as well as (1) Comment: One peer reviewer plentiful, caiman ranching programs in supporting documentation used in the disagreed with our statement that an Argentina have proven successful (wild preparation of this rule, will be adult caiman’s primary food is fish. The populations are increasing), and broad- available for public inspection, by reviewer stated that ‘‘although there is snouted caiman production and harvest appointment, during normal business ontogenetic variation, all sizes of broad- is increasing in Argentina. hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, snouted caiman are generalistic feeders Because the petition from the 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite 400, (Borteiro et al. 2009). This characteristic Government of Argentina was for Arlington, VA 22203. contributes to the species being a reclassification of the Argentine FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: successful colonizer of a wide variety of population only, the Service had to first Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of habitats.’’ consider whether the population of

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Argentina qualified as a distinct add those species to the Federal Lists of classification of a listed species is vertebrate population segment (DPS) Endangered and Threatened Wildlife appropriate. Section 4(c)(2)(B) requires under the ESA. (see discussion in and Plants (50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12, that we determine: (1) Whether a Distinct Population Segment section). respectively), and to plan and species no longer meets the definition of We then evaluated the entire species to implement conservation measures to endangered or threatened and should be determine if a change in status under improve their status to the point at removed from the List (delisted); (2) the ESA is warranted based on any new which they no longer need the whether a species more properly meets information since the species was listed protections of the ESA. When that the definition of threatened and should under the ESA. The DPS policy requires protection is no longer needed, we take be reclassified from endangered to the Service to determine whether or not steps to remove (delist) the species from threatened; or (3) whether a species a vertebrate population is discrete and the ESA. If a species is listed as more properly meets the definition of significant and to determine the endangered, we may first reclassify it to endangered and should be reclassified population segment’s conservation threatened status as an intermediate from threatened to endangered. It is status in relation to the ESA’s standards step before its eventual removal from based on the best scientific and for listing, delisting, or reclassification the Federal Lists of Endangered and commercial data available at the time of (i.e., is the population segment Threatened Wildlife and Plants; the review. Our completion of the status endangered or threatened). If it however, reclassification to threatened review in making our 12-month finding qualifies, the policy requires a status status is not required prior to removal. that the petitioned action to reclassify determination to determine if the Section 3 of the ESA provides the the Argentina DPS of the broad-snouted population is endangered or threatened. following definitions that are relevant to caiman from endangered to threatened On June 16, 2008, the Service this rule: Endangered species means any was warranted (See 77 FR 666, the published in the Federal Register a 90- species which is in danger of extinction January 5, 2012 Federal Register notice day finding (73 FR 33968) on the throughout all or a significant portion of of proposed rulemaking) constituted our petition, stating that the petition its range; Threatened species means any 5-year review of this species. provided substantial information to species which is likely to become an indicate that the requested action (to endangered species within the Species Description reclassify the Argentine population of foreseeable future throughout all or a The broad-snouted caiman is a the broad-snouted caiman) may be significant portion of its range. Species medium-sized crocodilian with a body warranted. includes any subspecies of fish or length usually no more than 2 meters On January 5, 2012, we published a wildlife or plants, and any DPS of any (m) (6.6 feet (ft)), and has the proposed rule in the Federal Register species of vertebrate fish or wildlife proportionally broadest snout of any (77 FR 666), stating that the petitioned which interbreeds when mature. (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 18). It action to reclassify the Argentina DPS of When an endangered species (or DPS) is found generally in lagoons, rivers, the broad-snouted caiman from has recovered to the point where it is no creeks, marshes, ponds, and mangroves endangered to threatened was longer currently in danger of extinction in river systems of northeast Argentina, warranted. In the proposed rule, we throughout all or a significant portion of southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, and parts of proposed to establish two distinct its range, but is likely to become so in Uruguay (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 97; population segments (DPSs) of the the foreseeable future, it is appropriate Verdade et al. 2010, p. 18). broad-snouted caiman (Caiman to reclassify that species (or DPS) to According to Imhof (unpublished latirostris): a DPS in Argentina and a threatened. The broad-snouted caiman 2006), approximately 60 percent of the DPS encompassing Bolivia, Brazil, was listed as endangered in 1976. species’ range is in Brazil, 30 percent is Paraguay, and Uruguay. The second However, recent information indicates in Argentina, 7 percent is in Paraguay, DPS will remain listed as endangered that the Argentine population has and 3 percent is in Bolivia. The under the ESA. Within the proposed increased since the time of the original percentage of its range in Uruguay is rule, we sought comments on the listing. petitioned action, as well as information unknown. Broad-snouted caiman on the status of the species, particularly Technical Corrections populations are on the Atlantic coast, in Argentina. The comment period This final rule corrects errors in 50 connected through the Parana´ and Sa˜o closed on March 5, 2012. During the CFR 17.11 as follows: The table at 50 Francisco River systems of northeast comment period, we received additional CFR 17.11(h) does not currently list Argentina, southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, scientific literature from peer reviewers Bolivia in the historic range of the and northeast Uruguay. The Sa˜o as well as from the International Union broad-snouted caiman. This final rule Francisco River is 2,914 km (1,811 mi) for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) corrects the ‘‘Historic Range’’ entry to in length. Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG), include Bolivia. In addition, we are The broad-snouted caiman exhibits which provided information on the correcting errors in the entries for three greater climatic tolerance than other conservation status of the species in other caiman species: brown caiman, caiman species (Verdade and Pin˜ a Argentina. The comments and new common caiman, and yacare caiman. 2006). The southernmost limit of the information have been considered and The entries for these species in the distribution of the broad-snouted incorporated into this final rule to ‘‘Special Rules’’ column direct readers caiman is northern Argentina (Jenkins et reclassify the Argentine population of to 50 CFR 17.42(g); however, the special al. 2006), where it is found in the the broad-snouted caiman. rule for all of these species is at 50 CFR provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Entre 17.42(c). Rı´os, Formosa, Jujuy, Misiones, Salta, Background Santa Fe, and Santiago del Estero. In The primary purpose of the ESA is to Five-Year Review Argentina, 80 percent of the Argentine prevent and plant species’ Section 4(c)(2)(A) of the ESA requires distribution of the population occurs in endangerment and extinction. The ESA that we conduct a review of listed the Province of Santa Fe. Here, the requires the Service to identify species species at least once every 5 years. A 5- species is found primarily in the that meet the ESA’s definitions of year review is a periodic process floodplain along the Parana´ River, the endangered and threatened species, to conducted to ensure that the Salado river watershed, and the

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Saladillos watershed (Larriera 1995, pp. CITES increasing public awareness in the local 221–230). The broad-snouted caiman was listed communities to encourage the increase This species is primarily found at in Appendix I of CITES on July 1, 1975. of caiman populations. Another altitudes up to 100 m (328 ft) above sea CITES Appendix I includes species that objective was to conserve natural level (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 99). The are threatened with extinction and wetlands on which depend (Larriera et al. 2008a, pp. 143–145). As broad-snouted caiman exhibits a high which are or may be affected by trade. of 2008, four ranching programs were degree of flexibility in its habitat Species listed under Appendix I may operating in Argentina (Larriera et al. preferences. It is an opportunistic feeder not be traded for primarily commercial purposes. These protections were put in 2008), producing a total of and generally prefers shallow aquatic approximately 12,000 skins per year place because the species had suffered environments with abundant vegetation. (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). As of 2010, substantial population declines In some areas, the broad-snouted there were seven ranching programs throughout its range due to habitat caiman is sympatric (occurs in registered with the government of destruction and overexploitation overlapping geographical areas) with the Argentina. These programs also through the commercial crocodilian yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), but the reintroduce captive-raised individuals skin trade. broad-snouted caiman is usually found to the wild. Three of the programs The Argentine population was in quieter, more heavily vegetated function on an educational basis, with transferred from Appendix I to waters (Medem 1983; Scott et al. 1990). no commercial production. These Appendix II (which allows for C. yacare prefers large rivers with educational ranching operations are in commercial trade) in 1997. CITES adjacent marshes (Scott et al. 1990, pp. Entre Rı´os, Chaco, and Corrientes Appendix II includes species that are 43–51). Like many crocodilians, the Provinces. Two of the commercial less vulnerable to extinction and that broad-snouted caiman can be found in ranching programs are in Formosa; the temporary bodies of water and although not necessarily now threatened other two are in Corrientes and Santa Fe manmade habitats, such as isolated with extinction may become so unless Provinces. In 2010, there were 7,768 cattle or agricultural stock ponds, trade in specimens of such species is hatchlings produced in Argentina subject to strict regulation in order to livestock watering holes, and drainage (Larriera 2010b, p. 1). avoid utilization incompatible with ditches or areas of runoff water. It can their survival. Management activities in Conservation Status be found in flooded forested areas in Argentina were reviewed by the CITES years of intense rains usually within The broad-snouted caiman is Parties prior to transferring this 2,000 m (6,562 ft) from bodies of water currently listed as endangered population from Appendix I to (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 151). throughout its range under the ESA and Appendix II. The review included received protections under the ESA on The reproductive cycle of this species assessments of population status, June 14, 1976 (41 FR 24062). With is seasonal. Mating occurs in the spring determination of sustainable harvest respect to CITES, this species was (October through December), when quotas (and approval of ranching placed in Appendix I of CITES due to polygynous males (males who breed programs), and the control of the illegal severe exploitation for international with more than one female) establish harvest. Management regulations trade and habitat destruction. Because territories. When laying eggs, this imposed after harvest included the the Argentine broad-snouted caiman species constructs a ‘‘mound nest’’ out tagging of skins and issuance of permits population was moved to Appendix II of of vegetation, and it deposits its eggs in to satisfy the requirements for CITES in 1997, commercial the center of the mound. Another Appendix-II species. For a more in- international trade is now allowed characteristic of this species is that it depth discussion on CITES, please see (subject to several restrictions) for exhibits communal nesting (several the ‘‘International Trade and Regulation specimens, parts, and products females lay eggs in the same nest). under CITES’’ section under Factor B. originating in Argentina. With respect to Partially divided nest chambers, each Overutilization for Commercial, the ESA, the broad-snouted caiman is with normal clutch sizes, and nests with Recreational, Scientific, or Educational presently listed as endangered in its unusually large clutches (129 eggs) have Purposes. entirety under the ESA (41 FR 24062; been observed in this species, which is Trade June 14, 1976), and importation into the indicative of communal nesting United States of endangered species is (Larriera 2002). Clutch sizes range Beginning in the 1940s, the broad- prohibited under the ESA with certain between 18 to 50 eggs, with females snouted caiman was hunted exceptions. IUCN classifies this species typically laying between 30 and 40 eggs commercially for its leather, which is as ‘‘least concern’’ (http:// (Micucci and Waller 1995). Egg laying considered to be higher quality than that www.iucnredlist.org, accessed August occurs during the wet summer season, of other caiman species (Verdade et al. 29, 2012). However, IUCN rankings do which occurs between December and 2010, p. 19). Prior to being protected by not confer any actual protection or CITES, thousands of broad-snouted February (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). management. caiman skins were exported from its Young caiman hatch at the end of fall range countries, which led to the listing Status in Range Countries and and early winter (February–April) of the species in Appendix I of CITES Population Estimates (Micucci and Waller 1995, p. 81). in 1975 (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19; Actual numbers of the species have This species is an opportunistic Larriera 2003, unpaginated). In 1990, been difficult to document in part feeder. The young feed on insects and ‘‘Projecto Yacare´’’ (‘‘Caiman Project’’) because broad-snouted caiman habitat small arthropods. As hatchlings grow, was implemented in Argentina based on tends to be heavily vegetated and is their diet becomes primarily aquatic a concept of conservation through difficult to access by humans. Some mollusks and crustaceans (Micucci and sustainable use of broad-snouted researchers believe that the size of the Waller 1995, pp. 81–112). Adults are caiman. The objective of the program population has historically been opportunistic predators whose prey was to improve the status of the underestimated (Larriera and Imhof increases in size in relation to their population in two ways: By creating 2000, pp. 311–313). The imprecision is growth (Borteiro 2009, pp. 34–35). incentives for landowners, and by reflected in the global wild population

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estimate of between 250,000 and declines of conservation significance in 221–230). Nests have also been found in 500,000 individuals (http:// wild populations. The CSG mature chaco forests of open or closed www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csp_clat.htm, recommended that field data be canopy as far as 300–2,000 m (984– accessed May 10, 2013 and January 18, collected to verify this assertion, some 6,562 ft) from water (Larriera 1995, pp. 2011). of which has been collected over the 221–230; Larriera et al. 2008, p. 151). It is difficult to accurately obtain past few years. Although not many Since management and monitoring of population numbers for due caiman populations have been the Argentine population began, to variables such as water temperature, monitored in the wild, there has been population estimates for Argentina have the nature of their behavior of some monitoring in Argentina since the indicated an upward trend. This has disappearing underwater in response to 1990s. In 2010, Larriera and Siroski been achieved through an organized certain types of disturbance, their reported on population trends of caiman ranching program and reintroduction of respective visibility based on water monitored in the Santa Fe Province of hatchlings into the wild (see discussion depths, and their ability to migrate Argentina since the 1990s. This under Factors B and D below). Because based on drought or flooding (Pacheco monitoring indicated that average of this program, a significant increase in 1996, p. 44; Bayliss 1987, p. 158; densities increased from 2 to 8 caiman egg production, collection, and Graham 1988, p. 74; Magnusson 1980, per kilometer (km) to between 20 to 120 reproductive success has occurred in pp. 393–394). An early journal article caiman per km. In other areas of the wild. Over 30,000 hatchlings from described ‘‘night counts’’ as a Argentina, recent densities of broad- eggs collected have been released into mechanism for surveying American snouted caiman ranged between 5 and the wild since the program began , which live in habitat similar 238 caiman per km, and almost 70 sites (Larriera et al 2008, p. 143). Surveys to that of broad-snouted caiman (Wood were surveyed. conducted between 1991 and 1992 in et al. 1986, p. 263) and exhibit similar Below is the best available the Ibera´ Reserve indicated an average characteristics. This paper indicated information regarding the status of the density of 12.2 individuals per km (Pin˜ a that ‘‘the accuracy of night count species in each country. et al. 2009, p. 4). Surveys conducted indices is only 20–25 percent of true during the 1999–2000 season in the Argentina population means’’ and referred to Ibera´ Reserve indicated that in the previous research conducted by Taylor In Argentina, the broad-snouted Corrientes Province the density had and Neal (1984, pp. 316–317). Night caiman is found in nine provinces increased to 32.4 individuals per km count surveys use spotlights to detect (Formosa, Santa Fe, Misiones, (Waller 2003 in Pin˜ a et al. 2010, p. 4). caiman eyes. Although night counts are Corrientes, Entre Rios, Chaco, Santiago When the program began in the Santa Fe not entirely precise, they are very often del Estero, Salta, and Jujuy). According Province, night counts within the used as a method of surveying crocodile to Imhof (unpublished 2006), project area found less than 1 caiman species. approximately 30 percent of the species’ per km, but it increased to almost 10 As an example of the difficulty in range is in Argentina. Argentina has caiman per km in 2000, and over 4 accurately obtaining population large areas of intact, although altered caiman per kilometer in 2006 and 2007 numbers for crocodiles, a review of habitat with healthy caiman populations (Larriera 2008c, p. 2). This decrease in crocodile ranching programs conducted (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19; Pin˜ a et al. density during 2006–2007 was for CITES by the IUCN Crocodile 2009). For example, broad-snouted attributed to drought (Larriera 2008c, p. Specialist Group (CSG) in 2004 found caiman is thought to inhabit 2,400 of 3); however, natural fluctuations such as that only three Parties (one of which 2,700 water bodies (Pin˜ a et al. 2008, p. this often occur in wild populations was Argentina) to CITES attempted to 4) in the Salta Province in Argentina. (Woodward 2010, p. 2). estimate what proportion of the total Surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 Caiman populations, like most other wild production was being harvested indicated that broad-snouted caiman crocodilian populations, can be under their ranching programs (Jenkins habitat in Salta Province is about 3,650 adversely affected by droughts during et al. 2006, pp. 34–35). These estimates km2 (1,409 mi2). These surveys found some years, but the populations are able were based on ‘‘production estimates’’ broad-snouted caiman densities had to rebound in wetter years. Most (such as numbers of eggs collected from increased to between 20 and 120 caiman crocodilians and prey species suffer the wild specifically in connection with per km in 2009, up from 2 to 8 caiman short-term declines during these the ranching programs), which are per km in 1990 when Argentina’s conditions but readily respond to wetter described by the CSG as having wide management program of broad-snouted conditions. Despite the decrease in variances and largely unknown caiman first began (Siroski and Larriera reproduction during the period of accuracy (Jenkins et al. 2006, pp. 34– 2010, pers. comm.). drought, overall, egg harvest increased 35). However, this report indicated that This species has been observed in a 750 percent between 1992 and 2007 the easiest data to obtain and report to variety of habitats and waterways, (Larriera 2008c, p. 330). After 2001, the track population trends are those linked including rivers near waterfalls such as number of eggs harvested continued to to the operation of the ranching Iguazu´ , and freshwater creeks with steadily increase (Larriera et al 2008c, p. programs (the method used by rocky bottoms (Micucci and Waller 332). This increase in egg production Argentina), data such as numbers of 1995, pp. 81–110). In the Province of was attributed in part to caiman being eggs collected from the wild. The eggs Santa Fe, the species is found primarily released through this program that had in Argentina’s program are collected in the floodplain along the Parana´ River, reached sexual maturity, and partly due from known nest locations in the wild the Salado river watershed, and the to the increased survival rate of and are an indication of caiman density. Saladillos watershed (Larriera 1995). Its juveniles (Larriera 2008c, p. 330). This is why we use the information choices of nesting areas reflect the Because the mortality rate of caiman in reported from Argentina’s egg harvest as adaptability of this species to a variety the wild is so high between the the best available information regarding of habitats. Nests have been found along embryonic stage up to a few month of population trend. dikes or levees, shallow lagoons, still age, the process of removing the eggs The IUCN–CSG report also indicated and slow-moving waters in rivers and from the wild and rearing the caiman in that results probably indicate channels, artificial ponds, and on small an environment where they are free deficiencies in reporting rather than any hills in wetlands (Larriera 1995, pp. from predation increases their survival

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rate significantly. Additional densities recorded within its range are in Table 1.

TABLE 1—DENSITIES OF BROAD-SNOUTED CAIMAN OBSERVED DURING POPULATION COUNTS

Number of Country/province Years localities Range of caiman densities Source

Argentina/Formosa ...... 2007–2008 11 22 to 238 per km ...... Pin˜a et al. (2008). Argentina/Corrientes ...... 2007–2008 10 5 to 125 per km ...... Pin˜a et al. (2008). Argentina/Salta ...... 2007–2008 39 3 to 5 caiman per lagoon ...... Pin˜a et al. (2008). Argentina/Sante Fe ...... 2007–2008 Not available 4 per km* ...... Larriera et al. (2008). Argentina/Santa Fe ...... 2002 7 6 to 200 per km ...... Larriera and Imhoff (2004). Bolivia/Pilcomayo River Basin, ... 1998 6 3 to 58 per km ...... Llobet-Querejazu (1998). Bolivia/Tarija Department ...... 2004–2005 54 6.17 per km ...... Aparicio and Rios (2008). Uruguay ...... 2001–2004 36 3.5 per km ...... Borteiro et al. (2008). Brazil/Sa˜o Francisco River Basin ...... 2006–2007 64 Presence in 44 percent of areas Filogonio et al. (2009). surveyed. * Recent caiman counts suggest that populations declined somewhat during 2002–2003 and 2007–2008 (Larriera et al. 2008; Micucci et al. 2007). This has been attributed to cyclic drought conditions during the early 2000s (Larriera et al. 2008; Micucci et al. 2007).

Bolivia Broad-snouted caiman exhibit Crocodilians (Coutinho and Luz 2008 in The population of broad-snouted preferences for inhabiting temporary Velasco et al. 2008 p. 80). The broad- caiman in Bolivia is at the far western shallow water bodies that have snouted caiman was listed as an edge of the species’ range. According to abundant vegetation cover. The endangered species in Brazil until 2003, Imhof (unpublished 2006), population of broad-snouted caiman for at which time the species was approximately 3 percent of the species’ the sub-basin of Pilcomayo River was withdrawn from the Brazilian List of range is in Bolivia. In 1983, broad- extrapolated on the basis of 135 Endangered Fauna (The Brazilian snouted caiman was found in the Pando observed individuals (Aparcio and Rios Institute of Environment and Renewable Department (departments in South 2008, p. 108). Natural Resources [IBAMA] 2003). In America are comparable to state In 1998, an abundance of 3.3 2006, it was reported that in southeast jurisdictions in the United States) of individuals per km was reported Brazil there were four farms involved in Bolivia, which is at the northwestern tip (Pacheco and Llobet 1998). The 1998 breeding this species. There were a total of Bolivia (Medem 1983). In 1989, data indicated that the population was of 354 caiman in the farms, and in 2006, broad-snouted caiman was only found dominated by young individuals 719 hatchlings had been produced (CSG in the Pilcomayo River area, a tributary (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 110). These Steering Committee Meeting 2006, p. 6). of the Paraguay River (King and Videz- researchers indicated that this high level We have no other information about the Roca 1989). The Paraguay River, also of young may indicate that the status of this program. known as Rio Paraguay, is 2,621 km population is increasing. Although Although there is still a lack of (1,629 miles (mi)) in length and runs different survey methods and timing population data and monitoring, the through Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and were employed in the 1998 and 2003– surveys conducted indicate that broad- Argentina, joining the broad-snouted 2004 surveys, the population estimates snouted caiman is present (confirmed in caiman populations in these countries. suggest an increase in density of almost 44 percent of 64 areas surveyed) Surveys in the late 1990s considered the 3 individuals per km from 1998 to throughout the Sa˜o Francisco River Bolivian population of this species to be 2003–2004. A further observation of the basin, its primary habitat (Filogonio et severely depleted (Verdade 1998, pp. survey found that broad-snouted caiman al. 2009, p. 961). A 2006–2007 survey 18–19). Anecdotal reports indicate that exist in areas previously considered to conducted in the Sa˜o Francisco river the abundance of broad-snouted caiman be uninhabited by them. This species is basin found the occurrence of in the Pilcomayo River region may have found in the , Arce, and crocodilians in 61 percent of 64 increased over the past 10 years, but in O’Connor Provinces (sub-basins surveyed localities, in which the the Bermejo River region, populations Pilcomayo and Bermejo) in the Tarija presence of broad-snouted caiman was may have declined (Aparicio and Rı´os Department, which is in the south of confirmed in 44 percent of the surveyed 2008, pp. 111, 122). It is unclear Bolivia. Despite information suggesting sites. This was a survey conducted whether the population change is public an increasing trend in the Bolivian primarily to detect presence and perception or whether the perception population, populations of broad- absence, rather than an estimate of the represents an actual change in broad- snouted caiman are still considered to population (Filogonio et al. 2009, p. snouted caiman population numbers be severely depleted in Bolivia 961). Caiman occurred in both lentic within Bolivia. (Aparicio and Rı´os 2008, p. 104; (still water) and lotic (moving water) During a survey conducted in 2003 Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). habitats, although caiman preferred and 2004, 6.2 individuals per km were water bodies consisting of small dams, observed (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. Brazil oxbow lakes, and wetlands. Despite the 104). The survey was conducted in 54 Brazil has the largest range for this hunting pressure and human impact on water bodies, 42 of which are part of the species; approximately 60 percent of the natural habitats, results indicated that Pilcomayo River sub-basin, and the species’ range is in Brazil (Imhof the populations of broad-snouted remaining 12 water bodies in the sub- unpublished 2006). In 2003, Brazil caiman in the Sa˜o Francisco basin are basin of the Bermejo River (Aparicio established a nationwide research and broadly distributed and not fragmented and Rios 2008, p. 110). The highest development program, called (Filogonio et al. 2009, p. 961). abundance values were recorded in Programme for Biology, Conservation No other recent survey data are ‘‘atajados’’ (dikes) and artificial ponds. and Management of Brazilian known in Brazil other than in the

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northwest portion of Santa Catarina population growth has occurred or caiman were predominantly subadults Island, in the Ratones River plain. In whether earlier surveys were inaccurate. and, thus, had the potential to recruit this area surveyed, a density of 0.25 In the past, it was suggested that a into adult size classes (as opposed to caiman per km was encountered (Fusco- decline in population had occurred in very young hatchlings, which have a Costa et al. 2008, p. 185). Based on their Uruguay, but no strong basis for this significantly higher mortality rate). This size, these caiman were generally suggestion existed (Verdade 1998, p. observation may be due to an increase considered to be adults. 20). Recent observations and field in agricultural and livestock activities Preliminary data indicate that this surveys indicate that broad-snouted that inadvertently had a positive effect species is more widespread and caiman is fairly common in northern on broad-snouted caiman. These prevalent in Brazil than previously Uruguay and is also widely distributed previous reports about the population believed. The main concern for this in central and eastern Uruguay (Borteiro status of broad-snouted caiman in species in Brazil appears to be dams that et al. 2008, p. 248). This species is Uruguay may have been due to have been constructed for hydroelectric adaptable to a wide range of water inadequate surveys or survey stations that block water flow to sources and habitats (Borteiro et al. methodology, or the population may wetlands. Both drainage of land for 2006, p. 102; Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 244) have grown. agriculture and river pollution have and is connected to the Argentine and In 2008, the number of caiman located reduced the availability of broad- Brazilian populations through the in each area surveyed ranged between snouted caiman habitat in Brazil Uruguay River basin (Borteiro et al. one and 31. The average abundance was (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). Hunting 2006, p. 103). between 1.3 and 3.4 per km (Borteiro et pressure is another factor that affects Previous local reports about the al. 2008, p. 246). Research conducted broad-snouted caiman in Brazil. It is population status of broad-snouted recently regarding the population age hunted for several reasons: because caiman in Uruguay published since the structure of caiman in Uruguay caiman feed on the fish attached to mid-1950s suggested that this species indicates that the population is fishing nets; because caiman destroy was subject to extinction due to habitat increasing (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). fishing nets; and because caiman are a destruction and poaching (Achaval This may be due to an increase in source of food. Although Brazil has 1977; Orejas-Miranda 1969; Talice 1971; agricultural impoundments that have established a research and development Vaz-Ferreira 1971; Vaz-Ferreira 1956); been constructed in the past few program for the conservation and however, no discussion of survey data decades which have unintentionally management of Brazilian crocodilians, and methods was made to support these created suitable habitat for caiman. Each data are lacking for this species on its conclusions (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. department in which broad-snouted population. 247). Although there has been caiman has recently been documented documented take of this species by local Paraguay and the most recent date observed citizens for subsistence, research follows (Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 244– No recent survey data are available for suggests this practice is not common 250): Paraguay. However, according to Imhof and is therefore considered to be an Dept. of Artigas (Northern Uruguay; (unpublished 2006), approximately 7 insignificant factor affecting the species percent of the species’ range is in (Borteiro, et al. 2006, p. 108). caiman commonly found) • Yacuy stream (2002) Paraguay. The latest data available Additionally, there has been some • Mandiyu stream (2003) indicate that the population of broad- indication that at the local level, the Dept. of Cerro Largo (eastern Uruguay) snouted caiman is naturally low and poaching of the broad-snouted caiman is • scattered throughout eastern Paraguay Fraile Muerto stream (2005) prohibited (Borteiro, et al. 2006, p. 108). Dept. of Lavelleja and the southern half of the Chaco However, information regarding • Jose´ Pedro Varela (2003) region, western Paraguay, possibly enforcement is lacking (see Bolivia, Dept. of Paysandu´ (1997) because other potential habitat in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay DPS western Paraguay is ephemeral (Northern DPS) discussion). During Dept. of Rocha (seasonal, not permanent) (Scott et al. surveys conducted between 1981 and • San Luis (2001) 1990, pp. 43–49). The Paraguayan 2003, the species was found in both the • San Miguel River stream (2003) population is found in seasonal marshes Cebollatı´ and Tacuarı´ Rivers, as well as Dept. of Rivera (1992) and livestock ponds, and has colonized in the Pelotas, India Muerta, and San Dept. of Tacuarembo´ manmade water bodies (Scott et al. Miguel stream basins (Borteiro et al. • Paso Bonilla (2003) 1990). There is no known conservation 2006, p. 97). In the Department of Dept. of Salto (Northwestern Uruguay, program for broad-snouted caiman in Artigas (northern tip of Uruguay), broad- Paraguay. snouted caiman was found to be present no current reports; historical in 29 out of 36 surveyed areas (Borteiro accounts only, Borteiro et al. 2006, Uruguay et al. 2008, pp. 246). The area studied pp. 98–100) Dept. of Treinta y Tres The broad-snouted caiman is the only consisted of approximately 400 km2 • caiman species found in Uruguay (154 mi2) of fluvial plains in the Merin Lake; Tacuari River (2002) (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 98); the • Paso del Dragon (2002) Uruguay River basin, in Artigas • percentage of this species’ range in Department, northwestern Uruguay. The Kiosco Tacuari (2003) Uruguay is unknown (Imhof caiman observed were predominantly Additionally, in Uruguay, a private unpublished 2006). There was little subadults. farm began in 2002 that involved information available regarding this Although comparisons with these reproduction and reintroduction of this species’ population numbers in Uruguay previous surveys are difficult based on species into the wild. The goal of this until recently. The population of broad- unknown methodologies used in the government-sanctioned farm was to snouted caiman in Uruguay is more past, the 2008 data, along with the produce skins and meat commercially. widespread and appears larger than population age structure of caiman, In 2008, there were 20 adult caiman in previously believed (Borteiro et al. suggest that the population may be the farm, yet they had reintroduced 100 2006, pp. 97–108; Borteiro et al. 2008, increasing (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). caiman back into the wild (Velasco et al. pp. 244–250), but it is unclear whether The researcher noted that the observed 2008, p. 82). The Service knows of no

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additional information regarding this thereby facilitate law enforcement and (3) Evidence that the population private farm. promote public understanding of the segment represents the only surviving In summary, the population of broad- listing. Under this Policy, we evaluate a natural occurrence of a taxon that may snouted caiman in Uruguay appears to set of elements in a three-step process be more abundant elsewhere as an be larger than previously believed, but in order to make our decision introduced population outside of its differences in survey methodologies concerning the establishment and historic range; and used make it difficult to assess classification of a possible DPS. These (4) Evidence that the discrete population trends. The percentage of the elements are applied similarly for both population segment differs markedly broad-snouted caiman population that additions to, reclassifications under, from other populations of the species in exists in Uruguay has still not been and removals from the Federal Lists of its genetic characteristics from other estimated. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife populations of the species. A population segment needs to satisfy Distinct Population Segment Analysis and Plants. These elements include: (1) The discreteness of a population in only one of these conditions to be As indicated previously in this relation to the remainder of the taxon to considered significant. Evidence with document, the Government of Argentina which it belongs; respect to any one of these scenarios requested that we review the status of (2) The significance of the population may allow the Service to conclude that the species in Argentina in order to segment to the taxon to which it a population segment can be significant determine whether or not the species belongs; and to the taxon to which it belongs. warrants reclassification to threatened (3) The population segment’s Furthermore, the Service may consider status under the ESA. Section 3(16) of conservation status in relation to the other information relevant to the the ESA defines ‘‘species’’ to include ESA’s standards for listing (addition to question of significance, as appropriate. ‘‘any subspecies of fish or wildlife or the list), delisting (removal from the Lastly, if we determine that the plants, and any distinct population list), or reclassification (i.e., is the population is both discrete and segment [DPS] of any species of population segment endangered or significant, then the DPS Policy requires vertebrate fish or wildlife which threatened?). an analysis of the population segment’s interbreeds when mature’’ (16 U.S.C. The DPS Policy first requires the conservation status in relation to the 1532(16)). In evaluating whether the Service to determine that a vertebrate ESA’s standards for listing (addition to action petitioned by Argentina is population is discrete in relation to the the list), delisting (removal from the warranted, we first must analyze remainder of the taxon to which it list), or reclassification (i.e., is the whether this population constitutes a belongs. Discreteness refers to the population segment endangered or ‘‘species’’ as defined under the ESA. ability to delineate a population threatened?). A detailed discussion is Thus, we begin our analysis with a segment from other members of a taxon then presented for the five listing factors determination of whether the based on either: (1) Physical, for each DPS as required by the ESA. population in Argentina represents a physiological, ecological, or behavioral For each of the potential DPSs, we DPS. A DPS is a listable entity under the factors (quantitative measures of genetic analyze, using the best scientific and ESA, and is treated the same as a listed or morphological discontinuity may commercial data available and taking species or subspecies. It is listed, provide evidence of this separation), or into consideration the conservation protected, and recovered just as any (2) international governmental efforts of foreign nations, whether the other endangered or threatened species boundaries that result in significant five listing factors, individually or or subspecies. The term ‘‘distinct differences in control of exploitation, collectively, under section 4(a)(1) of the population segment’’ is part of the management, or habitat conservation Act impact the population segment such statutory definition of a ‘‘species’’ and is status, or regulatory mechanisms that that it meets the definitions of a significant for listing, delisting, and are significant in light of section threatened or endangered species or reclassification purposes under section 4(a)(1)(D) of the ESA—the inadequacy of qualifies for removal from the Federal 4 of the ESA. existing regulatory mechanisms. Lists of Endangered and Threatened To interpret and implement the DPS Second, if we determine that the Wildlife. provisions of the ESA and population is discrete under one or The broad-snouted caiman has a Congressional guidance, the Service and more of the discreteness conditions, continuous range from Argentina to the National Marine Fisheries Service then a determination is made as to Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay jointly published the DPS Policy (see whether the population is significant to (see http://www.regulations.gov, the Policy Regarding the Recognition of the larger taxon to which it belongs in Appendix A in Docket No. FWS–R9– Distinct Vertebrate Population Segments light of Congressional guidance (see ES–2010–0089). We evaluated the status under the Endangered Species Act (61 Senate Report 151, 96th Congress, 1st of this species to determine if two FR 4722; February 7, 1996)). Congress Session) that the authority to list DPS’s distinct population segments exist (one included the DPS concept in the ESA, be used ‘‘sparingly and only when the in Argentina, and the other in Bolivia, recognizing that a listing, biological evidence indicates that such Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay) under reclassification, or delisting action may, action is warranted.’’ In carrying out the DPS Policy because the species’ in some circumstances, be more this examination, we consider available range spans several countries and its appropriately applied over something scientific evidence of the population’s conservation status varies by country. less than the entire area in which a importance to the taxon to which it We evaluated the species in this manner species or subspecies is found or was belongs. This consideration may specifically for two reasons. First, the known to occur in order to protect and include, but is not limited to, the Government of Argentina petitioned us recover organisms in a more timely and following: to reclassify the species in Argentina to cost-effective manner. A DPS is a (1) The persistence of the population threatened. Second, in Argentina, this listable entity that is usually described segment in an ecological setting that is species is listed in Appendix II of geographically rather than biologically. unique or unusual for the taxon; CITES, and in the rest of its range By using international boundaries, we (2) Evidence that loss of the (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and are able to clearly identify the population segment would result in a Uruguay), it is listed in Appendix I of geographic extent of the DPS listing and significant gap in the range of the taxon; CITES. The significance of this

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distinction is that these two populations Moreover, we are not aware of any (Jenkins et al. 2004, pp. 25–28; Verdade may be subject to different management quantitative data of genetic or 2010, pp. 18–20). This program was regimes and may have different morphological discontinuity to indicate ratified by Provincial Law 4830, Articles conservation statuses. Thus, we separateness between the two 22 and 37 (CITES CoP 10, Proposal considered whether these two populations. Because of their 10.1), and subsequently expanded in populations meet the discreteness and interactions through interconnected scope. Now there are seven government- significance criteria under our DPS river systems and a current range that approved broad-snouted ranching policy, and then whether these two mirrors their historical range, we find programs within four provinces. This potential DPS’s of the broad-snouted that the two populations overlap, initiative began in order to increase this caiman still meet the definition of allowing for genetic intermixing. species’ population size and to be able endangered, whether either or both Therefore, these two population to sustain commercial harvest. In the should be reclassified to threatened, or segments cannot be delineated based on proposal to transfer this species from whether either population segment has physical, physiological, ecological, or CITES Appendix I to Appendix II, the recovered and is no longer either behavioral factors. proposal noted that although the endangered or threatened. primary threat was initially International Differences in Species’ overutilization, the more recent and Discreteness Conservation Status significant threat was habitat loss In the first step in our DPS analysis, Under our DPS policy, consideration (CITES Cop 10, Proposal 10.1). The we determine whether there are any may be given to utilizing international proposal indicated that a method to populations that are discrete in relation boundaries in establishing discreteness reduce the threat of habitat loss is to put to the remainder of the taxon to which when differences in management, an economic value on the species’ it belongs. A DPS may be considered conservation status, or control of habitat, so that the local communities discrete if it meets the criteria described exploitation of the species exist between and farmers would not drain the land above under Distinct Population these population segments as a (degrade the species’ habitat). Thus, Segment Analysis. Recognition of consequence of national legislation. Argentina’s caiman egg harvesting international boundaries when they Thus, we analyze below whether any of program began creating incentives for coincide with differences in the these differences exist that are locals to protect and conserve habitat for management, status, or exploitation of significant in light of section 4(a)(1)(D) the broad-snouted caiman (see Factor D the species under the ESA is consistent of the ESA. discussion below). with CITES, which recognizes Argentina This species is also protected through international boundaries for these same national legislation (Law 22.421 and reasons. Two clear differences in the Decree 691/81), administered by the exploitation, management, habitat Direccio´n Nacional de Fauna y Flora Physical, Physiological, Ecological, or conservation status, or regulatory Behavioral Factors Silvestres. The Government of mechanisms of this species exist Argentina is adequately enforcing its There are no studies or information between Argentina and the remainder of legal frameworks, both at the national that indicate there are physical, its range. This species is intensely and international levels. The species has physiological, ecological, or behavioral managed in Argentina. Due to its significantly increased in density since characteristics that would contribute to improved status in the wild, it is listed the caiman ranching program began in separateness between the Argentine in Appendix II of CITES. In contrast, 1990, and its range has expanded into population and the population in this species is not intensively managed areas where it had not been seen prior Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. in the remainder of its range, and it to 1990. In the Santa Fe Province, for The Paraguay River connects the broad- continues to be listed in Appendix I of example, the number of nests identified snouted caiman populations in CITES in the range countries outside of increased from 14 in 1990 to 304 nests Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. Argentina. The primary reason this in 2002 (Jenkins et al. 2004, p. 27). The The Uruguay population of the broad- species was protected by the ESA and monitoring reports indicate that snouted caiman is connected to the CITES was because of the decrease in Argentina’s management of the species Argentine and Brazilian populations population numbers due to is resulting in an upward trend in this through the Uruguay River basin overutilization (see discussion under species’ population. Argentina submits (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 103). Broad- Factor B in the Evaluation of Factors reports in accordance with CITES and is snouted caiman populations are also Affecting the Species section below). an active participant in the IUCN’s connected through the Parana´ and Sa˜o However, Argentina’s management Crocodile Specialist Group, particularly Francisco River systems of northeast regime has resulted in an increase in for this species. The management of this Argentina, southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, this species’ population such that species has led to significant and northeast Uruguay. This is a wide- harvest for international trade may be improvement in the status of the species ranging species that occurs primarily in conducted sustainably under proper in Argentina, which has been freshwater environments such as lakes, management. demonstrated through monitoring and swamps, and slow-moving rivers. It is Although all of this species’ range reporting (Jenkins et al. 2004, pp. 25–28; connected via the major river systems countries have national protected- Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18–20). that flow through the species’ range, and species and protected-areas legislation Due to Argentina’s management, the we have found no information under the jurisdiction of specific population of broad-snouted caiman is indicating separateness between the ministries or departments that control now widespread and abundant Argentine population and the activities that impact the broad-snouted throughout its range in Argentina. It is population occurring in the remainder caiman and its habitat, Argentina’s relatively common in suitable habitat in of the species’ range due to physical, national legal framework is particularly the provinces of Formosa, Santa Fe, physiological, ecological, or behavioral robust (see Factor D discussion). In Corrientes, and Salta. While some factors. Therefore, we did not find either 1990, Argentina began a joint habitat loss and degradation remain in population segment is discrete based on government-private initiative to recover Argentina, these threats have been this factor. this species in the Santa Fe Province reduced, as explained in our five-factor

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analysis below. The best available Paraguay, and Uruguay remains in which it belongs. A population’s information strongly suggests that the CITES’ Appendix I. Based on these biological significance is evaluated caiman population in Argentina is differences in the control and based on the principles of conservation increasing, while the population trend management of habitat and exploitation biology using the concepts of in the other range countries is unclear as delineated by international redundancy, resiliency, and (Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18–19). boundaries, we consider the population representation (see Redford et al. 2011 in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and for additional information on these Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay Uruguay to be a separate discrete concepts). These concepts also can be Within each of these countries, there population. expressed in terms of four viability a wide variability in the amount of characteristics: Abundance, spatial Conclusion on Discreteness information available about the species distribution, productivity, and diversity and its management and monitoring We have determined, based on the of the species. (Borteiro et al. 2006; Larriera et al. 2008, best available information, that the p. 152; Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20). This population of broad-snouted caiman in Persistence in a Unique Ecological species is listed in Appendix I of CITES Argentina is discrete from the Setting in these range countries, which means population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, The broad-snouted caiman is a wide- that international trade originating from and Uruguay due to the significant ranging species that occurs primarily in these countries of broad-snouted difference in the control of exploitation, freshwater environments such as lakes, caiman, including its parts and management of habitat, conservation swamps, and slow-moving rivers. Its products, for primarily commercial status, and regulatory mechanisms habitat in Argentina is typical of the purposes is prohibited. To our between international boundaries. We species’ habitat throughout its range knowledge, none of these countries has conclude that these two populations— (including Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and submitted proposals to change the status (1) the population in Argentina and (2), Uruguay). We do not have any evidence of this species under CITES to the less the population in Bolivia, Brazil, to indicate that the Argentine restrictive Appendix II listing (http:// Paraguay, and Uruguay—of the broad- population of the broad-snouted caiman www..org, accessed July 7, 2011). snouted caiman meet the requirements occurs in habitat that includes unique Although this international trade of our DPS Policy for discreteness. features not used by the taxon elsewhere restriction is in place for range countries in its range. Therefore, we conclude that Significance other than Argentina, we remain neither the discrete population of broad- concerned about habitat loss, and the If a distinct population segment is snouted caiman in Argentina nor the status and management of wild considered discrete under one or more discrete population in Bolivia, Brazil, populations, in the range countries of the conditions described in the DPS Paraguay, and Uruguay is ‘‘significant’’ outside of Argentina. policy, its biological and ecological as a result of persistence in a unique or In the remainder of this species’ range significance will be considered in light unusual ecological setting. (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and of Congressional guidance (see Senate Uruguay), these governments either Report 151, 96th Congress, 1st Session). Differences in Genetic Characteristics have not demonstrated an ability to In making this determination, we No data have been located that adequately enforce their legal consider available scientific evidence of indicate that the Argentine population framework, or there is no population each discrete population segment’s and the population in the remaining trend or monitoring data about the importance to the taxon to which it range countries are each significant species to indicate the status of the belongs. As precise circumstances vary based on genetics (Villela et al. 2008, species in these countries is improving. considerably from case to case, the DPS pp. 628–635). Our knowledge across the We found little to no information about policy does not describe all ways that range countries is sparse with respect to the status of the species in these might be used in determining the genetic diversity of the broad-snouted countries. This was supported by the biological and ecological importance of caiman. However, a 2008 study most recent report on the status of the a discrete population. However, the DPS indicates that genetic flux (genetic flow species prepared by the IUCN’s policy describes four possible scenarios between members of a species) occurs; Crocodile Specialist Group (Verdade et that provide evidence of a population the species remains fairly connected al. 2010, pp. 18–19). The best available segment’s biological and ecological through the major waterways within its information indicates that this species importance to the taxon to which it range. River channels are important in these countries is still subject to belongs (see additional discussion above routes to crocodilian dispersal. The unmitigated pressures such as under Distinct Population Segment Paraguay River joins Brazil, Bolivia, destruction of habitat due to human Analysis). Paraguay, and Argentina, and the encroachment, construction of dams, A population segment needs to satisfy populations of this species are conversion of habitat to agriculture, and, only one of these conditions to be connected in part through this river. in some cases, illegal hunting. considered significant. Furthermore, The populations of this species are also Conservation actions for this species other information may be used as connected between Uruguay and may not be a priority in these other appropriate to provide evidence for Argentina via the Uruguay River, which range countries, and these countries significance. Having determined that the is the border between these two may be facing economic issues, high population of broad-snouted caiman in countries. levels of poverty, hunting pressure, and Argentina is discrete from the Additionally, a 2006–2007 survey in conversion of caiman habitat to other population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Brazil found that C. latirostris is widely uses. The lack of funding and personnel and Uruguay, we then determine the distributed throughout the Sa˜o often makes enforcement of their legal significance of these two discrete Francisco River basin, and its frameworks challenging. As a result of populations to the taxon. We evaluate distribution pattern indicates that the differences in exploitation, the biological and ecological populations within the river basin are management, habitat conservation significance based on the available not fragmented (Filogonio et al. 2010, p. status, or regulatory mechanisms, the scientific evidence of each population 964). The genetic variations of broad- broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, segment’s importance to the taxon to snouted caiman were found to be

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closely related to patterns of these river Factor A below) has resulted in broad-snouted caiman hatchlings in the basins, and indicated that there was no improvements in the quality of the other range countries. This increase in significant correlation between genetic species’ habitat (such as the decrease in survivability further distinguishes the variation and genetic distance (Villela et draining of wetlands), thereby Argentine population from rest of the al. 2008, p. 6). This species is not only increasing the range and population size species’ range and greatly contributes to a mobile species but is also flexible in of the species. Its rate of survival in the resiliency (abundance, spatial its habitat preferences. The river basins Argentina far surpasses the normal distribution, and productivity) to the within its range appear to be sufficiently survival rate of this species in the species as a whole. connected, despite any habitat remainder of its range due to the Argentina’s wild caiman population is modifications. There is no other ranching program (described below). also well distributed; in Argentina the information available that indicates Reports indicate that the Argentine broad-snouted caiman reaches Entre there are significant differences in the population of this species is increasing. Rios, Misiones, Salta, Santiago del populations. Based on the best available The captive-held stock reported in 2010 Estero and Jujuy (Yanosky, 1990, 1992; information, we have determined that was 39,624 (Larriera et al. 2010, p. 1), Larriera, 1993; Waller and Micucci, the Argentine population of the broad- and the density of caiman surveyed in 1993; Larriera and Imhof, 2000). Its snouted caiman does not have any the wild has increased substantially extensive distribution within the genetic characteristics that are markedly (Pin˜ a et al. 2009, pp. 1–5) since country is attributed to the fact that it different from the population in Bolivia, surveying began in 1990—in 2010, 7,768 has more climatic tolerance than other Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. hatchlings were produced. caiman species (Waller and Micucci, Argentina is the only range country Gap in the Taxon’s Range 1992). The Argentine population is for the broad-snouted caiman that considered abundant and increasing The loss of a DPS could result in a actively manages and conserves the compared with the population in significant gap in the range of a taxon, species and its habitat. This is Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. indicating that a population segment accomplished by harvesting eggs, In Argentina, this species is moving into represents a significant resource hatching the young, raising them to an habitat where it had not been seen in warranting conservation under the ESA age where they are more able to escape many years, which increases the (61 FR 4724). The Ninth Circuit Court predators and other threats, and potential environmental variability stated ‘‘[t]he plain language of the returning between 5 and 10 percent of within the range of the species. second significance factor does not limit those hatchlings to the wild (Verdade et Argentina’s broad-snouted caiman how a gap could be important’’ al. 2010, p. 20). Each nest in the wild population helps contribute to the (National Association of Home Builders can contain between 18–50 eggs, and in viability of the species overall, and it is v. Norton, 340 F.3d 835, 846 (9th Cir. cases where multiple caiman share a providing a margin of safety for the 2003)). Thus, we consider ways in nest, up to 129 eggs have been found in species to withstand catastrophic which the loss of each discrete one nest (Larriera 2002). Due to their events, strengthening the redundancy of population of the broad-snouted caiman method of reproducing, the nests are the species. This expansion allows for might result in a significant gap in the vulnerable to predation, and up to 95 adaptations in response to variations in range of species. Its range is estimated percent mortality can occur, even before the environment. as follows: 28 percent in Argentina, and hatching (Hutton 1984 in Larriera et al. 72 percent in the remainder of its range 2008, p. 154). This method of The abundance of this species in (4 percent in Bolivia, 58 percent in reproduction also lends itself to easy egg Argentina contributes to the potential Brazil, 8 percent in Paraguay, and 2 collection. When the eggs are removed diversity of the species, particularly percent in Uruguay) (Larriera pers. from the wild, incubated, and the since Argentina constitutes the comm. 2011). juveniles are allowed to grow in a southernmost part of its range. Because captive environment where they are safe it is at the edge of its range, this Argentina from predators, it greatly improves their population may improve its adaptive We considered whether the loss of the chances of survival. capabilities, particularly if there is a Argentine DPS would constitute a Experts indicate that returning at least significant gradient in temperature significant gap in the range of the 5 percent of the hatchlings to the wild within the range of the species. Because species. In 2006, the population of increases the species’ survivability, as it the Argentine population is more robust broad-snouted caiman in Argentina was mitigates for the high incidence of than in the other range countries, the estimated to be 13 percent of the mortality that occurs in the wild even loss of the Argentine population would potential global population. The species prior to hatching (Bolton 1989, Ch. 4, p. result in a significant gap in the range is distributed in nine provinces in the 1). Most caiman mortalities occur either of the species, particularly because it is northern part of Argentina. It is before hatching or during the first few believed to consist of over a quarter increasing its range within Argentina, months after hatching due to factors (approximately 28 percent) of the moving into habitat where it had not such as flooding or nest predation species’ range. been seen since the caiman ranching (Bolton 1989, Ch. 4, p. 1). The release Argentina’s active management efforts program began. It has been observed in of these caiman at a later age affect the quality of the species’ habitat, a variety of habitats and waterways significantly increases their chances of which subsequently contributes to the including rivers near waterfalls, survival, primarily due to the species’ resiliency. Based on the freshwater creeks with rocky bottoms, hatchlings’ increased ability to escape increase in density as evidenced by the and in agricultural and cattle predators and their ability to survive population counts, the significant impoundments. other factors such as nest flooding, fire increase of hatchlings reared in In Argentina, human impact on the ants, and exposure to pesticides. captivity and subsequently released, species has been reduced since 1990 Because Argentina releases hatchlings and the expansion in range, we find that through educational programs and into the wild after an age they are most the population of the broad-snouted incentives, which have served to susceptible to predators and flooding caiman in Argentina significantly minimize habitat loss. The caiman events, the population has a greater contributes to the resiliency of the ranching program (see discussion under chance of survival in the wild than species.

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We found that the success of the evaluate whether the potential DPS these two populations meet the criteria caiman ranching program has created a warrants endangered or threatened for discreteness and significance under robust, healthy, sustainable, increasing status under the ESA, considering the the DPS Policy due to (a) differences in population in Argentina. This factors enumerated under section 4(a)(1) management delineated by international distinguishes the Argentine population and the statutory definitions for an boundaries, and (b) a loss of either from rest of the species’ range, where it ‘‘endangered species’’ and ‘‘threatened population segment (28 percent of its is not being intensely monitored and species.’’ Based on our evaluation under range in Argentina and 72 percent of its managed to the point where it is self- the DPS Policy, we have established two range in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and sustaining. The factors in Argentina, distinct population segments of the Uruguay) would result in a significant including the increase in density and broad-snouted caiman. The first is the gap in the range of the taxon. population counts; large numbers of population in Argentina, and the second caiman collected from the wild, reared is the population in the remainder of its Evaluation of Factors Affecting the in captivity, and subsequently released; range: Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Species and expansion in range, all contribute to Uruguay. We will refer to this second the resiliency, representation, and population as the ‘‘Northern DPS.’’ On Section 4(b) of the ESA and redundancy of the species and its the basis of the best available regulations promulgated to implement overall viability. information, we conclude that each of the listing provisions of the ESA (50 Thus, the loss of the Argentine these two population segments meets CFR part 424) set forth the procedures population would create a significant the requirements of our DPS Policy for for listing, reclassifying, or removing gap in the current range of the species. discreteness and significance. These two species from listed status. We may Based on this evaluation of this DPS’s are each discrete due to the determine a species to be an endangered population’s biological significance, we significant differences in the or threatened species because of one or found that the broad-snouted caiman in management of habitat, conservation more of the five factors described in Argentina is significant to the species as status, exploitation, and regulatory section 4(a)(1) of the ESA; we must a whole. We, therefore, conclude that mechanisms between the international consider these same five factors in the population of broad-snouted caiman boundaries of Argentina and the species removing species from listed status. in Argentina is significant under the in the rest of its range: Bolivia, Brazil, Revisions to the list (adding, removing, DPS policy because it contributes to the Paraguay, and Uruguay. These two or reclassifying a species) must reflect redundancy, resilience, and discrete population segments are clearly determinations made in accordance representation of the species such that defined by international governmental with these same five factors and the the loss of this DPS would result in a boundaries and these other differences. ESA’s definitions for endangered and significant gap in the range of this The robustness of the population in threatened species. Section 4(b) requires taxon. Argentina significantly contributes to the determination of whether a species the biological and ecological health and Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay is endangered or threatened to be based viability of the species as a whole. on the best available science. We are to Because the species is widely Argentina is the only country actively make this determination after distributed within these countries and managing the broad-snouted caiman. It conducting a review of the status of the these countries constitute also is the only country actively species and taking into account any working with local people to create approximately 72 percent of the species’ efforts being made by foreign financial incentives to protect the broad- range, the Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and governments to protect the species. Uruguay population is significant under snouted caiman and its habitat. the DPS policy because it also Argentina’s implementation of its For species that are already listed as contributes to the redundancy, ranching program increases the species’ endangered or threatened, this analysis resilience, and representation of the survivability success, which further of threats is an evaluation of both the species such that the loss of this distinguishes the Argentine population threats currently facing the species and population would also result in a from the rest of the species’ range. The the threats that are reasonably likely to significant gap in the range of this species was reclassified to Appendix II affect the species in the foreseeable taxon. in Argentina, allowing for commercial future following the delisting or trade in accordance with the provisions downlisting and the removal or Conclusion on Significance of CITES. Due to Argentina’s intense reduction of the ESA’s protections. We have determined, based on the management of this species, the Under section 3 of the ESA, a species is best available information, that the survivability rate of the Argentine ‘‘endangered’’ if it is in danger of population of broad-snouted caiman in population is far higher than in the extinction throughout all or a significant Argentina is significant to the taxon and other countries within this species’ portion of its range and is ‘‘threatened’’ the population in Bolivia, Brazil, range. This difference is further if it is likely to become an endangered Paraguay, and Uruguay is also supported by the fact that broad-snouted species within the foreseeable future significant to the taxon because the loss caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and throughout all or a significant portion of of each discrete population segment Uruguay remains listed in Appendix I of its range. The word ‘‘species’’ also would create a significant gap in the CITES. Appendix I includes species includes any subspecies or, for current range of the species. Based on threatened with extinction which are or vertebrates, distinct population this evaluation of each population may be affected by trade, while the segments. segment’s significance, we found that population in Argentina no longer meets each is significant to the species as a the criteria for an Appendix I listing. Following is a range wide threats whole. In summary, we find that these two analysis in which we evaluate whether population segments meet our DPS the broad-snouted caiman is endangered Conclusion of DPS Analysis policy for significance because the loss or threatened in the Argentine DPS and Under the DPS policy, once we have of either population would result in a in the DPS which consists of Bolivia, found that a population segment is significant gap in the range of the taxon. Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, which discrete and significant, we then Based on our analysis, we find that we will refer to as the Northern DPS.

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Factor A. The Present or Threatened habitat) through channeling occurs in its Observed wild population densities Destruction, Modification, or habitat, particularly for producing increased from an average of between 2 Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range soybeans, but alternatively, the and 8 individuals per km in 1990, to Habitat destruction and modification formation of water impoundments may between 20 and 120 individuals per km has increased throughout the species’ have positive effects (Larriera et al. during the 2008–2009 survey period range and is now likely the greatest 2008, p. 152). (Larriera and Siroski 2010, p. 2). The The world market for soy is causing factor affecting the survival of the broad- distribution of the wild population has the conversion of pastures to soy snouted caiman (Verdade et al. 2010, expanded into areas from which the monocultures. Soy is now Argentina’s pp. 18–19). The overharvest for species had formerly disappeared main export crop, and Argentina is the commercial purposes, rather than (Larriera et al. 2005). world’s third largest producer of this Increases have been observed in the habitat destruction or modification, was commodity (USDA, Foreign Agricultural relative abundance of the species in the primary reason for the broad- Service (FAS) 2010a, p. 11). Argentina’s Argentina due in part to active snouted caiman’s inclusion in CITES shift toward soy has displaced management programs (see Factor D and subsequently being listed under the cultivation of many grains and discussion). These caiman conservation ESA. The analysis of the five factors vegetables as well as beef production. and public awareness programs have under the ESA requires an investigation Many established cattle ranches are resulted in less habitat alteration (e.g., of both current and future potential being sold to soy investors. For burned grass) and less drained factors that may impact the species, example, in Salta Province, potential marshland for cattle production in the including the present or threatened conversion to soy cropland in Northern nesting areas (Larriera and Imhof 2006). destruction, modification, or Argentina may exceed over one million While these programs are helping, curtailment of its habitat or range. We hectares (USDA FAS 2010b, p. 1). Soy increases in habitat conversion to found that data on habitat destruction now covers approximately 16.6 million agriculture, roads and transportation, were generally presented separately for hectares, more than half the country’s and infrastructure to transport crops each individual country. Therefore, the cultivated land (USDA FAS 2010b, p. such as soy continue (USDA FAS 2010b, following analysis of the potential 10). The large scale production of soy p. 2). Without additional incentives and threats to the species from habitat requires the application of fertilizers intervention, suitable habitat for this destruction or modification generally and pesticides. Cattle feed primarily on species will decrease. Although it is first presents the specific information established introduced grasses but mitigated by provincial governments available for broad-snouted caiman in native grasslands also persist in through the caiman ranching program, each country, and then summarizes the pastures, especially along wetland habitat destruction and modification in information that is available for the two edges, which benefits caiman and its Argentina are likely to continue in the DPSs. habitat. As a result of this change in foreseeable future. Despite the intense Argentine DPS habitat use from traditional cattle management of this species in grazing to primarily soy production in Argentina, we conclude that the present Since the early 1800s, Argentina’s many areas, significant changes in the or threatened destruction, modification, economy greatly depended on cattle habitat and landscape occur which or curtailment of its habitat or range grazing; however, over the past 10 years, affect caiman to the point that its former continues to be a factor affecting the Argentina has undergone significant habitat is no longer suitable. broad-snouted caiman. changes in land use. With respect to Adding to this problem of habitat habitat modification, some changes have conversion is that Argentina’s Summary of Factor A for the Argentine positive effects and some have negative management of its resources is DPS effects. Although this species has been decentralized. Provincial and municipal In most of the range of this species, shown to occupy disturbed habitat, governments have autonomy, property the habitat threats are very similar; much of the species’ original range in rights are respected, and federal however, a country’s management Argentina has been altered, and authority is relatively limited. This is actions (refer to Factor D discussion) significant alteration is expected to particularly evident in control over affect the status of the species. In occur in the future due to the property with respect to the Argentina, habitat conversion to conversion of cattle pastures to conservation of natural resources, land agriculture continues to cause habitat monocultures such as soy, which is use, and protection of the environment. degradation within the broad-snouted generally not desirable habitat for the In this decentralized system, there is caiman range, although this is being species. In some areas in Argentina, very little comprehensive land use mitigated through the caiman ranching habitat destruction has significantly planning at all levels of government. program. Habitat conversion is expected increased in recent years (Verdade et al. Regulatory mechanisms that exist at the to increase and further degrade this 2010, p. 19). Argentina has lost national and provincial levels are species’ habitat. The population substantial forested areas, and seldom coordinated and are sometimes numbers in the wild have significantly conversion of caiman habitat to other contradictory and inefficient. increased since this species was listed. uses is likely to further affect the broad- Although habitat conversion is Data collected on the distribution and snouted caiman’s habitat in Argentina. currently impacting the species, suitable abundance of the species indicate that In some cases, habitat modification broad-snouted caiman appears to exist, the species’ range has expanded, and actually has positive effects on the and the species is expanding into new overall population numbers appear to be caiman (such as the creation of water sites, in part due to intense management increasing (Larriera and Imhof 2006). As impoundments, for example). of this species through Argentina’s of 2004, surveys indicate that the broad- Landowners commonly channelize caiman ranching programs. For snouted caiman population in Santa Fe wetlands to increase grazing land for example, as of 2004, surveys indicated Province, Argentina, increased 320 cattle; however, it is unclear whether that the broad-snouted caiman percent since the project began (Larriera this has an overall positive or negative population in Santa Fe Province and Imhof 2006). Observed wild effect on the species. The practice of increased 320 percent since the project population densities here increased drying swamps (potential caiman began (Larriera and Imhof 2006). from an average of 2 to 8 individuals per

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km in 1990, to 20 to 120 individuals per artificial ponds. The deforestation to the habitat is primarily being affected due to km in 2008–2009 (Larriera and Siroski north and east of Santa Cruz is primarily agriculture and pollution. Based on the 2010; p. 2). The distribution of the wild due to large-scale agro-industry, above factors, we find that the present population has also expanded into areas whereas the areas of deforestation or threatened destruction, modification, from which the species had formerly around Pando and Beni tend to be or curtailment of its habitat or range disappeared (Larriera et al. 2005). mainly a result of small-scale continues to be a factor affecting this However, the degradation and development and clearing. Large-scale species in Bolivia. destruction of this species’ habitat agriculture responds mainly to external In Brazil, agriculture, pollution, and continues to occur in Argentina. market demands (e.g., biofuels, hydroelectric dams have been indicated Therefore, based on the best available sugarcane, soy; principally from the to be significant factors affecting the information, we find that the population United States, Brazil, and Argentina), species (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 1). In in Argentina continues to be threatened while smaller farmers respond mainly to this country, vast areas have been by the destruction, modification, or the domestic market. drained for agricultural purposes. The curtailment of its habitat now and in the The government actively promotes the effects from agricultural activities future. development of infrastructure projects include destruction of nests and eggs by in the Bolivian lowlands, in particular machinery and loss of access to Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay DPS extensive road construction and traditional nesting or feeding sites) (Northern DPS) improvement (Byers et al. 2008 p. 22). leading to habitat loss or fragmentation. In Bolivia, the broad-snouted caiman Road projects in northwest Bolivia are Pollution has been a considerable is at the edge of its range. Broad-snouted being considered, including paving of problem in rivers that flow through caiman have been found in the Pando the ‘‘Northern Corridor,’’ which is part Brazil’s large cities. Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil’s Department in the Pilcomayo River area, of the Peru-Brazil-Bolivia hub of the largest city, is in the center of the a tributary of the Paraguay River, and in Initiative for Integration of Regional species’ range in Brazil. The species the Tarija department. Here, key threats, Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA, exists here in artificial reservoirs, particularly in broad-snouted caiman http://www.iirsa.org). ponds, marshes, and small wetlands. habitat, include loss, conversion, and Contamination of water bodies due to Construction of large hydroelectric degradation of forests and other natural sugar mills, which empty their waste dams (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19) to habitats and pollution of aquatic into the Rio Grande (Aparicio and Rios support Brazil’s human population has ecosystems (Byers et al. 2006, p. vi). 2008, p. 114), also occurs. Sugar mills been indicated to be one of the primary Particular to this species, both are commonly known to produce high threats to broad-snouted caiman. Most agriculture and pollution have been levels of air and solid waste pollutants of the natural wetlands of the Parana´ indicated to be significant threats. In as byproducts (U. S. Environmental and Sa˜o Francisco River systems in Bolivia, vast areas have been drained for Protection Agency [EPA] 1997, 26 pp). Brazil have been dammed for these agricultural purposes (also see the Waste water from sugar mills can hydroelectric stations. Construction of discussion under Factor E). rapidly deplete available oxygen in dams can have severe impacts on During the 1980s and early 1990s, water creating an inhospitable ecosystems (McCartney et al. 2001, p. deforestation in lowland Bolivia environment for aquatic life and for v). For example, a dam blocks the flow exceeded 1,500 km2 (579 mi2) per year species that depend on aquatic of sediment downstream. During (Steininger et al. 2001, pp. 856–866). environments. Researchers believe that construction of dams, disturbance to Currently, about 300,000 ha (741,316 ac) one population of broad-snouted caiman soils at the construction site is one of of forest is lost each year for a variety is probably not reproductively active the largest concerns. This leads to of reasons, including expansion of due to water pollution (Aparicio and downstream erosion and increased agriculture due both to large-scale Rios 2008, p. 115). In the Bermejo River sediment buildup in a reservoir. industrial agriculture and to small-scale sub-basin in Tarija, Bolivia, there was Because the construction of the Jupifi development and cultivation; large-scale an absence of nests and a low number and Ilha Solteira Dams in the 1970s infrastructure projects (roads, dams, of individuals recorded during nest caused the loss of a significant amount energy infrastructure); expanding coca counts. This particular area borders of floodplains of the Parana´ River, a production; forest fires; illegal logging; wetlands and estuaries in Argentina, survey was conducted prior to and climate change causing changes in where higher quality suitable habitat is construction of the Porto Primavera geographical and altitudinal distribution available for the species (OSDE 2005b, Dam (also known as the Engineer Se´rgio of species and ecosystems (Byers et al. p. 2) and is likely less polluted and Motta Dam). The Porto Primavera Dam 2006, p. vi). disturbed by humans. Because the is 28 km (17 mi) upstream from the Factors such as low land prices and Bermejo River sub-basin in Bolivia faces confluence of the Paranapanema and economic policies promoting an export threats due to sugarcane plantations and Parana´ Rivers. This dam created the economy have led to a rapid increase in contamination from sugar mill Porto Primavera Reservoir and was the growth of the private agricultural activities, it is not likely to sustain a filled in two stages: The first in sector (Pacheco 1998). Both large-scale healthy population of broad-snouted December 1998, and the second in and small-scale farmers contribute to caiman. March 2001. The purpose of the survey the expansion of the agriculture and Although natural resource managers in 1995 was to determine what species livestock frontier, and both thrive in the recognize the importance of wetlands would be affected by the construction. near absence of regulatory oversight and (Byers et al. 2008, p. 14), economic The survey was done in the Parana´ control (Byers et al. 2008, p. 22). In considerations usually outweigh River basin between Sa˜o Paulo and Bolivia, large tracts of land have been concerns regarding habitat loss and Mato Grosso do Sul states. The number cleared particularly for sugarcane destruction in Bolivia. The activities of caiman nests found during the survey plantations and soybean production described under this factor, such as indicated that at least 630 reproductive (Aide and Grau 2004, p. 1915; Pacheco agricultural production and expansion, females were present at that time. The 2004, pp. 205–225). The highest sugar mill activities, roads, and other presence of so many nests suggested a abundance values of this species were infrastructure development, affect large total population (Moura˜o and recorded in ‘‘atajados’’ (dikes) and broad-snouted caiman habitat. Its Campos 1995, pp. 27–29) in that area.

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After the study was completed, a www.ana.gov.br/gefsf, accessed March data and the health of the species recommendation was made to create a 9, 2011). overall in Brazil is lacking. The reserve to protect habitat downstream of Caiman habitat is still severely construction of hydroelectric dams and the dam; however, it is unclear whether degraded in Brazil. Broad-snouted associated habitat degradation such as a reserve was established as a result of caiman in the Sa˜o Francisco River basin pollution and environmental the dam being constructed. occur not only in preserved habitats but degradation is currently affecting broad- With the construction of Porto also in habitats altered by humans. This snouted caiman and its habitat. Primavera Dam, the last floodplains of attests to the species’ highly flexible Pollution is a severe problem; caiman the Parana´ River within the state of Sa˜o nature. Researchers even found broad- habitat overlaps Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil’s Paulo disappeared, and with them, the snouted caiman in sewage and largest city, and the polluted rivers that wild animals dependent on wetlands for urbanized areas, showing that the flow through Brazil’s large cities. survival also disappeared. Lakes, species is fairly resistant to human Although a plan was initiated in 2001 swamps, and seasonally flooded areas impacts and that habitat modification to address issues associated with the contribute to hydrological ecosystem has varied effects on the species’ construction of the dam in central processes by retaining water and distribution. The data indicated that caiman habitat, 10 years later, there is mitigating flooding. These wetlands and habitat modification may be a variable no evidence that caiman habitat has lakes are important ecosystem in determining the small size of these improved in Brazil, nor does it appear components and are particularly natural populations, rather than that caiman are a main concern of the important to the broad-snouted caiman. affecting the species’ distribution plan. There is very little current When altered, they no longer are pattern, at least in Brazil (Filogonio et information available regarding this capable of supporting their unique al. 2010, p. 964). A 2006–2007 survey species in Brazil. Based on the best assemblages of species and maintaining found that most of the surveyed sites available scientific and commercial important ecological processes and presented some degree of human impact information available, we find that the functions upon which the caiman relies. (Filogonio et al. 2010, p. 962). Habitat present or threatened destruction, Caiman use the Sa˜o Francisco River modification included: Conversion to modification, or curtailment of this main channel and its tributaries as pasture in 46 surveyed localities (72 species’ habitat is a factor affecting the dispersion routes; however, populations percent), roads (25 localities; 39 species. In Paraguay, no recent data are of individuals of all age and sizes occur percent), urbanization (23 localities; 36 percent) and monocultures (Filogonio et available specifically for this species. mainly in lakes, ponds, or swamps. al. 2010, p. 962). Of the areas surveyed, However, we do know that over the past Studies on the impact of the broad-snouted caiman was present 60 years, widespread and uncontrolled construction of large hydroelectric (positively identified as broad-snouted deforestation practices have continued stations and how they affect the density caiman rather than a different caiman throughout Paraguay, particularly in the and reproduction of broad-snouted species or unknown caiman species) in eastern region (World Land Trust 2009, caiman populations were conducted 39 localities surveyed (61 percent), and p. 1). In 1945, 8.8 million ha (21,745,273 using aerial surveys (Moura˜o and was widely distributed along the river ac) of forest covered this region, but Campos 1995, pp. 27–29). The surveys basin. Its presence was detected in all currently it is estimated that less than indicated major damage of the habitat lentic water body types, in the three 1.6 million ha (3,953,686 ac) remain due to these dams. An unusual finding biomes: Cerrado, Caatinga, and Atlantic (Huerta 2011, p. 1). Most of Paraguay’s with respect to caiman was that Forest (Filogonio et al. 2010, pp. 963– tropical moist forests are in the eastern researchers found that the destruction of 964). However, the researchers did not region of the country near the Parana´ floating vegetation is particularly attempt to estimate population size. River. This river is 4,880 km (3,032 mi) destructive. This is likely because They observed a number of populations in length and extends from the floating vegetation is used by caiman for with low numbers of individuals, which confluence of the Grande and Paranaı´ba nest construction. were scattered throughout the survey rivers in southern Brazil. It runs through In 2001, the government of Brazil sites. During 2006 and 2007 surveys, the Atlantic rainforest, also known as launched a plan for the Sa˜o Francisco researchers found the presence of Mata Atlaˆntica. The Atlantic Forest River basin in order to minimize human caiman species in only 17 stretches from northeast Brazil along the impacts and implement restoration municipalities in 64 locations along the Brazilian Atlantic coastline into efforts (Andrade 2002 in Filogonio et al. Sa˜o Francisco River basin in Brazil. Uruguay, inland into the northeast 2010, p. 962). This was a huge The density data found in Brazil were portion of Argentina and eastern undertaking involving federal and local similar to that found by Borteiro (2006, Paraguay, and partially overlaps the governments, nongovernmental 2008), who also found broad-snouted range of the broad-snouted caiman. organizations (NGOs), universities, and caiman widespread in Uruguay, Imhof (unpubl. 2006) estimated that 7 the public. An initial report was issued occurring in 29 of the 36 localities percent of the species’ range is in in 2005 that indicated that progress had surveyed (81 percent of the sampled Paraguay. Within Paraguay, the Atlantic been made in terms of identifying these areas). Caiman in Brazil were observed Forest has been under increasing four issues to be addressed: (1) River in lotic (actively moving water) habitats, pressure from development. In basin and coastal zone environmental and considering that river channels are Paraguay, the Atlantic Forest is reduced analysis; (2) public and stakeholder important routes to crocodilian to one large tract, San Rafael, and participation; (3) organizational dispersal, it is logical to predict not only increasingly numerous scattered and structure development; and (4) physical movement of Caiman fragmented small patches. More than watershed management program latirostris throughout its range, but also half of the original area of the Atlantic formulation. As of 2005, the studies and genetic flux within the river basin. The rainforests had been degraded by the projects had all been completed distribution pattern in Brazil indicates turn of the last century, and more (http://www.oas.org/osde, accessed that the populations within the river recently only one percent was found to March 9, 2011). However, the basin are not fragmented, but seem to be still in its original state (Wilson 1988, implementation process was still exist in low numbers. Despite this data, in Rivas et al. 1999, chapter 5). underway as of 2011 (http:// information regarding population trend Conservative estimates have placed the

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remaining forest cover in Paraguay at 60 percent of Uruguay’s land (Food and manmade habitats by caiman in order to approximately 6 percent of its original Agriculture Organization of the United apply this knowledge to caiman cover (IUCN 1988a). Factors affecting Nations [FAO], p. 4). Other agricultural conservation and management this remaining forest cover include activities, such as fodder for cattle and strategies. Given the lack of evidence fragmentation and acceleration of large- crops such as rice, consist of that indicates that Uruguay’s population scale agriculture and ranching projects, approximately 20 percent. Secondary, of broad-snouted caiman has either commercial logging, and the related effects related to agriculture are increased or has stabilized since its construction of hydroelectric dams such habitat degradation and pollution due to inclusion under the ESA, we find that as the Itaipu hydroelectric dam on the pesticide use, erosion, and altered the present or threatened destruction, borders of Paraguay and Brazil (Rivas et ecosystems. Surveys conducted in the modification, or curtailment of its al. 1999, ch. 5). early 2000s indicate that caiman exist in habitat or range continues to be a factor Habitat destruction has increased manmade habitats in northwestern affecting the species in Uruguay. throughout the species’ range in Uruguay. However, the current amount Paraguay, and is believed to be one of Summary of Factor A for Bolivia, Brazil, of suitable habitat for this species in Paraguay and Uruguay (Northern DPS) the greatest factors affecting its survival Uruguay is unknown. Researchers in Paraguay (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). suggest that the apparent increase in In most of the range of this species, Approximately 98 percent of Paraguay’s this species’ population (discussed by the habitat threats are very similar; population lives in Paraguay’s eastern Borteiro et al.) may be due to the however, a country’s management region, with a population density of construction of agriculture actions (refer to discussion under Factor 18.6 per km2, compared with 0.2 per impoundments, which provide habitat D) may affect the status of the species. km2 in the western (Chaco) region. A for broad-snouted caiman (Borteiro et al. In Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and contributing factor is that in the eastern 2008, p. 248). In the area surveyed to Uruguay, although these countries are region, the soil is more suitable for determine caiman presence and making progress with conservation laws cultivating crops; therefore, cattle abundance, impoundments were being with respect to habitat modification and production, forestry products, and used mainly for irrigation of rice (69 destruction (see Factor D discussion), agricultural crops are widespread in the percent) and sugar cane crops (31 habitat loss continues to occur. range of this species in Paraguay. percent) in the N˜ aquin˜ a´ stream basin. In Increasing human populations, Paraguay’s main agricultural exports are the Lenguazo stream basin, 80 percent development of hydroelectric projects, and draining of wetlands have caused soybeans and cotton (Harcourt and was used for irrigation of sugar cane and habitat degradation. Conversion of Sayer 1996; USDA FAS 2010, p. 2). 20 percent was used for other food broad-snouted caiman habitat to Although overharvest of caiman for crops. commercial purposes was the primary agricultural plantations commonly reason for this species being listed Two other factors that likely affect occurs in these countries, and there is under the ESA, rather than habitat caiman habitat here are drought and no evidence that there are adequate destruction or modification, factors hydroelectric dams (United Nations management plans for this species in affecting the species have changed. Environment Programme [UNEP] 2004, place in these countries. Although the Now, the largest threat appears to be pp. 78–85; Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248; species is widespread, we have no habitat destruction or modification due Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20). Uruguay has information to indicate that the status of to agriculture and development of urban experienced severe drought in the past the species has changed in these four infrastructure, which still occur to a few years (IPS NEWS 2011), which has countries, and there is little to no large extent in Paraguay, particularly had a significant effect on agriculture population trend information available within the range of broad-snouted and cattle production, and this likely in these countries. Based on a review of caiman. Paraguay implemented a Zero also affects caiman habitat. The the best available information, we find Deforestation Law as of 2004; however construction and existence of the destruction, modification, or prior to that law, its rate of deforestation hydroelectric dams to generate curtailment of its habitat or range in was the second highest in the world electricity may be an additional factor these four countries is a continued (WWF 2006, p. 1). Despite the affecting the broad-snouted caiman threat to the species. (UNEP 2004, pp. 78–85). Uruguay is enactment of this law, the best available Factor B. Overutilization for information indicates that this habitat highly dependent on hydroelectricity, and these hydroelectric dams are within Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or destruction and modification still Educational Purposes significantly affect this species. We have broad-snouted caiman habitat. Although no indication that conditions have we know these activities occur within The overharvest for commercial improved in Paraguay since this species the range of the broad-snouted caiman purposes was the primary reason for the was listed under the ESA; rather, habitat in Uruguay, there is very little broad-snouted caiman’s inclusion in loss has increased. Therefore, we find information regarding the status of the Appendix I of CITES and subsequent that the present and threatened species in Uruguay. We have no listing under the ESA. The species destruction, modification, or evidence that there has been any change suffered due to effects of unregulated curtailment of its habitat in Paraguay to the status of the species in Uruguay. exploitation between 1930 and 1980. continues to be a factor affecting broad- We do not know population trends of Protections were put in place because snouted caiman. this species in Uruguay, and agricultural the species had suffered substantial In Uruguay, very little information activities, drought, and hydroelectric population declines throughout its has been collected about how habitat dams affect this species’ habitat. There range due to overexploitation through degradation affects the broad-snouted is no information to indicate that habitat the commercial crocodilian skin trade. caiman. Based on available information, modification or destruction has Under this factor, we examine how current factors affecting the species’ decreased such that the population overutilization within each country has habitat in Uruguay are likely due to trend is stable or increasing. Researchers changed since the species was listed agriculture and cattle ranching, which here recommend surveys of broad- under the ESA, and then we discuss this occur within this species’ range. Cattle snouted caiman at a larger scale in factor with respect to international trade and sheep farming in Uruguay occur in northern Uruguay to assess the usage of and its regulation through CITES.

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Argentine DPS showed an increase in the number of survivability because the larger the In Argentina, illegal hunting was eggs collected since the program began. caiman is, the greater likelihood it has widespread through the late 1980s, but This indicates an upward trend in of long-term survival in the wild decreased in the early 1990s (Micucci population numbers. (Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124). and Waller 1995, pp. 81–108) due to the Ranching Programs in Argentina High mortality can occur during the proliferation of caiman ranching On cattle ranches in Argentina, first few weeks of incubation in the programs and the enforcement of landowners commonly channelize the wild; one study found that highest national and provincial regulations (see wetlands to increase grazing land for embryo mortality of eggs Factor D discussion). Between the 1940s cattle. Although such conversion of occurred between days 7 and 16 of and early 1990s, reports indicate that wetlands for cattle grazing may result in incubation (Joanen and McNease 1987 more than 700,000 caiman skins were suitable habitat being available for in Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124). In the produced from Corrientes Province in caiman because it creates water caiman ranching programs in Argentina, Argentina (estimated in Micucci and impoundments, most habitat preferred the practice is to remove all eggs from Waller (1995) in Pin˜ a et al. 2010, p. 4). by the caiman (swamps with heavy all the nests in collection areas that are Some of these skins were illegally vegetation) is considered unproductive accessible and not flooded, burned, obtained; however, since 1998, there has agricultural land. In the past, the depredated, or necessary for survival been no report of illegal hunting swampy areas had been drained for studies (Larriera 1995). Between the (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 143). Since the conversion to agricultural lands. months of December and January, eggs species was listed both under CITES However, by placing an economic value are collected soon after laying. Caiman and the ESA, a significant change in on preserving caiman habitat through managers pay cattle ranch employees for public perception and awareness compensation from the ranching each located nest, and each nest is regarding this species has occurred. program, habitat destruction can be assigned a number. The nests are Now, the species is managed reduced. Additionally, by providing marked so that young hatched and sustainably in Argentina (Jelden 2010, monetary compensation to ranch reared in captivity can be returned to pers. comm.; Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19; employees for each nest they locate, the same area. Each ranching program Woodward 2010, p. 3). Local people there is incentive for ranch owners and maintains records of how many eggs are participate in caiman ranching programs employees to protect the wetlands and collected, how many are reared, and in which they locate nests and harvest caiman nesting areas (Larriera 2011, p. how many individuals are later released eggs from these nests (Larriera et al. 90). As of 2006, there had been a 30 back into the wild (Larriera et al 2008, 2008; Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19) and percent increase in the caiman nesting pp. 158, 164). take them to captive-rearing facilities. areas on cattle ranches where caiman The harvest is monitored and Artificial incubation has been egg harvest occurs (Larriera et al. 2006). demonstrated to not only enhance hatch documented by the government- For example, the caiman nesting area of registered ranching programs. These success but also early development of the Lucero Ranch (Estancia) in Santa Fe hatchlings (Joanen and McNease 1987 in individuals, primarily cattle-ranchers, Province was 830 ha (2,051 ac) in 1990, are financially compensated for the Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124; Ferguson and increased to 1,060 ha (2,619 ac) in 1985). For example, small temperature eggs. The communities within the range 2004. Larriera suggests that one reason of the broad-snouted caiman have an variances can be used to accelerate the for the increased population density growth of hatchlings. Animals reared at understanding of the caiman ranching may be due to a decline in the practice ° program, and they no longer illegally a slightly higher temperature (22.4 C; of burning and drying wetlands for 72.3 °F) grow faster than those hunt these animals because individuals economic reasons, in addition to the maintained at a lower temperature (18.2 earn an income from harvesting eggs. dispersion of female broad-snouted °C; 65 °F) (Pin˜ a and Larriera 2002, pp. This is due in part to a long-standing caiman into new habitat due to the 387–391). For broad-snouted caiman, public awareness program and caiman ranching program. ° ° significant community involvement in In the wild, as many as 60 to 70 eggs incubated at 29 or 31 C (84–88 F) produced 100 percent females, while at protecting this species (Larriera et al. percent of the eggs do not hatch (Smith ° ° 2008, p. 145). and Webb 1985; Woodward et al. 1989, 33 C (91 F) 100 percent males were The Government of Argentina has had p. 124). Estimated survival of hatchlings produced. a long history of research and active in the wild has been as low as 10 to 20 Young are marked by removing management of its population of the percent, depending on environmental selected caudal scutes corresponding to broad-snouted caiman, particularly conditions (e.g., frost and predation can hatch year and nest origin. Hatchlings since 1990. Currently, there are seven alter survival (Aparicio and Rios 2008, are raised for 9 months in concrete ranching programs registered with the p. 109); see discussion under Factor C pools until November, when some are federal government in Argentina. Three below). In order to increase survival rate removed for reintroduction to the of them function as educational of American alligators, the practice of original nest site. The decision on how programs, with no commercial egg collection has been implemented to many young will be retained in exploitation. The noncommercial preclude embryo mortality due to captivity for commercial production; as ranching operations are in Entre Rı´os, factors such as depredation, flooding, well as how many will be reintroduced Chaco, and Corrientes Provinces. There and desiccation (Woodward et al. 1989, to the wild depends on the status of the are four commercial ranching programs: p. 124). In the Argentina ranching wild population in the area from which two in Formosa Province, one in program, to increase survivability, the eggs were harvested. Argentina Corrientes Province, and one in Santa young caiman are reintroduced to their provides reports to the CITES Fe Province. The ranching programs in former nesting site after they have Secretariat in accordance with CITES Formosa, Corrientes, and Chaco are for passed critical life stages in which they Resolution Conf. 11.16 (See Larriera et both the broad-snouted caiman and are more susceptible to factors such as al 2010; Larriera et al 2008a). If there is yacare caiman. The programs in Entre predation and nest flooding (Larriera a high population density in the wild, Rı´os and Santa Fe are for only broad- 2003). Removal and incubation of eggs more young are retained and raised for snouted caiman. Each ranching program taken from the wild increases hatchling commercial purposes.

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Chaco Province company called Caimanes de Formosa period is around 70 days (Larriera and ´ El Cachape´ Wildlife Refuge (Refugio S.R.L. and the Direccion de Fauna y Imhof 2000). As of 2004, monitoring the wild de Vida Silvestre El Cachape´) is a Parques de Formosa (Directorate of population in the collection areas conservation and sustainable-use project Wildlife and Parks of Formosa) under indicated that the broad-snouted caiman developed through an agreement the Ministry of Production (Jenkins et al. 2006). The first egg collection in population in Santa Fe increased 320 between a private landowner and Formosa Province was in 2002. The percent since the project began (Larriera Fundacio´n Vida Silvestre Argentina in Formosa program collected 13,050 eggs and Imhof 2006). Observed wild Chaco Province. The project was between 2002 and 2004, and released population densities increased from an established in 1996, for the ranching of 1,265 young (Larriera and Imhof 2006). average of 2 to 8 individuals per km in both yacare and broad-snouted caiman Surveys of the combined yacare caiman 1990, to 20 to 120 individuals per km (Cossu et al. 2007, p. 330), and it also and broad-snouted caiman populations in 2008–2009 (Larriera and Siroski conducts ecotourism activities. El in Formosa have indicated that the wild 2010, p. 2). This program has resulted Cachape´ is in the center of the harvest population densities have increased in increased numbers of broad-snouted area, and encompasses 1,760 hectares from a range of 2.3 to 66 individuals per caiman in the wild in areas surveyed (ha) (4,349 acres (ac)). Between 1998 km in 2002 (Siroski 2003; Siroski and and in an expansion of nesting areas and 2004, the Chaco program collected Pin˜ a 2006), to 22 to 238 individuals per (Larriera and Imhof 2000, 2006; Larriera 4,867 eggs and released 1,236 yearlings km in 2008 (Pin˜ a et al. 2008). et al. 2006). The distribution of the wild (Larriera and Imhof 2006) within the population has expanded into areas Chaco Province. A population survey Santa Fe Province from which the species had formerly conducted over 60,000 ha (148,263 ac) The Santa Fe program (in the disappeared (Larriera et al. 2005). of the harvest area in Chaco Province southernmost part of the species’ range indicates that there was an average in Argentina) is the largest of the International Trade and Regulation density of 4.0 individuals of Caiman approved programs; this province has Under CITES latirostris per km during the 1999–2000 the largest population of broad-snouted CITES provides varying degrees of study period (Prado 2005), but we are caiman in the wild in Argentina. protection to more than 32,000 species unaware of any additional data Proyecto Yacare´, in the province of of animals and plants that are traded as collected since that time. This Santa Fe, Argentina, was established in whole specimens, parts, or products. conservation ranching program is 1990, with an agreement between the CITES regulates the import, export, and working towards increasing population Ministry of Agriculture of the Province reexport of specimens, parts, and numbers of this species in the Chaco of Santa Fe and a nongovernmental products of CITES-listed plant and Province (Verdade 2010, pp. 18–22). organization called Mutual del Personal animal species (also see discussion under Factor D). Trade is managed Corrientes Province Civil de la Nacio´n (Benefit of Civil Personnel of the Nation) to improve the through a system of permits and An experimental program in conservation status of the broad-snouted certificates that are issued by the Corrientes Province was established in caiman and its wetland ecosystem designated CITES Management and 2004, based on an agreement between a (Larriera and Imhof 2000). The northern Scientific Authorities of each CITES company called Yacare´ Pora´ S.A. and part of the Province of Santa Fe contains Party (http://www.cites.org). In the the Direccio´n Provincial de Recursos 80 percent of the wild broad-snouted United States, the Scientific and Naturales (Provincial Directorate of caiman population in Argentina. Early Management Authorities reside in the Natural Resources, Corrientes Province). on, the Caiman Specialist Group (CSG) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The experimental program initially identified ranching programs in Under CITES, a species is listed in included population surveys to Argentina as a high priority for species one of three appendices; listing in each determine the feasibility and biological conservation (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). Appendix has a corresponding level of sustainability of a commercial ranching It described the program in Santa Fe protection relative to the regulation of program and a small-scale collection of Province as a model for other Argentine trade through different permit eggs (Jenkins et al. 2006, p. 27; Micucci provinces where habitat still remains requirements (CITES 2007). Appendix II and Waller 2005). The numbers of and the wild population is large. In allows for commercial trade and broad-snouted caiman nests in three 1999, the management for sustainable includes species requiring regulation of study areas were surveyed. In nesting use of broad-snouted caiman reached a international trade in order to ensure seasons 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, one commercial scale (Verdade 1998, pp. that trade of the species is compatible area maintained its number of nests and 18–19). with the species’ survival. At times a the other two areas showed increases Between 1990 and 2004, the Santa Fe species may be listed as endangered resulting in a total of 165 nests observed program harvested 1,410 of 1,945 under the ESA, and concurrently listed in the first season; and 265 nests identified nests and produced 35,197 under Appendix II of CITES, rather than observed in the second season (Larriera hatchlings from 47,948 eggs (Larriera the more restrictive Appendix I, which et al. 2008). The first egg collection was and Imhof 2006). Of the hatchlings that does not allow trade of wild specimens conducted in 2005 (Jenkins et al. 2006, survived, 15,120 yearlings were for primarily commercial purposes. p. 27). In late 2010, 500 hatchlings were returned to the wild and 14,046 were Although CITES Appendix II allows for released. As of 2010, there were 4,736 retained for commercial use (Larriera commercial trade, in order for hatchlings and 12,793 individuals over and Imhof 2006). The number of nests specimens of this species to be traded one year in age in captivity (Larriera found in the collection area increased internationally, a determination must be 2010, p. 1). from 14 (1990–1991) to 439 (2003– made by the Management and Scientific 2004), resulting in an increase from 372 Authorities of the country of export that Formosa Province to 12,031 eggs collected per year during the specimens were legally obtained; the The program in Formosa Province (in the same time period (Larriera and living specimen will be prepared and the most northern part of the species’ Imhof 2006). Mean clutch size in Santa shipped as to minimize the risk of range in Argentina) was established in Fe Province has been reported to be 35 injury, damage to health or cruel 2001, based on an agreement between a eggs per nest, and the natural incubation treatment, and the export will not be

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detrimental to the survival of the caiman that hatched in captivity and produced (p. 27). The current species in the wild. CITES Appendix I were released near their former nesting population survey methods used in includes species that are threatened site have successfully matured and Argentina are not entirely reliable as a with extinction and which are or may be reproduced in the wild (Larriera et al. tool for establishing direct relationships affected by trade. Appendix I has a 2006). For example, during the summers with populations in the wild, but they further restriction that a CITES import of 2001 and 2002, seven females provide a general idea of the increase in permit must be issued by the importing released as part of Proyecto Yacare´ were caiman numbers. Micucci points out country after making findings that the recaptured while attending their nests. that the information provided directly specimen will not be used for primarily The females were between 9 and 10 by nest counts and night surveys is commercial purposes, that the import years old at the time of capture. Their more reliable and direct than egg will be for purposes which are not clutch sizes and hatching success were harvest counts, at least in environments detrimental to the survival of the similar to those of wild females of with large fluctuations in water mass, species, and that the proposed recipient unknown age also captured during the which is the case of this species, of living specimen is suitably equipped season. This indicates that released particularly in Argentina (2010 pers. to house and care for it. ranched yearlings can survive and comm.). Although there is not accurate The World Conservation Monitoring reproduce at least as successfully as population trend data for this species in Centre (WCMC) at UNEP manages a their wild counterparts, and have a the wild (Micucci 2010 pers. comm.), CITES Trade Database on behalf of the greater rate of survival. we consider the egg harvest data to be CITES Secretariat. Each Party to CITES Research also indicates that this the best available information and data is responsible for compiling and practice of releasing a percentage of collected indicate an upward trend in submitting annual reports to the CITES captive-hatched juveniles is a valuable population numbers for this species. Secretariat regarding their country’s management tool for crocodilian A secondary concern in the international trade in species protected species. Mortality of eggs and hatchlings management of this species in Argentina under CITES. The trade database in the wild can exceed 95 percent is there may be inadequate oversight by (http://www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade) (Hutton 1984 in Larriera et al. 2008, p. provincial governments when extracting indicates that between 2000 and 2009, 154). Releasing them into the wild at an eggs from nests and tracking the origin 11,837 broad-snouted caiman parts and age of 8 to 10 months, rather than at of these eggs (this also applies to Factor products (primarily leather and skins), hatching, has been shown to enhance D, the Inadequacy of Regulatory plus an additional 1,210 kilograms their chances of survival (Elsey et al. Mechanisms). Additionally, the level of (2,662 pounds) of such parts and 1992, p. 671). Survivorship in juvenile independent or outside evaluation of products were exported. The vast alligators has been shown to be a the ranching programs in Argentina is majority of exports were from function of size, with survivorship unclear and there may be a lack of Argentina, and the database did not increasing as size increases (Woodward transparency in monitoring. This may indicate any trends in the trade data to et al. 1989, p. 124). be indicative of a need for stronger cause concern. There were very few Egg collection and density surveys involvement by the provincial and exports from the other range countries indicate that wild populations in the federal governments, or the need for a during the period reviewed. collection areas are increasing (Larriera stronger legal framework at the With this final reclassification rule et al. 2010). Despite the fact that all provincial level to regulate or monitor and accompanying 4(d) rule, the DPS of accessible nests are harvested in the these activities. However, despite these broad-snouted caiman in Argentina will collection areas the Santa Fe program concerns, the reports on the broad- be listed as threatened, and commercial has resulted in higher population snouted caiman conservation program exports of broad-snouted caiman densities of broad-snouted caiman in in Argentina do indicate that the products from Argentina to the United the wild. Increased reproduction in population is increasing, and the States will be allowed without an ESA released animals, a greater number of program is being actively monitored by permit, provided that certain conditions nests located and harvested, and the the government of Argentina. are met. We do not believe this potential observation of broad-snouted caiman in The species is not overutilized in increase in international trade is likely areas where they had been extirpated Argentina, and overutilization is to threaten or endanger wild broad- (Larriera and Imhof 2006; Larriera et al. unlikely to be a factor affecting the snouted caiman based on Argentina’s 2008, pp. 143–172) have also been population in the future. Annual management and monitoring of the observed. What may be most important reporting under CITES may alert us to caiman ranching program. However, the to the survival of the broad-snouted any overutilization in Argentina. DPS of broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, caiman, however, is that nesting areas However, based on a review of the best Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay will are now protected by local inhabitants available information, and in the continue to be listed as endangered who have an economic interest in absence of conflicting information, we under the ESA, and the species’ parts maintaining the wild populations. Due find no evidence that overutilization for and products from these range countries to public awareness programs and commercial, recreational, scientific, or will still be regulated under CITES monetary incentives for locals who educational purposes is a threat to the Appendix I. collect eggs, there has been no report of broad-snouted caiman throughout its illegal harvest since 1998. range in Argentina. Summary of Factor B for Argentine DPS Ranching program reports indicate In Argentina, the legal harvest does increased population numbers in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay not appear to have negative impacts on Argentina of this species based on nest (Northern DPS) the species based on reported harvest, counts and egg harvest reports (Jenkins One of the primary threats to the nest counts, and egg harvest trends et al. 2006, pp. 26–27). For example, in species before it was listed in CITES (Larriera et al. 2010, pp. 1–2; Larriera the 1991 season in Santa Fe, 10 nests Appendix I in 1975 was uncontrolled and Siroski 2010, pp. 1–5). We believe were harvested, 14 nests were located, international trade. International trade that adequate protections are in place and 237 hatchlings were produced. In primarily for commercial purposes is under Federal and provincial law and 2003, 228 nests were located, 304 were restricted from Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, regulations in Argentina. Broad-snouted identified, and 5,638 hatchlings were and Uruguay due to the species’

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Appendix I status under CITES. The In Uruguay, broad-snouted caiman up to 50 percent of entire clutches in UNEP–WCMC trade database did not was never legally hunted for forest nests and 80 percent of clutches indicate any unusual trends in the commercial purposes (Verdade 1998, along levees and dykes can be species’ trade with respect to these pp. 18–19), although illegal hunting has consumed by predators (Larriera and countries. been observed (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. Imhof 2006). Predators of eggs and Beginning in the 1940s, the broad- 97). Uruguay’s standard of living, hatchlings include (Ardea cocoi), snouted caiman was hunted literacy rate, and large urban middle (Ciconia ciconia), crested commercially for international trade in class are reported to be quite high caracaras (Caracara plancus), iguanas its leather, which is commonly reported compared with other countries within (Tupinambis merianae), and to be of higher quality than that of other this species’ range (http:// carnivorous mammals such as the South caiman species (Brazaitis 1987 in www.state.gov, accessed March 14, American gray fox (Pseudalopex Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 1–2). However, 2011), which may account for the lack griseus) (Larriera and Imhof 2006). since the time the species has been of commercial hunting in this country. Other research found that no more than protected by CITES and the ESA, this is There is no indication that this species 10 percent of the hatchlings typically no longer a factor affecting the species is overutilized in Uruguay. survive to adulthood (Larriera and in these countries (see WWW.UNEP– Imhof 2006). This level of mortality Summary of Factor B for the Bolivia, WCMC CITES trade database at http:// from predation is considered normal in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade). caiman populations. (Northern DPS) In Bolivia, caiman is used for its fat, In Argentina, methods are taken to meat, and leather products (Aparicio Domestic use of the broad-snouted minimize the effects of predation. To and Rios 2008, p. 112). It is also killed caiman occurs within the Northern DPS decrease the death rate due to predation, due to fear by humans. In the Chaco still occurs, but levels remain low. Any ranched young are returned to the wild province of Bolivia, there were reports incidence of hunting or harvest that may only after they are past the critical first of the species attacking and killing pigs occur does not significantly affect the year during which the risk of predation and other small cattle (Pacheco in species. Based on a review of the best is greatest (Larriera and Imhof 2006). Embert 2007, p. 55), but these available information, and in the Even when nests are depredated, incidences do not seem to occur absence of conflicting new information, females can rebuild these nests (Larriera frequently. No other recent data are we find that overutilization for and Pin˜ a 2000). Clutch sizes can be as available in Bolivia for this species. commercial, recreational, scientific, or high as 129 eggs in a good year (Larriera In Brazil and Uruguay, small amounts educational purposes is no longer a 2002, p. 202). Although disease and of illegal harvest are reported to still threat to the broad-snouted caiman in predation are sources of mortality, it is occur in some areas (Verdade et al. Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. not a limiting factor for population 2010, p. 19) (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. growth, caiman populations are 102). In northeastern Brazil, illegal Factor C. Disease or Predation continuing to increase in Argentina. hunting still supplies local markets for Argentina meat in small cities along the Sa˜o Summary of Factor C for the Argentine Francisco River basin. The meat is sold There is little information on diseases DPS as salted carcasses like codfish, and is that affect wild broad-snouted caiman Disease and predation normally occur actually called ‘‘Sa˜o Francisco codfish’’ (Jacobson 2007; Huchzermeyer 2003). In in populations, and the best available (Verdade 2001a). Hunting for meat also 1999, the Field Veterinary Program of scientific and commercial information occurs in some parts of Uruguay the Wildlife Conservation Society and does not indicate that either of these (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 104). However, Fundacio´n Vida Silvestre Argentina factors negatively affects the broad- species experts concluded that illegal studied the health of caiman snouted caiman in Argentina such that hunting is no longer a major factor populations in the wild and in captivity they rise to the level of threats to the affecting the species due to improved at the El Cachape´ ranching operation in species. Neither disease nor predation is protection, costs and consequences of Chaco Province, Argentina. There was a illegal hunting, and the availability of very low incidence of pathogens and no a significant factor affecting this species. legal skins (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). evidence of infectious disease found. Therefore, we do not find that disease Historically, caiman was commonly Health conditions of ranched and wild or predation threatens this distinct hunted for its meat. Many fishermen animals continue to be monitored in population segment of the broad- also killed caiman because caiman fed Argentina (Uhart and Moreno 2000; snouted caiman, now or in the future. on the fish in their fishing nets, and Uhart et al. 2000). Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay caiman would destroy their nets There is naturally a high level of (Northern DPS) (Filogonio et al. 2010, p. 964). Thus, predation on eggs and hatchlings. In the In the range countries of Bolivia, current levels of hunting pressure may wild, an average of 60 to 70 percent of Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, there is have only localized impacts. the eggs do not hatch, usually due to In Paraguay, in the past, the broad- nest flooding or predation (Larriera no indication that disease and predation snouted caiman may have been subject 2003; Hutton 1984). One study found are affecting the broad-snouted caiman to greater hunting pressure than Caiman that the rate of depredation in a low such that this factor threatens the yacare because the quality of its skin is rainfall season was significantly higher species. Therefore, we do not find that considered better quality (Scott et al. than normal seasons resulting in over disease or predation threatens this 1990, pp. 45–46). Hunting was almost half of the nests being depredated in population segment of the broad- uncontrolled through 1990, and some some areas (Larriera and Pin˜ a 2000). snouted caiman. caiman populations almost disappeared. During dry seasons, high predation may Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing However, small residual populations occur due to easier access to nests, and Regulatory Mechanisms were increasing in size when last the increased distance between the nest surveyed in places where they and their and the water. This may also be in part Argentine DPS habitat were protected (Scott et al. 1990, due to less maternal attention when the The broad-snouted caiman was listed pp. 45–46). mother is in the water. At such times, in Appendix I of CITES on July 1, 1975.

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This listing (also refer to the Factor B requirements has decreased the Ranching operations and harvests of discussion) requires strict regulation of potential for substitution of illegal skins, wildlife that are not transported across international movement of this species, which has reduced trade enforcement provincial boundaries or exported are which may only be authorized in problems involving the similarity of controlled through regulation at the ‘‘exceptional circumstances,’’ and appearance of skins and products provincial level (Larriera and Imhof international trade for primarily among different species of crocodilians. 2006). commercial purposes is prohibited. In According to CITES Resolution Conf. National Legislation To Implement 1990, ‘‘Projecto Yacare´’’ was 11.16 (Rev. CoP15), for trade in ranched CITES implemented in Argentina based on a specimens of species transferred from concept of conservation through Appendix I to Appendix II to occur, a Information available to the Service sustainable use of broad-snouted ranching program must: indicates that Argentina has protected- caiman. The objective of the program (1) Demonstrate that the program is species and protected-areas legislation was to improve the status of the beneficial to the conservation of the under the jurisdiction of specific population by creating incentives for local population; ministries or departments that control landowners and by increasing public (2) Identify and document all activities that impact the broad-snouted awareness in the local communities to products to ensure that they can be caiman and its habitat. The federal legal encourage the increase of caiman readily distinguished from products of framework within the Government of populations. Another objective was to Appendix-I populations; Argentina is particularly robust. The conserve natural wetlands on which (3) Maintain appropriate inventories CITES National Legislation Project caimans depend (Larriera et al. 2008a, and harvest-level controls and (http://www.cites.org, SC59 Document pp. 143–145). This program also mechanisms in the program to monitor 11, Annex p. 1) deemed that the reintroduces captive-raised individuals wild populations; and Government of Argentina has national to the wild. Since the government of (4) Establish sufficient safeguards in legislation that is considered Category 1, Argentina began the management and the program to ensure that adequate which means they meet all the monitoring of the Argentine population numbers of animals are returned to the requirements to implement CITES. With of broad-snouted caiman, population wild if necessary and where respect to CITES, based on the trade monitoring for Argentina has indicated appropriate. data (see Factor B discussion) and other an upward trend. Through this program, At the national level, Argentine Law data and information available to the a significant increase in egg collection 22.421 prohibits all use of fauna that is Service, Argentina appears to be and harvest has occurred in the wild; not specifically authorized (Micucci and adequately enforcing international trade over 30,000 hatchlings from eggs Waller 1995). In 2000, when the through its legal framework. experimental operations began collected have been released into the Summary of Factor D for Argentine DPS wild since the program began. commercial production of broad- On September 18, 1997, at the 10th snouted caiman, Resolution 283/00 was Monitoring indicates that meeting of the Conference of the Parties enacted by the Government of Argentina management efforts within Argentina (‘‘CoP10’’), the Argentine population of under Law 22.421. This law approves are working. The broad-snouted caiman broad-snouted caiman was transferred the inter-province transit and export of population in Argentina, based on to Appendix II based on a proposal from caiman products from ranching reports provided to the Service and the Argentina. The proposal described the operations that comply with CITES CITES Secretariat, that are cited above, increased population status of the Resolution 11.16, but trade in appears to be increasing. Some habitat species in Argentina and a ranching specimens from any other sources (i.e., loss and degradation remain in program that had contributed to its not from registered ranching operations) Argentina; however, these threats have population increase (CoP10 Doc. 10.86, is illegal. Resolution 283/00 also been reduced based on intensive CoP10 Prop. 10.1, Government of establishes minimum requirements for management efforts of this species. Argentina 1997). Appendix II allows for ranching operations. One of the While we do not have complete regulated commercial trade as long as requirements is that there must be a population survey information in the exporting country finds that the baseline population study covering at Argentina, all indications suggest that specimens were legally acquired and least 40 percent of the province in the wild population is well managed that the activity is not detrimental to the which the operation is located. The and is increasing. Wildlife such as the survival of the species. A Resolution on study must be conducted for at least 2 caiman can be advantageously used in a universal tagging system for the years (Larriera and Imhof 2006). The commerce if management is sufficient to identification of crocodile skins was study results must be approved by the maintain suitable habitats and if harvest adopted by the Parties at CoP9, held in province and then submitted to the is at a level that allows maintenance of 1994. Exported skins must be tagged national authorities (Direccio´n de Fauna healthy and sustainable populations. according to the CITES Resolution on a y Flora Silvestres [Directorate of Wild Broad-snouted caiman, under such universal tagging system (Resolution Fauna and Flora]) for final approval. conditions, can provide revenue to pay Conf. 11.12 (Rev. CoP15)). The Registro Nacional de Criaderos for its own management and stimulate At CoP10 (1997, Harare, Zimbabwe), (National Registry of Breeding Centers, local economies. Therefore, we find the CITES Secretariat reported that, to Resolution 26/92) lists registered that, although the strong management of its knowledge, all range countries were ranching operations. In provinces with the species through local programs effectively implementing the Universal nationally approved ranching programs, promoting egg harvest and hatchling Tagging System Resolution. Caiman the provincial government must release has reduced threats to this yacare skins and products originating in conduct an annual evaluation of the species and its habitat, threats (see Argentina have been imported into the population status of the species in their Factor A discussion) do still exist. With United States with the appropriate province and submit it to the Direccio´n respect to international trade of broad- CITES tags. This species was downlisted de Fauna y Flora Silvestres. According snouted caiman parts and products, we under the ESA in 2000 to threatened to Larriera (pers. comm. 2006), all the find that CITES is an adequate status (65 FR 25867, May 4, 2000). surveys are conducted under the regulatory mechanism throughout its Adherence to the CITES tagging supervision of members of the CSG. range. We will continue to monitor the

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status of the species in Argentina; for economic growth and resource ameliorate the current threats to this however, based on the best available protection. In the past, the Brazilian species in Brazil. information, we find that this factor is government, through various In Paraguay, the environmental not a threat to the species in Argentina. regulations, policies, incentives, and situation has improved; Paraguay has subsidies, had actively encouraged completed many of its governmental Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay reform objectives (USAID 2004, p. 4). (Northern DPS) development of previously undeveloped lands in southeastern Brazil, which However, there are still concerns; land Bolivia’s current environmental helped facilitate the large-scale habitat is still being converted to soybean legislative framework represents a conversions that had occurred plantations and land ownership is still significant improvement since the 1992 throughout the Atlantic Forest (Butler a concern in Paraguay (USAID 2004, pp. World Summit on Sustainable 2007, p. 3; Conservation International 3, 8). Paraguay’s objectives are to Development in Rio de Janeiro, which 2007c, p. 1; Pivello 2007, p. 2; Ratter et achieve more effective regulation and began a foundation for the sustainable al. 1997, pp. 227–228; Saatchi et al. utilization practices. Environmental and equitable use of the country’s laws, such as the ‘‘Zero Deforestation 2001, p. 874; Brannstrom 2000, p. 326). environmental resources and control Law’’ and ‘‘Valuation and Retribution of These development projects include destructive practices. This framework Environmental Services Law’’ have had logging, housing and tourism has had a positive effect on Bolivia’s the most significant impact during the economic development, especially in developments, and expansion of past 5 years. These measures have the forestry sector, where it provided plantations (Butler 2007, p. 3; Ratter et declared wild areas be protected from clearly defined roles for institutional al. 1997, pp. 227–228; Barnett et al. the private sector. oversight and control. To its credit, 2000, pp. 377–378; Saatchi et al. 2001, While we acknowledge that Paraguay Bolivia has become the world leader in p. 874; Collar et al. 1992, p. 776). These is making significant progress in the the area of certified production forests projects impact potentially important conservation of its resources, existing (Byers et al. 2008, p. 31). However, sites for this species and would affect regulatory mechanisms are still management issues in Bolivia still habitat within and adjacent to inadequate. For example, the area in the remain. The ratification of autonomy established protection areas in Brazil northernmost part of Paraguay known as statutes by the Departments of Santa (Collar et al. 1992, p. 776; Barnett et al. the Alto Paraguay was once a refuge for Cruz, Pando, Beni, and Tarija, and their 2000, pp. 377–378). The Brazilian wildlife such as the caiman. This was conflict with the National government is government has encouraged primarily due to its isolation and currently one of the more contentious development of dams for hydroelectric difficulty in accessing the habitat. issues (Byers et al. p. 33). The most power, irrigation, and expansion of However, when the Paraguayan important implications of this agricultural practices, primarily for government promoted a waterway in the movement toward enhanced soybean production (Braz et al. 2003, p. Paraguay–Parana´ Basin known as the departmental authority and 70; Hughes et al. 2006, pp. 51–56; Hidrovı´a development project, the Alto responsibility relate to land-use Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18–19). Brazil’s Paraguay forest became an area of land planning and authority over land tenure competing priorities make it difficult to speculation. It remains unclear what is matters. This issue is still in flux and enforce regulations that protect broad- occurring in this area now and how this this transfer towards decentralized snouted caiman habitat. activity may affect the broad-snouted governance could have negative In 2003, Brazil established a caiman. repercussions on the broad-snouted There is no evidence that effective nationwide research and development caiman. protective measures have been With respect to caiman management program, called Programme for Biology, undertaken to conserve the broad- in Bolivia, a management plan for Conservation and Management of snouted caiman. The existing regulatory Caiman latirostris population recovery Brazilian Crocodilians (Coutinho and mechanisms currently in place for and conservation in Tarija department Luz 2008 in Velasco et al. 2008, p. 80). broad-snouted caiman in Paraguay do was proposed for 2006–2009. It is The broad-snouted caiman was listed as not appear to adequately mitigate the unclear whether the plan was an endangered species in Brazil until factors affecting the species. In the implemented and no updated data have 2003, at which time the species was absence of new information, we find been provided with respect to the withdrawn from the Brazilian List of that regulatory mechanisms in Paraguay species’ status in Bolivia (Aparicio and Endangered Fauna (The Brazilian are inadequate to protect broad-snouted Rı´os 2008). The best available Institute of Environment and Renewable caiman. information does not indicate that the Natural Resources [IBAMA] 2003). Uruguay’s richest biodiversity is regulatory mechanisms in place are Despite these initiatives, we have no found in its wetlands. Its economy is adequate to sufficiently protect this information to indicate that regulatory highly dependent on exports, and the species. Populations of broad-snouted mechanisms exist to effectively limit or agricultural sector contributes 11 caiman are still considered to be restrict habitat destruction for this percent of Uruguay’s total gross depleted in Bolivia (Verdade et al. 2010, species. We do not have information domestic product (GDP). One of p. 19; Aparicio and Rı´os 2008, p. 104). indicating that impacts to this species Uruguay’s environmental problems is Habitat loss, destruction, and (e.g., development of dams for that rice paddies are replacing modification (refer to Factor A hydroelectric power, and expansion of marshlands and is causing degradation discussion) are still occurring and are agricultural practices, primarily for of these ecosystems. While some species not expected to decrease in the future soybean production) have been or will are capable of adapting to these human- (Anderson and Gibson 2006, p. 99), thus be adequately addressed through made ecosystems, environmental suggesting that existing regulatory existing regulatory mechanisms at the degradation is associated with the mechanisms are insufficient to sites where this species is found or in conversion of natural habitat to rice ameliorate or remove the threat from its habitat. Based on data and paddies. habitat destruction. information available to the Service, we The government has taken steps to Brazil is faced with competing believe that the existing regulatory address the issue of wetland protection priorities of encouraging development mechanisms in Brazil are inadequate to and biodiversity. Uruguay has

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developed methods aimed at improving with a CITES legislation plan and draft snouted caiman throughout its range issues associated with rice production legislation, but not enacted, and because the information available is not such as harmful residue generated Paraguay was described as Category 2 specific to each DPS. This evaluation is during processing of rice and the with no plan and only draft legislation. not specific to each country unless government is working at methods of Overutilization (unsustainable trade in specified as such. reducing the impact caused by residue skins, parts, and products) was the Pesticides and Endocrine Disruptors accumulation. In the past, the rice hulls primary reason that this species was were burned, which emitted toxic listed in CITES Appendix I and also Approximately 10 to 15 percent of chemicals into the atmosphere and listed as endangered under the ESA. pesticides applied in agricultural contributed to air pollution. Now, However, now, overutilization is no activities actually reach target Uruguay is working towards composting longer a concern for this species. With organisms, and the remainder is the rice hulls, which has minimal respect to CITES, based on the trade dispersed into the atmosphere, soil, and environmental impact. Additionally, data (see Factor B discussion); we find water, which can affect broad-snouted Uruguay became a member of the that the governments of Bolivia, Brazil, caiman (Poletta et al. 2009, p. 96). In Ramsar Convention in 1984, and a Paraguay, and Uruguay are adequately Argentina, soy, which requires the member of the Convention on Biological enforcing international trade through application of pesticides, occupies Diversity in 1992, in order to increase their respective legal frameworks. approximately 16 million hectares, and protection for wetlands. Uruguay land dedicated to soy plantations Summary of Factor D for Bolivia, Brazil, enacted law number 16.170 which continues to expand (Larriera et al. Paraguay, and Uruguay (Northern DPS) directly addresses the conservation of 2008, p. 165). Studies regarding the ® wetlands, and specifically mandates With respect to international trade of genotoxicity of the herbicide Roundup that the areas assigned for wetlands broad-snouted caiman parts and (glyphosate) have been conducted in conservation must be respected by rice products, we find that CITES is an Argentina on broad-snouted caiman. farmers. adequate regulatory mechanism in Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum Although Uruguay has made progress Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. herbicide used widely in weed control. in improving its environmental laws However, the best available scientific In this study, specimens of broad- and recognizes the importance of and commercial information indicates snouted caiman were exposed to various protecting its biodiversity, enforcement that broad-snouted caiman continues to concentrations and compounds of of its laws regulating protection of this be threatened by the inadequacy of the glyphosate commonly used in species may still be insufficient in some existing regulatory mechanisms in agriculture, particularly on soy areas (Brazaitis et al. 1996). This has Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay plantations. Not only did the study primarily been due to the limited to ameliorate the effects of habitat loss demonstrate deformities of caiman due resources available to local enforcement and degradation. Management efforts to exposure to glyphosate, but it also agencies as well as the remoteness and vary within the range of broad-snouted resulted in mortalities (Poletta et al. inaccessibility of much of the caiman caiman. Each country has both unique 2011, p. 852; Poletta et al. 2009, p. 98). habitat. We have no information to and overlapping factors that affect the One form of glyphosate, indicate that the existing regulatory species. In some cases, there was an Cycloposphamide, in particular, caused mechanisms effectively limit or restrict abundance of information available malformations in the exposed caiman, habitat destruction for this species. regarding potential threats to the causing 90 percent embryo mortality Although Uruguay is making progress in species, and in other cases, there was (Poletta et al. 2009, p. 97). Another its protection of natural resources, it is little to no information available, study found that exposure to pesticides unclear how this species is being particularly regarding the adequacy of decreases hatchlings weight of Caiman monitored and managed in Uruguay. We regulatory mechanisms with respect to latirostris (Beldomenico et al. 2007, p. do not have sufficient evidence that this species. 246), which negatively affects species’ impacts to this species (e.g., conversion In Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and fitness. This study evaluated responses of wetlands to rice paddies and Uruguay, the best available information based on exposure to atrazine and subsequent environmental degradation indicates that the primary factor endosulfan, which are commonly used that occurs) have been or will be affecting the species is habitat loss (see in agriculture. Studies have found that adequately addressed through existing Factor A discussion). Related to this these pesticides, particularly when more regulatory mechanisms at the sites factor is the inability of the than one is applied, have an effect on where this species is found or in its governments, at a national, provincial, caiman reproduction (Stoker et al 2011, habitat. Based on the best available or regional level, to adequately enforce p. 311; Poletta et al. 2011, p. 852; information, we find that the existing mechanisms to address threats. In these Beldomenico et al. 2007, p. 249). regulatory mechanisms continue to be countries, there is little monitoring data Studies suggest that impaired inadequate to ameliorate the current on broad-snouted caiman. Based on a embryonic growth is likely occurring threats to this species in Uruguay. review of the information available, we (Poletta et al. 2011, p. 858; Beldomenico were unable to find that regulatory et al. 2007, p. 250). National Legislation To Implement mechanisms are adequate in Bolivia, Potential effects from contamination CITES in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay to protect by pesticides are likely to occur and Uruguay broad-snouted caiman from threats affect this species in the wild. The CITES National Legislation associated with habitat loss. Commonly used pesticides include Project (http://www.cites.org, SC59 aldrin, chlordane, endrin, lindane, Document 11, Annex p. 1) deemed that Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade methoxyclor, toxaphene, DDT, the Governments of Brazil and Uruguay Factors Affecting Its Continued parathion, endosulfan, Malathion, and have national legislation that is Existence carbaryl. Farmers are not well trained in considered Category 1, which means Following is a range wide threats proper application methods, often over- they meet all the requirements to analysis in which we evaluate whether applying agrochemicals, applying them implement CITES. Bolivia was other natural or manmade factors affect under inappropriate physical or described as being in Category 2, both the continued existence of the broad- environmental conditions, and not

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following appropriate handling, extent of the impact, if any, that In Argentina, because there is washing, and storage protocols (Byers et environmental contaminants currently incentive for local communities and al. 2008, p. 26). Despite regulations have on the species. An inadvertent villagers in the range of the species to governing the use of these and other aspect of the research referenced above conserve broad-snouted caiman; conflict pesticides, more oversight is needed to indicated that the removal of eggs from and killing of caiman for food, although monitor their use and effects on this the wild and hatching in a captive it occurs, do not occur to the extent that species. Improper pesticide use is likely environment can actually have a it rises to the level of a threat. to occur throughout the species’ range. beneficial effect. Exposure to Throughout the rest of the species’ In Bolivia, contamination of aquatic environmental contaminants such as range, human conflict with broad- systems from agricultural chemicals pesticides is reduced because eggs are snouted caiman occurs sporadically and occurs in some areas, particularly in removed from the wild shortly after may result in the death of some Santa Cruz and Cochabamba (Byers et females lay their eggs. Regardless of this individual caimans. However, the best al. 2008, p. 26). In the lowlands of Santa aspect, based on the best available available scientific and commercial Cruz Department, for example, where scientific and commercial information information does not indicate that broad-snouted caiman may exist, agro- available, we currently do not find that human conflict occurs to the extent that industrial development is leading to exposure to pesticides or other it is a significant factor affecting the increased use of agrochemicals. Soy, environmental contaminants is a threat species. Therefore, relative to the sunflower, cotton, and sugarcane are the to the species. population size, human conflict does main crops, and to a lesser extent coffee, not appear to be a threat to the species. cacao, and rice are grown. Mechanized Human Conflict The broad-snouted caiman, like other agricultural production on large areas wildlife, is a victim of collisions with Although it is commonly known that containing soil that has been depleted of motor vehicles while crossing roadways. human conflict with caiman occurs, this nutrients has led to the increased use of Approximately 200 animals are killed is not a significant factor affecting the agrochemicals such as fertilizers and annually due to collisions (Larriera, species. The most recent survey of pesticides that are often applied by pers. comm. 2006). Broad-snouted broad-snouted caiman by the Crocodile aerial spraying. Although 17 pesticides caiman often successfully cross roads in Specialist Group indicates that one of have been banned in Bolivia, as of 2008, areas containing sparse human the principal threats to this species is they were still sold in local markets and developments. Development of high illegal hunting in localized areas (in routinely used (Byers et al. 2008, p. 26). volume transportation corridors in We recognize that pesticides will some states of Brazil, where caiman broad-snouted caiman habitat may result in mortalities and decreased population is low) (Verdade et al. 2010, inhibit their movements between habitat fitness in some individuals; however, p. 1). In Bolivia, a survey indicated that patches, potentially reducing the best available information does not 92 percent of individuals said that they connectivity among water bodies indicate that pesticides are a significant hunted broad-snouted caiman to avoid generally inhabited by broad-snouted factor affecting this species. Studies the danger of an attack. This was more caiman. However, these mortality events have been conducted in Argentina, common when caiman were found in do not occur to such an extent that they where pesticides are used, and cattle watering areas such as ponds and are a significant factor affecting the reproduction and survival rates of agricultural impoundments near homes. species. broad-snouted caiman in Argentina However, the actual impacts are currently appear to be robust. unknown; the survey was anecdotal. Fire Ants Populations are increasing in Argentina, Most broad-snouted caiman populations The red fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, is and the species has expanded its range in Argentina occur on privately owned an extremely aggressive species. It is in some areas (Verdade et al. 2010, pp. wetlands. In Chaco, Argentina, local originally from central South America 18–22; Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 244– people have been known to kill caiman, and is distributed throughout a large 249). This is an indication of the not only for food, but out of fear that variety of habitats (Folgarait et al. 2005 species’ intrinsic resilience and these animals will attack them or their in Parachu´ -Marco´ et al. 2008, pp. 1–2). adaptability. Although environmental livestock and poultry (Aparicio and Rios It completely occupies the area of contaminants such as pesticides and 2008, p. 112; Prado 2002). Based on distribution of broad-snouted caiman. herbicides likely affect individuals, interviews with ranchers, landowners This is an opportunistic, aggressive there is no evidence that these and police, it is estimated that species and is able to reach high contaminants currently pose a threat to approximately 30 to 40 wild caiman per population densities. The fire ant the species. year are killed for food, and about 50 prefers total or partial exposure to the Studies in other crocodile species per year are killed out of fear (Larriera sun, and apparently is attracted by have been conducted to examine their 2006, pers. comm.). These killings often sources of protein, sugar, and lipids as effects as endocrine disrupters occur during the dry season, when well as high levels of humidity. Because (Rainwater et al. 2008, pp. 101–109). caiman move to ponds that are closer to broad-snouted caiman generally nest in Vitellogenin induction is a useful human-populated areas. To counter fairly open habitats, and its nests are biomarker to examine exposure and these fears, biologists have been raised, they provide an ideal source of response to endocrine disruptors, working with local communities protection for S. invicta colonies from specifically environmental estrogens. To through the caiman ranching project at rains during the summer. Allen et al. the best of our knowledge, endocrine the El Cachape´ Wildlife Refuge in (1997, pp. 318–320) showed that red fire disrupters are not a threat to broad- Argentina. One aspect of this program ants affect the success of hatching, snouted caiman. was that they developed an educational causing the death of unborn embryos in We recognize that environmental campaign in local schools. The students the nest, and possibly prevent the contaminants may affect individuals, participate in the ranching project on female from opening the nest when her especially given the potential for long- the refuge. The project produced two hatchlings call. In Argentina, these ants term bioaccumulation of contaminants educational Web sites that describe the use broad-snouted caiman nests to set during the species’ life. However, we do conservation and ecology of caiman up their new colonies (Larriera 2006, not have information or data on the species in Argentina. pers. comm.), and have been

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documented to decrease hatching global average sea level and declines in Changes in climate can have a variety success by 20 percent (Parachu´ -Marco´ et mountain glaciers and average snow of direct and indirect impacts on al., 2005, pp. 1–2). The severity and cover in both the northern and southern species, and can exacerbate the effects magnitude of long-term and short-term hemispheres (IPCC 2007, p. 30). of other threats. For instance, climate- effects of fire ants on broad-snouted The IPCC used Atmosphere-Ocean associated environmental changes to the caiman populations is currently General Circulation Models and various landscape, such as decreased stream unknown. Although fire ants have the greenhouse gas emissions scenarios to flows, increased water temperatures, potential of being a localized threat, the make projections of climate change reduced snowpacks, and increased fire best available information does not globally and for broad regions through frequency, or other changes occurring indicate that this factor affects the the 21st century (Meehl et al. 2007, p. individually or in combination, may species such that it is a threat to the 753; Randall et al. 2007, pp. 596–599). affect species and their habitats. The species throughout all or a significant Highlights of these projections include: vulnerability of a species to climate part of its range. (1) It is virtually certain there will be change impacts is a function of the species’ sensitivity to those changes, its Drought and Flooding warmer and more frequent hot days and nights over most of the earth’s land exposure to those changes, and its This species has survived large-scale areas; (2) it is very likely there will be adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007, p. 883). droughts and floods in the past (Larriera increased frequency of warm spells and As described above, in evaluating the 2003), but high rainfall can lead to heat waves over most land areas, and status of a species the Service uses the reduced hatching success from flooding the frequency of heavy precipitation best scientific and commercial data (Larriera and Pin˜ a 2000). Recent caiman events will increase over most areas; available, and this includes counts suggest that populations and (3) it is likely that increases will consideration of direct and indirect declined somewhat during 2002–2003 occur in the incidence of extreme high effects of climate change. As is the case and 2007–2008 (Micucci et al. 2007, sea level (excludes tsunamis), intense with all other stressors we assess, if the Larriera et al. 2008). This was attributed tropical cyclone activity, and the area status of a species is expected to be to cyclic drought conditions during the affected by droughts in various regions affected that does not necessarily mean early 2000s (Micucci et al. 2007, of the world (Solomon et al. 2007, p. 8). it is an endangered or threatened Larriera et al. 2008). The production of More recent analyses using a different species as defined under the ESA. broad-snouted caiman eggs during the global model and comparing other Species that are dependent on 2009 season was drastically reduced in emissions scenarios resulted in similar specialized habitat types, limited in Corrientes, Santa Fe, and Formosa distribution, or occurring already at the Provinces also due to a severe drought. projections of global temperature change (Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529). extreme periphery of their range will be In 2010, wetlands recovered due to most susceptible to the impacts of As is the case with all models, there heavy rains, and egg harvest in 2010 climate change. However, the broad- is some uncertainty associated with was approximately 30 percent higher snouted caiman has a wide distribution projections due to assumptions used, than the historical average (Larriera and and is more resilient than these species. Siroski 2010, pp. 1–2). However, data available, and features of the The information currently available drought and flooding does not occur to models. Despite this uncertainty, on the effects of climate change and the such an extent that they are a significant however, under all models and available climate change models do not factor affecting the species. emissions scenarios the overall surface make sufficiently accurate estimates of air temperature trajectory is one of Climate Change location and magnitude of effects at a increased warming in comparison to scale small enough to apply to the range The term ‘‘climate’’ refers to an area’s current conditions (Meehl et al. 2007, p. of the broad-snouted caiman. Below is long-term average weather patterns, or 762; Prinn et al. 2011, p. 527). Climate a discussion of data and research more specifically, the mean and models and associated assumptions, available, with which we can make variation of surface variables such as data, and analytical techniques continue inferences on the projected impacts to temperature, precipitation, and wind, to be refined, and thus projections are the broad-snouted caiman due to whereas ‘‘climate change’’ refers to any refined as more information becomes climate change, particularly the change in climate over time, whether available (Rahmstorf 2010). For potential impacts of shifting global due to natural variability or human instance, observed actual emissions of temperatures on sex ratios as well as the activity (Intergovernmental Panel on greenhouses gases, which are a key species’ distribution. Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, pp. 6, 871). influence on climate change, are A study conducted to determine Although changes in climate occur tracking at the mid- to higher levels of climate change’s projected impacts to continuously over geological time, the various scenarios used for making the American crocodile ( changes are now occurring at an projections, and some expected changes acutus) illustrates possible impacts to accelerated rate. For example, at in conditions (e.g., melting of Arctic sea the broad-snouted caiman (Escobedo- continental, regional and ocean basin ice) are occurring more rapidly than Galva´n 2006, p. 131). This is significant scales, recent observed changes in long- initially projected (Manning et al. 2010, because the sex of crocodiles is term trends include: A substantial p. 377; Polyak et al. 2010, p. 1,797; determined during incubation and is increase in precipitation in eastern parts LeQuere et al. 2009, p. 2; Comiso et al. temperature-dependent. This study of North America and South America, 2008, p. 1; Pielke et al. 2008, entire; selected areas in Florida and western northern Europe, and northern and Raupach et al. 2007, p. 10289). In short, Mexico that contain American central Asia; declines in precipitation in the best scientific and commercial data crocodiles, and predicted how increased the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and available indicate that increases in temperatures could affect the parts of southern Asia; and an increase average global surface air temperature geographical distribution and sex ratios in intense tropical cyclone activity in and several other changes are occurring of the species in Florida, the Caribbean, the North Atlantic since about 1970 and likely will continue for many and Central America. It focused on the (IPCC 2007, p. 30). Examples of decades and in some cases for centuries geographic distribution and sex ratios of observed changes in the physical (Church 2010, p. 411; Solomon et al. American crocodiles in the present environment include an increase in 2007, pp. 822–829). (2006), 2020, and 2050. It suggested that

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the geographic distribution and sex may cause changes in the broad-snouted considered the progress made by ratios of American crocodile caiman distribution, we do not have any Argentina towards addressing previous populations in different parts of its data to indicate that effects on the threats to this species. We took into range would change in response to species due to climate change would consideration the conservation actions temperature and sea-level parameters. have a detrimental effect, nor is climate that have occurred, are ongoing, and are Optimal growth in crocodilians has change likely to become a threat in the planned. Since its listing under the been found to occur around 31 °C (88 foreseeable future. ESA, the species’ status has improved in °F), with appetites and effective Argentina based on the following: Summary of Factor E digestion diminishing below 29 °C (84 • National and international laws and °F) (Coulson and Hernandez 1964, pp. Few, if any, other natural or manmade treaties have minimized the impacts of 2–33; Coulson and Coulson 1986, pp. factors are anticipated to significantly trade. 585–588), which correlates with optimal affect the continued existence of the • Effective community-based temperatures for incubation. broad-snouted caiman in either DPS. We ranching programs have been According to Escobedo-Galva´n et al. reviewed factors such as fire ants, established. 2008, increased global temperatures and human conflict, pesticides and • Population numbers appear to be sea level could in some ways benefit the endocrine disruptors, droughts and increasing in Argentina based on nest American crocodile by significantly flooding, and climate change. With counts and egg harvest data. increasing its potential habitat and respect to climate change, we lack The primary factor that led to the distribution. Through this, we could adequate local or regional models on listing of this species under the ESA infer that similar effects could occur in how climate change would specifically was overutilization. In Argentina, we the broad-snouted caiman species. The affect the habitat in the broad-snouted find few threats to the species in the study predicted that the distribution for caiman’s range. Given that reliable, wild, although we find the DPS is still the American crocodile would expand predictive models have not been threatened by the present or threatened 69 percent in 2020, and 207 percent in developed for use at the local scale in destruction, modification, or 2050. This is an 81 percent increase in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and curtailment of its habitat or range potential distribution from 2020 to 2050 Uruguay, there is little certainty (Factor A). However, information (Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 2008, pp. 9–10). regarding the timing, magnitude, and regarding the caiman ranching program While the American crocodile is net effect of climate change’s impacts. in Argentina indicates that the caiman adapted to a narrow climate range Therefore, we find it is not possible at population is increasing in the wild in (Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 2008, p. 5), the this time to make reliable predictions of Argentina such that it is no longer in broad-snouted caiman’s geographic climate change effects on the Argentine danger of extinction. The information distribution is one of the widest population or the Bolivia, Brazil, indicates that the broad-snouted caiman latitudinal ranges among all Paraguay, and Uruguay population due population is now widespread crocodilians (Schmidt-Villela et al., to the current limitations in available throughout its range in Argentina. In the 2008 p. 1). Broad-snouted caiman data and climate models. We found no region that had the oldest caiman latitudinal range is between 5° S to 32° information that the other stressors ranching program (Santa Fe province), S (Simoncini et al. 2009, p. 191). As evaluated under this factor significantly population trend information based on global temperatures increase, areas that affect the survival of the species. Based night counts during 1990–2002 are currently too cool to support broad- on the best available information, we indicates five of six populations snouted caiman may become warm find that there are no other natural or increased during that period (Larriera enough to support them in the future. manmade factors which may constitute and Imhof 2004). Recent data tracking of There is conflicting information on how possible threats to either population the success of hatching show the climate change could affect this species; segment. percentage of hatchlings born from the it could benefit the species or have no harvested eggs has been above 70 significant impact. Based on the data Finding percent in recent years, sometimes available, we do not currently have We have carefully assessed the best exceeding 80 percent (Larriera et al. sufficient information to determine how available scientific and commercial 2008, p. 158). changes in climate will affect this information regarding the past, present, As discussed under Factor B, species at this time. and future threats faced by the broad- removing eggs from the wild, rearing the The broad-snouted caiman’s snouted caiman throughout its range, young, and releasing them at an age geographic distribution is one of the and we have separately evaluated the where they can defend themselves more largest latitudinal ranges among all population in Argentina (referred to as readily can be advantageous, because crocodilians (Verdade and Pin˜ a 2006). a distinct population segment, or DPS) larger size in young crocodilians Due to its variability in use of habitat, and the Northern DPS, which consists of improves survivorship (Elsey et al. an expansion of the range of the broad- Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. 1992). For crocodiles, supplementing snouted caiman may occur, as it is more wild populations with captive-reared of a habitat generalist than other Argentine DPS juveniles taken from eggs collected in crocodile species. In Argentina, our status review found the wild is a valuable tool for Based on scenarios that do not assume that, although some localized impacts to crocodilian management, because explicit climate policies to reduce broad-snouted caiman still occur in mortality of juveniles in the wild greenhouse gas emissions, global Argentina such as habitat modification, decreases with age and size. average temperature is projected to rise particularly due to agricultural Enforcement of existing national and by 2 to 11.5 °F by the end of this century development, the government of international laws and treaties has (relative to the 1980–1999 time period) Argentina has reduced threats minimized the potential impact of trade (USGCRP 2011, p. 9). Optimal growth in associated with habitat loss and in Argentina, and available data strongly crocodilians has been found to occur overutilization through its ranching suggest that wild populations in around 88 °F (31 °C), with appetites and program such that the species is not Argentina are increasing (Pin˜ a et al. effective digestion diminishing below currently in danger of extinction. 2009). Exports from Argentina are 84 °F (29 °C). Although climate change Through the five-factor analysis, we carefully managed, and commercial

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exports are limited to those caiman from status under the ESA in these four 17.42(c) to add the Argentine DPS of the managed programs. All indications countries due to habitat degradation and broad-snouted caiman. With this special suggest that Argentina has been the inadequacy of regulatory rule, all the prohibitions and exceptions successful in increasing its population mechanisms (Factors A and D, at 50 CFR 17.31 and 50 CFR 17.32 apply of broad-snouted caiman through respectively). Although we have very to the Argentine DPS of the broad- intensive management efforts. The little information about the species in snouted caiman, except that import into population has increased as evidenced these countries and are unable to and export out of the United States and by an increase in population density, determine population numbers or certain activities in interstate and the identification of reproducing trends, the best available information foreign commerce in the course of a females previously released by the indicates that the species continues to commercial activities involving broad- program, the expansion of the nesting face threats under Factors A and D in snouted caiman skin, parts, and areas, the increase in the quantity of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay products from Argentina are allowed harvested nests, and the observation of such that the species remains currently without an ESA regulatory permit under caiman in places where they had in danger of extinction. Therefore, 50 CFR 17.32, if the requirements of this disappeared (Larriera et al. 2008, p. because this population segment special rule and parts 13 (General 172). Age classes reflect healthy satisfies the discreteness and Permit Requirements), 14 (Importation, reproduction and recruitment into a significance criteria under the DPS Exportation, and Transportation) and 23 wild breeding population. policy, we find that the distinct (CITES) of Title 50 of the Code of We find that the impacts previously population segment of the broad- Federal Regulations are met. identified in Argentina when the snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, All provisions of 50 CFR 17.31 and 50 species was listed under the ESA no Paraguay, and Uruguay should remain CFR 17.32 apply to live specimens and longer are of sufficient magnitude such listed as endangered under the ESA. We viable eggs of the Argentine DPS of the that it is endangered. Because the will continue to monitor the status of broad-snouted caiman. Thus, Argentine population of broad-snouted the species throughout its entire range. importation of viable caiman eggs and caiman satisfies both the discreteness Additionally, the broad-snouted caiman live caimans will require an ESA permit and significance criteria as defined by in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and for threatened species, in addition to the the DPS Policy, this final rule Uruguay will remain listed in Appendix appropriate CITES permit. This reclassifies the distinct population I of CITES. requirement will allow scrutiny of segment of the broad-snouted caiman individual applications for importation (Caiman latirostris) in Argentina from Special Rule of live caimans or eggs so as to prevent endangered status to threatened status Section 4(d) of the ESA states that the accidental introduction of these exotic under the ESA. As identified above, Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) may, species into the United States, which only one of the five listing factors by regulation, extend to threatened may have detrimental effects on U.S. currently poses a threat to the broad- species prohibitions provided for native wildlife or ecosystems. snouted caiman, namely, Factor A—the endangered species under section 9. Effects of This Rule present or threatened destruction, Exercising this discretion, the Service, modification, or curtailment of its acting under authority delegated by the This final special rule for the habitat or range. Although not currently Secretary, has promulgated Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted in danger of extinction due to the implementing regulations that caiman allows for the importation into destruction, modification, or incorporate the section 9 prohibitions and exportation from the United States curtailment of its habitat, we find that for endangered wildlife (50 CFR 17.31) of broad-snouted caiman skins, other the species is likely to become so with and exceptions to those prohibitions (50 parts, and products from Argentina the continued destruction of habitat in CFR 17.32) which apply to most without a permit under 50 CFR 17.32, the foreseeable future. In other parts of threatened wildlife. Under 50 CFR provided that requirements in the this species’ range within Argentina 17.32, permits may be issued to allow special rule and the Service’s where it is not monitored, threats are persons to engage in otherwise regulations at parts 13, 14, and 23 of still acting on the species. We have seen prohibited activities with threatened Title 50 of Code of Federal Regulations substantial progress in Argentina with species for certain purposes. are met. Under this rule, a person may respect to addressing threats to this Under section 4(d) of the ESA, the also deliver, receive, carry, transport, species. In developing this final rule, we Service may also develop specific ship, sell or offer for sale in interstate or carefully assessed the best scientific and prohibitions and exceptions tailored to foreign commerce and in the course of commercial data available regarding the the particular conservation needs of a a commercial activity any skins, other threats facing this species, as well as the threatened species. In such cases, the parts, or products from the Argentine ongoing conservation efforts by Service issues a special rule that may DPS of the broad-snouted caiman Argentina. Consequently, we are include some of the prohibitions and without a permit under 50 CFR 17.32, reclassifying the Argentine DPS of the exceptions set out in 50 CFR 17.31 and provided that certain conditions are broad-snouted caiman to threatened 50 CFR 17.32 respectively, which may fulfilled. status under the ESA. be more or less restrictive than the This rule also allows the import into general provisions at 50 CFR 17.31 and the United States of skins, parts, or Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay 50 CFR 17.32. For threatened species, a products originally from Argentina and (Northern DPS) special rule gives the Secretary re-exported by other countries (i.e., In contrast, there is a lack of discretion to specify the appropriate intermediary countries), if certain information about the broad-snouted prohibitions from section 9 of the ESA, conditions are met by those countries caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and while also providing provisions that are prior to exportation to the United States. Uruguay (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20; necessary and advisable to provide for These conditions pertain to the Aparicio and Rı´os 2008; Borteiro et al. the conservation of the species. implementation of a CITES Resolution 2008). The best available information Under this final special rule, the on a universal tagging system for the indicates that threats remain such that Service amends the regulations for identification of crocodile skins, as well the species should retain its endangered threatened crocodilians at 50 CFR as provisions intended to support

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appropriate management for sustainable (1) Each Argentine broad-snouted populations to ensure biological use of wild populations of Caiman caiman skin or part imported, exported, sustainability in participating provinces latirostris. or re-exported must be tagged or labeled and reintroduction of ranched offspring This special rule adopts the existing in accordance with the CITES to the wild. The programs also provide requirements of CITES as the Resolution on a universal tagging an economic incentive for local people appropriate regulatory provisions for the system for the identification of crocodile to protect and expand broad-snouted import and export of skins, parts, and skins. This does not apply to meat, caiman habitat. products from the Argentine DPS of the skulls, scientific specimens, or This special rule allowing commercial broad-snouted caiman. As previously products, or to the noncommercial trade into the United States without mentioned in our listing determination, import, export, or reexport of personal threatened species import permits under we have found that overutilization effects in accompanying baggage or the ESA does not end protection for this through international trade is not a household effects. species, which remains listed in threat to the Argentine DPS of the (2) Any countries re-exporting Appendix II of CITES. To the contrary, broad-snouted caiman, and, in any Argentine broad-snouted caiman skins the special rule complements the CITES event, international trade of the or parts must have implemented an universal tagging resolution, which has Argentine population of the broad- administrative system for the effective reduced the potential for the laundering snouted caiman is adequately regulated matching of imports and re-exports. of illegal skins and reduced the trade under CITES. Currently, the Argentine However, the CITES Resolution on a control problems associated with the population of the broad-snouted caiman universal tagging system for the similarity of appearance of skins and is listed under Appendix II of CITES. identification of crocodile skins products among different species and Thus, importation into the United States presupposes that countries of re-export populations of crocodilians that have of any specimen of broad-snouted have implemented a system for varying degrees of endangerment. A caiman originating from the Argentine monitoring skins. Countries are not benefit of this special rule is that it population must be accompanied by a considered intermediary countries or aligns the ESA’s requirements for the CITES export permit or re-export countries of re-export if the specimens importation and exportation of certificate. In issuing a CITES export remain in Customs control while Argentine broad-snouted caiman parts permit for skins, parts, or products of transiting or being transshipped through and products into and from the United broad-snouted caiman from the the country, and provided those States with CITES requirements. Thus, Argentine population, the Scientific specimens have not entered into the for the reasons mentioned above, this Authority of Argentina must determine commerce of that country. special rule provides measures that are that such export will not be detrimental (3) Argentina and any intermediary necessary and advisable to provide for to the survival of the species, and the country(s) must be effectively the conservation of the species, while Management Authority of Argentina implementing CITES. If we receive also including appropriate prohibitions must determine that it was not obtained persuasive information from the CITES from section 9 of the ESA. in contravention of its laws for the Secretariat or other reliable sources that Available Conservation Measures protections of fauna and flora. In issuing a specific country is not effectively a re-export certificate for skins, parts, or implementing CITES, we will prohibit Conservation measures provided to products of broad-snouted caiman or restrict imports from such country(s) species listed as endangered or originating from the Argentine as appropriate for the conservation of threatened under the ESA include population, the Management Authority the species. recognition of conservation status, of the State of re-export must determine In a limited number of situations in requirements for Federal protection, and that the specimen was imported into which the original tags from the country prohibitions against certain practices. that State in accordance with CITES of export have been lost in processing Recognition through listing encourages provisions. the skins, we will allow whole skins, and results in conservation actions by Argentina must continue to effectively flanks, and chalecos into the United Federal, State, and private agencies and implement the CITES Resolution on a States if CITES-approved re-export tags groups, and individuals. The protection universal tagging system for the have been attached in the same manner required of Federal agencies and the identification of crocodile skins and as the original tags and proper re-export prohibitions against take and harm are must have adequate national legislation certificates accompany the shipment. If discussed, in part, below. for the implementation of CITES. The a shipment contains more than 25 Section 7(a) of the ESA, as amended, special rule also allows trade in broad- percent replacement tags, the U.S. and as implemented by regulations at 50 snouted caiman parts and products Management Authority will consult CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies through intermediary countries if the with the Management Authority of the to evaluate their actions that are to be countries involved are effectively re-exporting country before clearing the conducted within the United States or implementing CITES and the CITES shipment. Such shipments may be upon the high seas, with respect to any Universal Tagging System Resolution. seized if we determine that the species that is proposed to be listed or 50 CFR 17.42(c)(4) describes specific requirements of CITES have not been is listed as endangered or threatened bases the Service will use to determine met. and with respect to its proposed or whether CITES is being effectively In sum, the intent of this special rule designated critical habitat, if any is implemented by the applicable country is to enhance the conservation of the being designated. Because the broad- of export or re-export. broad-snouted caiman in Argentina, snouted caiman’s range does not Essentially, this special rule prohibits which is effectively managing its broad- include the United States, no critical the importation, exportation, and re- snouted caiman populations. By gaining habitat is being designated with this exportation of skins, other parts, or access to commercial markets in the rule. Regulations implementing the products of broad-snouted caiman United States for broad-snouted caiman interagency cooperation provision of the originating from Argentina or imported products, Argentina will be encouraged ESA are codified at 50 CFR part 402. from a country of manufacture or re- to continue its sustainable-use Section 7(a)(2) of the ESA requires export unless the following conditions, management programs. These programs Federal agencies to ensure that activities among others, are met: require annual surveys of wild they authorize, fund, or carry out are not

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likely to jeopardize the continued has been taken in violation of the ESA. References Cited existence of a listed species or to Certain exceptions apply to agents of the A complete list of the references used destroy or adversely modify its critical Service and State conservation agencies. to develop this rule is available upon habitat. If a proposed Federal action Permits may be issued to carry out request from the Endangered Species may affect a listed species, the otherwise prohibited activities Program in our Headquarters office (see responsible Federal agency must enter involving endangered and threatened FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). into formal consultation with the wildlife species under certain Service. Currently, with respect to Author broad-snouted caiman, no Federal circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for The primary author of this rule is activities are known that would require Amy Brisendine, Branch of Foreign consultation. endangered species and 50 CFR 17.32 for threatened species. With regard to Species, Endangered Species Program, Section 8(a) of the ESA authorizes the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 4401 provision of limited financial assistance endangered wildlife, a permit may be issued for the following purposes: for North Fairfax Drive, Suite 400, for the development and management of Arlington, VA 22203. programs that the Secretary of the scientific purposes, to enhance the Interior determines to be necessary or propagation or survival of the species List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 useful for the conservation of and for incidental taking in connection Endangered and threatened species, endangered or threatened species in with otherwise lawful activities. For Exports, Imports, Reporting and foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) threatened species, a permit may be recordkeeping requirements, of the ESA authorize the Secretary to issued for the same activities, as well as Transportation. encourage conservation programs for zoological exhibition, education, and foreign listed species, and to provide special purposes consistent with the Regulation Promulgation assistance for such programs, in the purposes of the ESA. For the reasons described in the form of personnel and the training of preamble, we are amending part 17, personnel. Monitoring subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the The ESA and its implementing set We will continue to monitor the Code of Federal Regulations, as follows: forth a series of general prohibitions and status of this species in cooperation exceptions that apply to all endangered Part 17—[AMENDED] with the range countries. and threatened wildlife. These ■ prohibitions, at 50 CFR 17.21 and 17.31 Required Determinations 1. The authority citation for part 17 in part, make it illegal for any person continues to read as follows: National Environmental Policy Act subject to the jurisdiction of the United Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C. States to ‘‘take’’ (includes harass, harm, We have determined that we do not 1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Pub. L. 99– 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, need to prepare an environmental capture, or to attempt any of these) assessment or environmental impact ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h), the List of within the United States or upon the statement, as defined in the National Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, by high seas; import or export; deliver, Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 revising the entries for ‘‘Caiman, broad- receive, carry, transport, or ship in U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), in connection with snouted,’’ ‘‘Caiman, brown,’’ ‘‘Caiman, interstate or foreign commerce in the regulations adopted pursuant to section common,’’ and ‘‘Caiman, yacare’’ under course of commercial activity; or sell or to read as follows: offer for sale in interstate or foreign 4(a) of the Endangered Species Act. We commerce any endangered and published a notice outlining our reasons § 17.11 Endangered and threatened threatened wildlife species. It also is for this determination in the Federal wildlife. illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR * * * * * transport, or ship any such wildlife that 49244). (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate population Historic range where endangered or Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name threatened listed habitat rules

******* Reptiles

******* Caiman, broad-snout- Caiman latirostris ...... Argentina, Bolivia, Bolivia, Brazil, Para- E ...... 15 NA NA ed. Brazil, Paraguay, guay, Uruguay. Uruguay. Caiman, broad-snout- Caiman latirostris ...... Argentina, Bolivia, Argentina ...... T ...... 790 NA 17.42(c) ed. Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay. Caiman, brown ...... Caiman crocodilus Mexico, Central Entire ...... T(S/A) .. 695 NA 17.42(c) fuscus (includes America, Colombia, Caiman crocodilus Ecuador, Ven- chiapasius). ezuela, Peru. Caiman, common ...... Caiman crocodilus Bolivia, Brazil, Colom- Entire ...... T(S/A) .. 695 NA 17.42(c) crocodilus. bia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Ven- ezuela.

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Species Vertebrate population Historic range where endangered or Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name threatened listed habitat rules

Caiman, yacare ...... Caiman yacare ...... Argentina, Bolivia, Entire ...... T ...... 3, 695 NA 17.42(c) Brazil, Paraguay.

*******

■ 3. Amend § 17.42 by revising (A) Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman (F) Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus paragraph (c)(1)(i) to read as follows: latirostris) originating in Argentina; porosus) originating in Australia (also referred to as Australian saltwater § 17.42 Special rules—reptiles. (B) Brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus, including Caiman crocodilus crocodile). * * * * * chiapasius); * * * * * (c) * * * (C) Common caiman (Caiman Dated: May 29, 2013. (1) * * * crocodilus crocodilus); Stephen Guertin, (i) Threatened crocodilian means any (D) Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare); Acting Director, Fish and Wildlife Service. live or dead specimen of the following (E) Nile crocodile (Crocodylus [FR Doc. 2013–15006 Filed 6–24–13; 8:45 am] species: niloticus); and BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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