Protecting Our Natural Heritage The Value of Land Conservation in Georgia

Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Protecting Our Natural Heritage The Value of Land Conservation in Georgia

Travis Madsen Elizabeth Ridlington Jill Johnson

March 2006

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 1 Acknowledgments

Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center would like to thank the following in- dividuals and institutions for their help in providing information and photographs, and for offering their insight: Jim Langford, Susan Patterson, Doug Barnes and Dave Kuechenmeister (Trust for Public Land); Susan Kidd (The Georgia Conservancy); Jo Hickson (Coastal Georgia Greenway Alliance); Michael Blakely (Chatham County Department of Engineering); the BeltLine Partnership; the Georgia Planning Associa- tion; Jerri Sumlin (City of Atlanta Department of Parks, Recreation & Cultural Af- fairs); Edwill Holcomb (Georgia State Parks); Chris Canalos (Georgia Natural Heritage Program); Georgia Forestwatch; and Benita Duling (Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park). In addition, the authors would like to thank Tony Dutzik and Susan Rakov of Frontier Group for editorial assistance. Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center thanks the following individuals for reviewing drafts of the report: Š Laurie Fowler, Institute of Ecology and School of Law, University of Georgia; Š Susan Kidd, Senior Vice President of the Georgia Conservancy; and Š Jason Rooks, Executive Director of Georgia Conservation Voters.

Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center gratefully acknowledges the gener- ous financial support of the Sapelo Foundation and individual donors. The authors alone bear responsibility for any factual errors. The views expressed in this report are those of Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center and do not necessarily reflect the views of our funders, our reviewers, or those who provided in- formation for the report. ©2006 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center is a 501(c)(3) organization. We are dedicated to protecting Georgia’s air, water and open spaces. We investigate problems, craft solutions, educate the public and decision makers, and help Georgians make their voices heard in local, state and national debates over the quality of our environment and our lives. For more information about Environment Georgia and Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center, call us at 404-892-3573, email us at [email protected], or visit our Web site at www.environmentgeorgia.org.

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2 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Table of Contents

Executive Summary 5 Introduction 8 The Value of Land Conservation 11 Increases Tourism and Recreation 11 Maintains a Clean and Plentiful Water Supply 15 Minimizes Flood Damage 18 Raises Property Values 20 Avoids the Costs of Development 22 Provides Agricultural Products 24 Reduces Air Pollution 26 Provides Places to Hunt and Fish 28 Supports Economic Redevelopment 31 Preserves History 32 Policy Recommendations 35 Notes 38

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 3 Georgia Department of Natural Resources Tallulah Gorge State Park

4 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Executive Summary

rom the Appalachian Mountains to Š Prevents flood damage. The the coastal plains, Georgia is towns of Albany and Newton in Fblessed with natural beauty. southwest Georgia spent $3 million Georgia’s natural heritage is much more relocating hundreds of homes, than scenery, however—it is the founda- businesses and schools outside the tion of a strong economy, providing floodplain after tropical storm value for the state and its people in many Alberto caused severe flooding in ways. 1994. The cities subsequently For example, land conservation: reaped the benefits—avoiding $5.1 Š Attracts tourist dollars. Tallulah million in damage that could have Gorge State Park in Habersham resulted from a severe storm that and Rabun counties in Northeast developed in 1998. Georgia draws over 300,000 visitors Š Increases the value of nearby per year. Overall, tourists in the properties. University of Georgia mountainous two-county area spent researchers found that properties $69 million in 2004, supporting 930 close to Sandy Creek Park in jobs. Athens-Clarke County sold for up Š Promotes a clean and plentiful to $8,500 more than properties supply of water. Buffers around farther away. Parks enhance the waterways reduce pollution, pre- assets of homeowners and help serve sources of clean drinking contribute to the tax base for local water and minimize water treat- government. ment costs. For these reasons, Š Reduces service costs com- citizens in the upper Tallapoosa pared to residential develop- watershed in Carroll County, west ment. Residential development of Atlanta, overwhelmingly passed demands public services that cost a special use sales tax in 2003, more than property tax income. In providing $20 million to protect key Oconee and Habersham counties, watershed lands. working farms or woodlands

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 5 Phyllis Skelton / Sandy Creek Park Sandy Creek Park in Athens-Clarke County require $0.82 in expenditures for areas of old growth forest, several every dollar they bring in revenue. pristine trout streams, and a wide In contrast, residential lands require variety of wildlife. Across the $1.16 in expenditures for every state, areas like Kelly Ridge dollar of revenue—excluding the provide places for hundreds of cost of schools. thousands of Georgians to hunt and fish—in addition to offering critical Š Provides agricultural products. habitat for thousands of different Working landscapes, like those in types of plants and animals, includ- the small-scale farms of Dooly and ing 63 species endangered or Jones counties near Macon, are a threatened across the U.S. key part of the agricultural economy and a stabilizing influence Š Supports Economic Redevelop- for rural communities. ment. The BeltLine plan for Atlanta envisions organizing the Š Reduces air pollution. Tree region’s future growth around an canopies in the 10-county Atlanta interconnected system of parks, metropolitan area remove 19 million transit and trails circling the core pounds of pollutants from Atlanta’s of the city. Over the next 20 to 25 air every year. Achieving the same years, planners expect the project emissions reduction with man-made to create 30,000 new jobs (50 technology would cost $47 million percent more than in the absence per year. of the project) and increase the Š Provides areas to hunt and fish. regional tax base by an estimated Kelly Ridge Roadless Area in the $20 billion. Chattahoochee National Forest is Š Preserves history. Kennesaw home to one of Georgia’s largest Mountain National Park in Cobb

6 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center County preserves over 2,800 acres ment, including roadless areas in where an important clash of the Georgia’s National Forests and Civil War occurred in 1864. It is a federal lands slated for sale in the valuable educational resource for federal budget. the more than one million people Š Develop an official land conserva- that visit every year and a major tion roadmap and use it to prioritize draw for heritage tourism—the preservation efforts in the most third most popular tourism activity ecologically valuable areas—areas in the state. that provide drinking water, flood However, the state’s undeveloped control, wildlife habitat, recreation land is quickly disappearing. In just five and other benefits as described in years, from 1992 to 1997, the state lost this report. more than one million acres of farms and woodlands—triple the pace of develop- Š Create priority areas for growth ment from the previous decade. that complement the land conserva- Governor Sonny Perdue recently set tion roadmap; and implement land- aside $100 million, including $45 million use regulations at the local in grants and $55 million in loans, to pro- government level that encourage tect land critical to our quality of life. He growth only in priority areas. also helped establish the Georgia Con- Š Create a dedicated funding mecha- servation Tax Credit, which rewards nism for land conservation. For landowners who choose to permanently example, the Florida Forever protect their land from development. program has protected more than 1 While these are good steps in the right million acres of critical lands across direction, more needs to be done in order Florida in the last five years using to protect all the land Georgians want bond funding. Maryland uses a real conserved. In order to ensure that devel- estate transfer tax to fund Program opment does not outpace conservation Open Space, expected to provide efforts, Georgia needs more policy tools nearly $300 million in conservation and funding sources for land conserva- funding in 2006. In Georgia, a tion. redirection or increase of one-tenth To preserve Georgia’s natural heri- of one percent sales tax would tage for future generations and fully re- generate approximately $100 million alize its value, we should: annually for land conservation Š Protect public lands from develop- purposes.

Colin Jaccino Wetlands, like these at the Savannah National Wildlife Refuge, help provide clean and plentiful drinking water and help control floods.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 7 Introduction

or decades, the lack of planning one example of how we’re beginning to for growth around Atlanta has en- recognize the value of land conservation Fcouraged and abetted sprawl and in creating successful communities. discouraged land conservation. At the Chattahoochee Hill Country is a 65,000- same time, conventional wisdom held acre area outside of Atlanta in southern that land conservation, while offering Fulton County, as well as parts of important social benefits, drained local Carroll, Coweta and Douglas counties. government finances and did not con- Residents of the area, aware of impend- tribute to economic growth. Accord- ing development pressure from the ex- ingly, cities and counties offered panding suburbs of Atlanta, decided that developers prime parcels of land to at- they wanted to preserve the natural tract new businesses and residents, with character of their home and direct fu- the hope of boosting tax revenue without ture growth in a sustainable and well- raising property taxes. planned manner. As a result, undeveloped lands were After a series of public meetings, the rapidly consumed. Between 1992 and community developed a land use plan in 1997, Georgia lost over 1 million acres of partnership with local government, non- cropland and forestland.1 At this rate, profit organizations and a professional the state loses 578 acres to development planning firm. The plan proposed the every day—three times the rate of de- creation of pedestrian-oriented, mixed- velopment in Georgia from 1982 to use villages to concentrate future devel- 1992.2 opment while preserving existing If current trends continue, Georgia’s agricultural and open space areas. To treasured natural areas and working implement the plan, local governments landscapes will disappear as vast tracts have deployed a suite of preservation are developed. Now, with the problems tools, including direct purchases of land caused by sprawl, Georgians are realiz- for conservation, conservation ease- ing that we need to think about growth ments, and Georgia’s first Transfer of differently. Development Rights program. In 2005, The Chattahoochee Hill Country is Fulton County passed a conservation

8 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Diane Owen The Leigh Sanders Home in the Chattahoochee Hill Country subdivision ordinance, requiring that all Georgia’s heritage of ecologically new developments in the Hill Country valuable, agriculturally productive, and preserve a minimum of 40 percent open aesthetically beautiful land. However, space.3 the state doesn’t have enough money to The Georgia Chapter of the protect all the land Georgians want American Planning Association preserved. Additional planning and land recognized the significance of these conservation tools are essential to efforts with its 2003 Outstanding Plan Georgia’s future. Implementation Award.4 The plan has By preserving critical areas of land, also won recognition from the Atlanta Georgia can preserve the foundation for Regional Commission, the Urban Land a strong community and a strong Institute and others.5 economy. As shown by the case studies Governor Perdue had places like the in this report, creating and implementing Chattahoochee Hill Country in mind additional tools for land conservation will when he announced an initiative to provide tangible economic returns for provide $100 million for preserving communities across the state.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 9 Jack Schiffer Amicalola Falls

10 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center The Value of Land Conservation

and conservation provides Increases Tourism economic value to Georgia and Recreation Lcommunities in many ways. Public areas that preserve natural Natural areas can attract tourists and beauty attract visitors that support the visitors for sightseeing or recreation, local economy. Undeveloped buffers forming an important part of a local around rivers and lakes provide a clean economy. Visitors support local busi- and plentiful water supply and prevent nesses such as hotels, restaurants, tour flood damage. Parks and woodlands in- guides, equipment rental shops, and gift crease the value of nearby properties shops. This support allows local busi- and can increase property tax income nesses to provide jobs. The money that for local governments. Farms and for- businesses spend in the local community ests require fewer public services than in turn supports other businesses. residential development, helping local Tourists and visitors are a mainstay governments to control costs. of Georgia’s economy. In 2003, 48 mil- Farmland provides agricultural prod- lion people traveled to or within Georgia, ucts, contributing millions to the making the state one of the top 10 tourist economy and stabilizing rural communi- destinations in the country.6 Tourists ties. Forests reduce air pollution and pro- spent $15.4 billion here in 2004, support- tect public health, as well as provide ing 211,800 jobs and generating $26 bil- habitat for wildlife and areas for hunting lion in overall economic impact.7 On and fishing. Trails, parks and greenways support economic redevelopment and average, each visitor spent over $95 for 8 help organize future growth. Finally, every day in the state. open spaces can help preserve evidence Outdoor activities are among the of Georgia’s natural and human history main reasons many people visit Georgia. for tourists to visit and learn from. In 2004, outdoor recreation was the pri- As described in the following case mary reason for 7 percent of all tourist studies, natural areas are an important travel to the state—drawing nearly 2 part of the economic foundation of million people.9 In 2002, outdoor activi- communities across Georgia. ties ranked third among the most popular

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 11 activities among visitors to Georgia (9 Table 1: Millions of Georgians 13 percent), followed closely by visiting Participate in Outdoor Activities state and national parks (8 percent).10 Activity Participants In other words, the natural beauty and recreational opportunities afforded by Backpacking 656,324 public lands and parks are an important Road Bicycling 1,512,671 draw. Off-Road Bicycling 1,018,865 Additionally, millions of Georgians Bird Watching 325,037 participate in outdoor activities, from Camping 775,088 hiking and camping to whitewater raft- Canoeing 656,324 ing (Table 1). These activities contribute Rock Climbing 243,778 greatly to the quality of life enjoyed by Fly Fishing 206,273 millions of state residents and are impor- Hiking 1,893,965 tant to the state economy.11 Outdoor Kayaking 243,778 enthusiasts in Georgia spend $402 mil- Rafting 325,037 lion each year purchasing athletic and Trail Running 1,387,657 outdoor merchandise for human-pow- ered recreation.12 Tallulah Gorge, the deepest natural canyon east of the Rockies, was once The Revival of Tallulah Gorge the most visited site in the Southeast.14 Conserving land by creating natural In the early Victorian era, word of the parks and areas for recreation can at- area’s natural beauty and stunning wa- tract new visitors and contribute to the terfalls spread. Wealthy travelers ar- local economy. The revival of Tallulah rived from Atlanta, Athens, and other Gorge as a tourist destination demon- towns across the region.15 strates this potential. In 1882, a railroad company extended

Georgia Department of Natural Resources Tallulah Gorge State Park is a major tourist attraction in Northeast Georgia.

12 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Georgia Department of Community Affairs Lake Allatoona Lake Allatoona, created by the Army Corps of Engineers in the 1940s, is sur- rounded by 25,000 acres of public land, including seven city and county parks and Red Top Mountain State Park. With easy access from Atlanta, nearly 6 million people visit the area every year. According to the Army Corps of Engineers, these visitors provide a $200 million boost to the regional economy annually.22 a line to Tallulah Gorge, increasing the officials were considering fencing off number of visitors dramatically, to thou- the gorge to prevent unwary people sands per week. Entrepreneurs built 17 from injury.18 hotels in the growing town of Tallulah The gorge’s revival began in the late Falls to host the new arrivals.16 1980s, as Georgia Power began negotia- However, the boom was not to last. tions to renew its federal license to op- Georgia Power acquired land in the area erate the dam. Spurred on by advocacy and began building a hydroelectric dam in efforts from the Georgia Conservancy 1912. The dam diverted water around and a coalition of whitewater enthusi- the gorge and the falls to a downstream asts, the federal government required generating station, all but drying up the dam operators to release a small flow of river for over a mile.17 water for aesthetic purposes, and larger Over the years, the number of tour- releases for whitewater recreation on ists declined. Although the area won designated days. brief moments of fame, including provid- At the same time, the Georgia De- ing the setting for part of the 1972 movie partment of Natural Resources reached Deliverance, it lost its former status as an agreement with Georgia Power to a major tourist draw. At one point, state obtain the right to operate a state park

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 13 Protecting Open Space to Promote Tourism: The Coastal Georgia Greenway Many opportunities remain to promote tourism across Georgia by preserving and highlighting the state’s natural and historic beauty. Preservation advocates in Georgia’s coastal region are pursuing one such opportunity called the Coastal Georgia Greenway. The plan envisions connecting parks, city centers and cultural heritage assets across coastal Georgia with a 150-mile greenway and trail from Savannah to Florida. Project organizers see the trail as a unique way to highlight the natural beauty, plentiful wildlife and rich history of Georgia’s Coast—and a way to encour- age both tourists and locals to get out and experience it. The trail would connect and highlight resources as diverse as barrier islands, rivers, the Savannah Historic District, Richmond Hill City Hall, Sapelo Island Visitor’s Center, Fort King George, historic canals, Crooked River State Park, lighthouses, and the historic Bartram Trail. When complete, the trail could bring an additional $15 million a year to the tour- ism economies of the six-county coastal region.23 Challenges to the implementation of the project include coordinating the efforts of many local and regional levels of government and acquiring funding for capital projects and land preservation. These types of challenges should be vigorously ad- dressed by local officials hoping to promote tourism. The Georgia Coastal Greenway is a great example of how a region can preserve and highlight the best parts of its regional identity for visitors to see.

Jo Hickson The Savannah-Ogeechee Canal – a historic barge route and a demonstration section of the Coastal Georgia Greenway.

14 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center on 3,000 acres of land surrounding the as well. Much of this pollution can end gorge and the lake, providing easy ac- up in drinking water sources if they are cess for people to observe the water- not protected. falls. Governor Zell Miller announced Natural buffers around waterways the creation of the park in 1992.19 filter pollutants out of runoff and keep The park protects three miles of the drinking water sources clean, making gorge and five major waterfalls. State them a valuable part of the natural infra- Park officials constructed more than 20 structure that supports communities miles of trails for hiking and wildlife ob- across the state.25 Because stream servation; built an interpretive center buffers provide clean water for free, near the gorge; and developed a plan to their value often goes unrecognized and preserve endangered species in the area, unincorporated into planning decisions. including peregrine falcons and trillium, a It is more expensive to make polluted plant found within the gorge’s walls. water suitable for drinking than it is to Whitewater boaters found that the use relatively clean water.26 For ex- Tallulah Gorge was one of the premier ample: runs in the Southeast—if not the whole United States. Fishing enthusiasts, hik- Š The Floodplain Management ers and picnickers all rediscovered the Association estimated that replac- Tallulah Gorge as a destination. In all, ing the natural water quality func- the park now attracts over 300,000 visi- tions of Congaree Bottomland tors per year.20 Hardwood Swamp outside of Many of these visitors stay for mul- Columbia, S.C. with man-made tiple-day visits, bringing revenue to ho- infrastructure would cost $6.7 27 tels, restaurants, and shops. In 2004, million (2003 dollars). visitors to the two-county area around Š As sewage and runoff pollution Tallulah Gorge spent $69 million dollars, from development in the Catskill supporting a total of 930 jobs.21 Mountains began to harm the quality of New York City’s water Maintains a Clean and supply, officials examined options to solve the problem. Building a Plentiful Water Supply filtration plant to restore the func- Natural areas help to maintain a clean tion of lost open space would have and plentiful water supply and can mini- cost between $6 billion and $8 mize water treatment costs for local billion, with $300 million in yearly governments. operating costs. Protecting and Runoff from developed land contains restoring watershed lands with a variety of pollutants. Soil, fertilizer, and open space purchases and subsidies pesticides can be found in runoff from for septic system improvements farmland, lawns, and construction sites. would achieve the same goal with a Fragments of tires, shreds of brake lin- $1 billion price tag. The city chose ing, salt, and oil contaminate runoff from the latter course. In 1997, the city roads. Even pollution from industry passed an environmental bond to smokestacks and car and truck exhaust fund the conservation of land in the pipes falls back to the ground through Catskill mountains to cost-effec- snow and rain.24 Leaky septic systems tively protect its drinking water can discharge sewage into waterways supplies.28

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 15 Impervious Surface: The Facts Š Automobile dependent development patterns in Georgia have increased the amount of pavement needed to serve new developments, especially in “sprawl” areas in the suburbs. Š Replacing a meadow with a parking lot increases runoff volume by about 16 times.32 Š A typical suburban development with 23 percent impervi- ous cover diverts over 40 million gallons of water away from underground aquifers annually.33 P. Pennell Š The amount and location of impervious surface in water- A parking lot. sheds is closely connected to the health of downstream waterways—pollution problems grow with increased urbanization, decreased forest cover and decreased size of vegetated buffers between development and rivers and streams.34

Natural areas also help to preserve a sources Defense Council estimated the plentiful water supply. Undeveloped land effect of growth from 1982 to 1997 on has porous surfaces that allow water to groundwater recharge in Georgia and percolate downward and refill under- other states.31 According to the study, ground aquifers. Wetlands in particular growth consumed over 600,000 acres of soak up and store rainwater, gradually land during this period, adding impervi- releasing it into the ground. ous surface that annually diverts be- Aquifers are important for providing tween 60 and 130 billion gallons of water well water. They also are important for from underground aquifers. surface water supplies, providing about half the water volume in a typical river Protecting the Upper Tallapoosa or lake.29 River When land is developed, it is no Community action to protect the quality longer able to direct water underground. of the Upper Tallapoosa River exempli- Instead, development replaces porous fies how local and regional governments soils and plant life with hard surfaces can invest in natural buffers around like concrete sidewalks and driveways, drinking water sources to provide a asphalt roads and parking lots, and roof- clean and sustainable water supply for tops. Rain cannot penetrate these sur- its citizens. faces, and so flows off rooftops and The river provides drinking water for along gutters. High volumes of this run- the cities of Carrollton, Temple, and Villa off are thus diverted from groundwater Rica in Carroll County, about an hour stores to lakes, rivers and streams.30 As west of Atlanta. In the past, the area a result, less rainfall makes it back into was predominantly used for farming, the ground to replenish the water forestry and low-density residential ar- pumped out for human use. In addition, eas. However, nearby Interstate 20 has the flow of rivers becomes less consis- provided a conduit for development tent and more prone to wide swings in moving outwards from Atlanta and Bir- volume. mingham, introducing major changes in A recent study by the Natural Re- land use—and new sources of contami-

16 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center nated runoff that degrade water quality. over a half-mile of riparian area along Leaders in Carroll County realized the river. Finally, the county developed a they needed a plan to protect their drink- new comprehensive plan that integrates ing water supplies—a critical part of a growth management and water resource sustainable economic future. Working protection strategies into local land use with the Trust for Public Land and with plans.35 funding from the federal Environmental The Upper Tallapoosa provides a Protection Agency, in 2003 the county great example for how other communi- invited a team of experts to study the ties across Georgia can protect their watershed and make recommendations. drinking water supplies. This is espe- Many of the resulting recommenda- cially important for the Atlanta region. tions are now reality. In 2003, county Atlanta draws over 80 percent of its citizens voted to assess a special pur- water supply from surface streams and pose sales tax, raising $20 million to pay lakes, including the Chattahoochee for land conservation that protects River, Lake Lanier, the Etowah River source water and an additional $60 mil- and Lake Allatoona—over 400 million lion for capital projects, including im- gallons per day.36 These rivers depend proved wastewater management. The on headwater streams that begin in ar- measure passed with an overwhelming eas north of Atlanta, which sits near the two-thirds majority. drainage divide between the Atlantic In addition, the Trust for Public Land Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.37 As a worked with Carroll County officials to result, they are vulnerable to contamina- purchase a 252-acre parcel that was tion from runoff stemming from the slated for conversion to a large subdivi- rapid development the region is experi- sion—protecting a large wetland and encing.

Carroll County Department of Community Development Voters in Carroll County passed a special purpose sales tax to protect land in the Little Tallapoosa River watershed, an important source of drinking water.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 17 Alan Aycock

Wetlands, like this area on the Georgia coast, are important for flood mitigation.

Minimizes Flood Damage Š 53 people died in the state because of flooding from 1987 to 2003.39 Undeveloped land can absorb large amounts of water harmlessly, protecting Š Flooding was responsible for $2 communities from potentially damaging billion in damages during the 1990s, 75 percent of the cost of natural floods. This protection happens in two 40 ways. First, conserving floodplain land disasters. keeps structures away from the likely Development that adds a large course of a flood, concentrating devel- amount of impervious surface can cause opment on higher, safer ground. Second, higher runoff levels and raise the eleva- natural areas in and around the flood- tion at which flooding occurs down- plain can mitigate the potential severity stream. A study of flooding patterns in of flooding downstream by absorbing Georgia found that 20 percent of floods runoff. caused by brief rainstorms occurred in In 1991, 10 million households in the Atlanta region. The study authors 17,000 U.S. communities occupied concluded that runoff caused by urban- floodplain land, with $390 billion in prop- ization was to blame for the increased erty.38 Floods in these areas have flooding.41 The Atlanta area also experi- caused hundreds of deaths and billions of enced a disproportionate share of flood- dollars in economic losses. ing during longer storms. Many communities in Georgia have Replacing the lost flood control ca- experienced these costs firsthand. pacity of open space costs money.

18 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Š According to the Minnesota De- cent floods. When another severe storm partment of Natural Resources, passed over the area in March 1998 and replacing 1,200 cubic meters of caused flooding, the damage was far flood storage capacity naturally less severe. Experts estimate that during provided by a wetland with artificial this storm, the two towns avoided $5.1 flood control costs $370 (2003 million in flood damage. In addition, be- dollars).42 cause fewer people lived in flood-prone Š According to a study by American areas, city workers were able spend Forests, tree loss in the Atlanta more time preparing to deal with the metro area from 1974 to 1996 flood and less time evacuating resi- increased the runoff volume from dents.45 major storms by 33 percent. Re- placing this lost floodwater reten- Preparing for Future Storms: tion capacity with artificial flood Chatham County 43 control would cost over $1 billion. Development upstream of Savannah has increased the amount of runoff following Learning from Tropical Storm major storms and raised the level of the Alberto: Newton and Albany, floodplain.46 As a result, Chatham Georgia County found that it had to move 12 The towns of Albany and Newton in properties in western Savannah to higher southwest Georgia learned the hard way ground. Although they were not origi- about the importance of using natural nally constructed in the floodplain, de- lands to mitigate flood hazards after se- velopment on surrounding land caused vere flooding in 1994. The cities have the homes to flood once every several planned for future floods by relocating years.47 vulnerable land uses outside the flood- Chatham County received a $764,475 plain.44 grant from the Federal Emergency Man- In July 1994, Tropical Storm Alberto agement Agency in 2004. Those funds, delivered up to 28 inches of rain in combined with $224,825 from the county, southern Georgia. The storm caused allowed the county to buy the flood- $4.5 million of damage in Newton. In prone properties. In place of the homes, Albany, the Flint River flooded 6,500 the county is creating a park centered homes, schools and businesses, leaving around an existing lake. one-third of the city’s residents without Chatham County, located on the housing. coast, is vulnerable to flooding from the With help from the Federal Emer- Savannah, Ogeechee and other nearby gency Management Agency and the De- rivers and canals. The county has expe- partment of Housing and Urban rienced 11 floods during storms that Development, the towns purchased hun- were shorter than three hours between dreds of buildings in the floodplain and 1987 and 2003, and 14 floods resulting relocated residents and businesses to from storms with 4 or more inches of higher ground. Albany also rebuilt its rain since 1948.48 schools above flood level. By preserving wetlands, riparian ar- Altogether, the investment in clearing eas and other open spaces upstream the floodplain was $3.2 million. How- from population centers, local govern- ever, that investment has paid off ments can help keep floodplain levels through avoided damage during more re- from moving higher.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 19 Raises Property Values over three years by the increased prop- erty tax revenue. Land near woodlands and parks often Developers in Georgia have discov- has a higher value than comparable land ered that developments near open in other places. These natural areas pro- spaces sell faster and for more money vide accessible recreation and natural than nearby developments with conven- beauty. People value proximity to natu- tional, sprawl-style design. For example, ral areas, as reflected in the increased East Lake Commons in DeKalb County value of nearby properties. For example, (a cohousing community with pedes- a study of homes near the extensive net- trian-friendly design and 12 acres of work of greenbelts in Boulder, Colorado open space) was entirely sold before the showed that housing prices next to a development was completed.51 greenbelt are 32 percent higher than According to a review of studies that prices for homes located 3,200 feet estimate the effect of open space and away.49 parks on property values, properties ad- Preserving open space has an effect joining a park or open space are in the on the finances of local governments as range of 20 percent more valuable than well. Increased property values lead to similar properties without open space.52 increased property tax revenues. This Open spaces that are especially attrac- effect can help offset the cost of open tive yield greater value increases. space acquisition, and even result in a net gain over time. The study of Boulder Property Values Near Sandy greenways showed that an open space in Creek Park in Athens-Clarke one neighborhood added $5.4 million to the value of the neighborhood, translat- County ing into $500,000 in additional property Property near Sandy Creek Park in Ath- tax revenue for the local government ens-Clarke County is more valuable than every year.50 The purchase price of the property located farther away. greenway was $1.5 million, offset in just The first land for Sandy Creek Park

Phyllis Skelton / Sandy Creek Park Sandy Creek Park in Athens-Clarke County increases the value of properties located nearby.

20 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Increased Tax Revenue from the Silver Comet Trail and other Greenways In addition to property values near Sandy Creek Park, University of Georgia researchers studied neighbor- hoods close to Silver Comet Trail in Cobb County, homes close to stream buffers preserved in Habersham County and properties impacted by Fulton County’s tree protection ordi- nance. They found that houses within 1,500 feet of conserved land generated from $70 to more than $1,500 more per year in tax revenue than similar homes further away.56

The Silver Comet Trail, left, runs through Cobb, Paulding and Polk counties before meeting up with the Chief Ladiga trail at Ray Mikell the Alabama border. was purchased in the 1960s. Today, the 459 homes sold for an average of preserve includes 255 acres of Georgia $90,280. The researchers found that Piedmont habitat, including streams, properties within 1,500 feet of the park’s floodplain, fields, and pine and hardwood edge sold for $5,330 to $8,570 more than forests. The park includes the Sandy homes farther away. This increased Creek Nature Center, an educational fa- property valuation resulted in higher cility; and Cook’s Trail, a 4.1-mile path property tax income for county govern- traversing 464 protected acres of ment, providing $43,490 more per 54 marshland in the North Oconee River’s year. floodplain. Parkland area to the north of Property values are likely to be high- the nature center and trail is designed for est near open spaces that: more active recreation, including ball Š Highlight natural areas rather than fields, boating, fishing and camping.53 highly developed facilities The nature center, trail and park of- Š Have limited vehicular access, but fer a valuable educational and recre- some recreational access; and ational resource for people who live in Š Have effective maintenance and the region. The value of the park is di- security.55 rectly reflected in the assessed value of Communities across Georgia can properties close to the park. take advantage of this effect with well- Researchers at the University of designed open space preservation pro- Georgia studied the value of homes grams. Guaranteeing that an open space within one mile of the park to see how will remain undeveloped removes uncer- access to open space affects property tainty about its future and enhances its values. The study analyzed the results of effect on nearby property values.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 21 Avoids the Costs of oped land, forests, and farms require Development $0.05 to $0.97 in expenditures for every dollar in tax revenue.57 Maintaining a substantial open space Farms and other types of open land, system is one important way to control rather than being a drain on local taxes, the operating costs of local government. actually subsidize local government by Land conservation is often less expen- generating more revenue than they re- sive for local government than a subur- quire in services. As a result, even in- ban-style residential development. cluding the initial cost of acquisition, A common misconception is that resi- conservation can be less costly to tax- dential development improves the fi- payers than development of the same nances of local government. Generally, parcel. residential land has a higher appraised For example, a study of a proposed value than undeveloped land and there- 300-unit development on a 720-acre fore generates more tax revenue. farm in Washington Township, New Jer- Hence, many people assume that be- sey compared education costs with cause it generates more tax revenue, preservation costs. Assuming one stu- residential development supports a dent per home, the average cost to the healthy local government budget. school district per household would be However, this assumption is almost $5,568 per year, while the average prop- always flawed. Residential development erty tax excluding county taxes would be demands public services that cost more $2,172. Accordingly, the school district than it provides in property tax income would need $1.6 million a year for edu- and the demand for these services con- cation, while the development would tinues indefinitely. Studies across 70 supply $650,000 in property tax revenue, communities have shown that for every leaving an annual deficit of $1 million. dollar in tax revenue, residential land re- Purchasing the development rights to the quires $1.02 to $2.12 in expenditures for farm would have cost $10 million, a cost public services. In contrast, undevel- that could be offset in less than 15 years

Residential development doesn’t always pay its own way.

22 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Figure 1: The Cost of Community Services (Excluding Schools) in Habersham and Oconee Counties61

$1.40 Residential Commercial and Industrial Farms, Parks and Woodlands $1.20

$1.00

$0.80

$0.60

$0.40

Cost perDollar of Revenue $0.20

$0.00 Habersham Oconee simply through the money saved by ing $4.2 billion in commercial and indus- avoiding development and the associated trial property over 20 years, these com- school district deficit.58 munities did not see a reduction in the Commercial development faces some costs of running local government. Also, of the same challenges. While commer- contrary to expectations, the tax rate for cial development itself generates more residential owners in ratable-rich com- income than it demands in services, it munities did not go down.59 creates indirect and offsetting effects. These studies suggest that local gov- Commercial developments attract em- ernments should carefully consider ployees, increasing the demand for resi- where and how to grow. To minimize dential development. Traffic and public infrastructure costs, local govern- pollution increase, roads require widen- ments should promote compact, mixed- ing, and local quality of life deteriorates use and transit-friendly development along with property values. Finally, com- patterns, balanced with more open space mercial property often depreciates in preservation. value, while residential properties do not, shifting the balance of taxation toward Residential Land Use Costs in residential areas. Habersham and Oconee Counties A 1992 study of 39 municipalities in Morris County, New Jersey showed that In 2000, Nanette Nelson and Jeffrey the addition of commercial property Dorfman at the University of Georgia failed to result in lower taxes, contrary performed an analysis of the costs paid to common wisdom. The 13 municipali- by Oconee and Habersham county gov- ties that ranked highest in the addition of ernments for providing services to areas taxable commercial property paid 57 with different types of land use. They percent of the local taxes. Despite add- found that, like almost all communities

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 23 studied, residential development does not pay its own way, while working lands and open space provide more in tax rev- enue than they require in services. Working farms and undeveloped lands require $0.82 in expenditures for every dollar they bring in revenue. In contrast, residential lands require $1.16 in expenditures for every dollar of rev- enue (Figure 1).60 Diane Owen These differentials are a result of the Cows in the Chattahoochee Hill Country. demand for services and infrastructure moving forward. They may find that generated by residential development, more compact development patterns including: coupled with open space preservation Š Water and sewer construction and makes more fiscal sense. operating costs Š Law enforcement and public safety Provides Agricultural Š Health and welfare services. Products Because the study was aimed at local Farms and pastureland are working governments that make decisions about landscapes that cover more than a quar- land use but are not involved in school ter of Georgia, forming the foundation of funding, the study did not include any the largest sector of Georgia’s economy. school-related expenses. However, had In addition to providing valuable prod- school construction and operating costs ucts from peaches to pecans, these open been included, the imbalance between spaces preserve a rural lifestyle that re- residential spending and residential tax mains an important part of Georgia’s revenues would have been even greater. identity. Dr. Dorfman has performed more Farm products are a valuable part of cost of community services studies. the Georgia state economy. Looking at the tax revenue provided by Š In 2002, Georgia had more than different land uses in 13Georgia coun- 49,000 farms covering over 10 ties, he found that residential land in all million acres of land.63 13 counties did not provide enough tax revenue to cover the cost of county gov- Š Agriculture, including food, fiber, ernment and schools. In contrast, farm- and forestry, is the largest single land and woodland in 12 of 13 counties sector of Georgia’s economy, provided significantly more in revenue. contributing more than $57 billion 64 Farmland and woodland in these coun- annually. ties provided up to $5 in revenue for ev- Š Farms and farm-related activities ery dollar of service costs.62 provide 15 percent of all jobs in the In sum, given the tendency for resi- state.65 dential developments to require more in Small scale farms are a key part of services than they create in property tax the agricultural economy and a stabiliz- income, local governments in Georgia ing influence for rural communities. should closely evaluate whether devel- Š 87 percent of all farms and over 60 opment of open space makes more fi- percent of all farmland acres in nancial sense than conservation before Georgia are held by small farmers.

24 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Figure 2: Development and Georgia’s Best Farmland67

Š 43,000 farms with less than developed 184,000 acres of high quality $100,000 worth of sales every year farmland, ranking third nationally in occupy nearly 7 million acres of prime agricultural acres lost. Many of 66 land. the most productive and fertile lands are Unfortunately, development is over- in the path of development—even in ar- taking many small-scale farms. Accord- eas far outside of the sprawling Atlanta ing to a study by the American Farmland metro area (Figure 2). Trust, between 1992 and 1997, Georgia

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 25 Central Georgia Farms Contribute to be developed.”71 to the Stability of Local Officials in Carroll County, west of Governments Atlanta, have recognized the value of farming to their community and are tak- The University of Georgia studied the ing steps to preserve the tradition. The tax revenue provided from farms in county has established the Farmland and Dooly and Jones counties near Macon, Rural Preservation Partnership to sus- finding that farms contribute more to the tain local agriculture and protect quality fiscal stability of local governments than of life. The program includes assistance 68 does residential development. Dooly for local landowners to voluntarily pro- County is one of Georgia’s top agricul- tect the natural and productive qualities tural producers, especially in terms of of their properties and a balanced 69 cotton. Jones County maintains an ac- growth approach promoting sustainable tive forestry industry. development along with rural preserva- According to the study, for every dol- tion, preventing urban sprawl.72 lar in revenue generated by residential development, Dooly County spent $2.07 providing services to that development Reduces Air Pollution and Jones County spent $1.24. In other Preserving forested land and urban trees words, despite the fact that residential helps to reduce air pollution, protect pub- developments generated significant lic health, and slow global warming. amounts of revenue per acre, service Trees have a natural capacity to filter costs left county government with a fi- pollutants from the air. Trees absorb pol- nancial loss. lutants directly into their leaves, includ- In contrast, farmland provides a ing ozone, sulfur dioxide, carbon source of financial stability. For every monoxide, carbon dioxide and airborne dollar in revenue generated by active particulates. For example, a large tree farmland, county government in Dooly can intercept up to 50 pounds of particu- spent only $0.27 on services, and $0.35 lates per year.73 in Jones County. Trees also reduce peak summer tem- Researchers concluded that new de- peratures and limit the size of the urban velopment should be carefully placed to heat island, which occurs as pavement ensure the stabilizing influence of small and dark rooftops absorb more of the farms on rural communities and to mini- sun’s heat than would vegetation.74 The mize the cost of providing services. Ac- cooling effect of trees provides multiple cording to Jeffrey Dorfman, a professor air quality benefits. First, lower tem- at the University of Georgia and an au- peratures mean less energy is consumed thor of the study, “conservation subdivi- to cool buildings and pollution from sions and higher-density development … power plants may be reduced. Second, help lessen the negative economic im- lower air temperatures inhibit the forma- pact of converting farmland into tion of ground-level air pollution such as houses.”70 smog. According to Jerry Cohn of the The benefits provided by trees have American Farmland Trust, “farm and monetary value. Air pollution is a serious forest land, besides providing green public health problem for Georgia. The space, wildlife habitat and local eco- Atlanta metropolitan area ranks as the nomic activity, provides substantial fiscal ninth-worst metropolitan area for year- benefits. It’s not just open land waiting round particle pollution in the country.75

26 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Colin Jaccino Trees in Stone Mountain Park help to reduce air pollution. Society pays the price for air pollution in can Forests, roughly 40 percent of the terms of shortened lives and health care 10-county region is covered by forest costs. Pollution from power plants alone canopy. The trees and vegetation in the causes 1,630 premature deaths per year Atlanta area remove 19 million pounds in Georgia, as well as 1,050 hospitaliza- of pollutants from the air every year. tions and 38,200 asthma attacks.76 Providing equivalent emissions reduc- Replacing the lost air quality function tions using man-made pollution control 77 of a developed open space would require technology would cost $47 million. expenditure to install improved pollution In addition, trees and vegetation help controls. In actuality, however, the air lower peak summer temperatures. quality functions of open space are Atlanta’s current urban heat island ef- rarely replaced after development. fect is so strong that it increases energy use downtown by roughly 4 percent.78 Trees Reduce Air Pollution in This increases air pollution. High tem- Atlanta peratures also lead to the formation of as much as 12 percent of the city’s air pol- The 10-county Atlanta area has a signifi- lution.79 cant amount of forest canopy and open From 1972 to 1993, 60 percent of the space that provides air quality benefits region’s tree cover was lost to develop- for the region. However, the region is ment.80 Protecting and enhancing forest one of the fastest growing metro areas in cover in the Atlanta region—and across the U.S. and faces strong development the state—can save millions of dollars, pressures. maintain and even improve air quality, all According to the organization Ameri- while improving quality of life.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 27 Provides Places to Hunt and Fish Forests and wildlife areas provide places for millions of Georgians to hunt and fish; and to watch birds and other wildlife. These areas also help to maintain biological di- versity—a function essential for maintaining intact, healthy, and stable ecosys- tems. Recreational fishing illus- trates the economic impact that healthy wildlife habitats State Wildlife biologist Rick Gerhold fly-fishing in the Chattooga River in northern Georgia can help provide. Fishing is one of the most popular activities in Š Bald Eagles Georgia. The Georgia Department of Natural Resources estimates that over 1 Š Florida Panthers million Georgians spend almost $500 mil- Š Eastern Cougars lion yearly on fishing, generating over Š Ivory-billed Woodpeckers 14,000 jobs and $900 million in overall economic impact.81 Š Kirtland’s Warblers Hunting and wildlife-watching have Š Piping Plovers similarly large impacts. Hundreds of Š Shortnose Sturgeons thousands of Georgians rely on natural areas to participate in these activities. Š Etowah Darters At the same time, these same natural Š Leatherback Sea Turtles areas are home to tens of thousands of Š Eastern Indigo Snakes separate species of plants, animals, in- sects and other living things. Georgia Š Alabama Leather Flowers ranks sixth in the nation in terms of spe- Š Smooth Purple Coneflowers 82 cies diversity. Š Green Pitcher Plants Largely because of loss of habitat, some species that once were abundant Š Tennessee Yellow-eyed Grass; and in Georgia are now struggling. State of- Š Trillium. ficials have classified more than 1,000 Wild lands are the last remaining species as “of special concern.” More habitat for these animals and plants. than 220 of these species are listed as Preserving their habitat can help pre- rare, unusual, threatened or endangered serve the wildlife and continue their role in Georgia.83 63 of these species are en- in the ecosystem. Preserving habitat can dangered or threatened across the entire also help ensure healthy and stable 84 United States, including: populations of game animals for recre- Š Peregrine Falcons ation.

28 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Protecting Critical Habitat in the Altamaha River Corridor The Georgia Department of Natural Resources (DNR) recently identified critical ecosystems in the Altamaha River basin in southwestern Georgia as targets for preservation. The Altamaha basin contains over a dozen critical habitats, including oxbow lakes, evergreen hammocks, hardwood levee forests, cypress-gum swamps and pine flatwoods. These areas are home to dozens of species of concern, includ- ing green fly orchids, pondspice, Georgia plume, red-cockaded woodpeckers, Bachman’s sparrows, swallow-tailed kites and Altamaha spinymussels.91 Leveraging $1.6 million in annual grant money from the federal government’s State Wildlife Grants Program, the Georgia DNR plans to purchase a 2,823 acre parcel of land near the Altamaha River in Wayne County. The lands provide habitat for endangered indigo snakes, gopher tortoises, and other critical species.92 Georgia became eligible for the funds in November 2005, after the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service approved an action plan called A Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy for Georgia. The document lists hundreds of high priority sites and landscape features to focus conservation efforts on, in order to ensure that Georgia’s great biological diversity remains intact.93 However, there is not enough funding to protect more than a fraction of these sites. The report cites a need to develop a consistent source of state funding for land conservation—as well as programs to encourage voluntary land protection and habitat management programs on private lands—to ensure the continued ex- istence of functional habitat for Georgia’s rich heritage of wildlife.94

Doerun Pitcher Plant Bog: Preserving the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem Hundreds of years ago, much of the Southeast was covered with longleaf pine forests and savannahs. Now, less than 3 percent of these areas remain.88 In the 1980s alone, southern Georgia lost over a third of its acres of longleaf pine for- est.89 The main culprits are timber harvesting and habitat fragmentation. To protect one of the most rare parts of the longleaf pine ecosystem, the Geor- gia Department of Natural Resources purchased a 650-acre tract in southwest Georgia called the Doerun Pitcher Plant Bog. The area includes a rare longleaf pine wetland, home to three of Georgia’s seven pitcher plant species—the yellow flytrap, the hooded pitcher plant and the parrot pitcher plant. The preserve also provides habitat for the red-cockaded woodpecker and the gopher tortoise. In 2002, the DNR dedicated an access trail to the bog, allowing Georgians to visit and view the pitcher plants.90 In addition to preserving a unique example of a rare ecosystem, the area provides an important environmental education resource and a valuable attraction for wildlife watchers.

US Forest Service Yellow Pitcher Plants

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 29 Preserving Roadless Areas: Kelly trout and several types of sala- Ridge in Chattahoochee National manders—including the hellbender sala- Forest mander, which grows up to 29 inches long. The area also attracts black bears, One of Georgia’s wildest areas is the flying squirrels and ruffled grouse.86 Chattahoochee National Forest, cover- Some of the best, wildest hunting and ing the southern extent of the Appala- fishing in Georgia can be found in places chian Mountains. Several parts of the like Kelly Ridge. Chattahoochee are preserved as federal The Forest Service recommended wilderness areas. Other parts of the for- protection for Kelly Ridge as an official est, while not official wilderness areas, wilderness area in 2000. However, later have the same wild qualities and host a drafts of the forest management plan for wide and diverse range of wildlife. the area omitted wilderness recommen- Kelly Ridge is an 8,500 acre wild for- dation. est area, located just west of Lake Bur- In May of 2005, the Bush Adminis- ton in Towns and Rabun counties. It is tration officially revoked the Roadless home to a rich diversity of north-facing Area Conservation Rule of 2001, which hardwood coves, including old-growth would have protected Kelly Ridge and buckeye trees. In fact, nearly one-fifth the other 50,000 plus acres of roadless of all of the identified old growth trees in wild forest in Georgia.87 Governor the Chattahoochee National Forest are Sonny Perdue has until November 2006 on Kelly Ridge.85 to petition the federal government to Streams flowing from Kelly Ridge, leave roadless areas untouched. including Swallow Creek, are of the highest quality. They provide habitat for Supports Economic Mike Cunningham, Georgia Forestwatch Redevelopment Natural land is not just a feature of rural and wild areas in remote parts of Geor- gia. It can also be used in the middle of highly urbanized areas as a part of com- prehensive economic redevelopment. Although Atlanta has experienced unprecedented economic growth over the last two decades, that growth has been accompanied by unintended con- sequences of poorly-planned develop- ment, including traffic, air pollution, auto dependency and limited public space. Parts of Atlanta have also suffered from population decline and disinvestment. As a solution to this problem, plan- ners have proposed attracting and orga- nizing the region’s future growth around an interconnected system of parks, tran- sit and trails circling the core of At- An old-growth Yellow Buckeye tree lanta—the BeltLine. on Kelly Ridge

30 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center The BeltLine will add 1,200 acres of new green 96 The BeltLine will encircle Atlanta with space. The loop will include some new greenways and public transit along transit and could improve existing transit former railroad rights-of-way. The plan options by offering a link into five exist- includes a 22-mile loop within two to ing MARTA stations. Roughly 100,000 four miles of the center of Atlanta and 11 people live within walking distance of the miles of spur trails, connecting 45 neigh- BeltLine.97 borhoods and 40 parks.95 The project Planners anticipate that the BeltLine

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 31 will stimulate a great deal of investment Preserves History in the communities through which it passes. Over the next 20 to 25 years, Land conservation can preserve evi- planners expect: dence of past events in Georgia and of- fer a glimpse into our shared cultural Š 30,000 new jobs—50 percent more heritage. Long-lost Native American ar- jobs than in the absence of the tifacts and villages lie undiscovered in project.98 open spaces around the state, or in pro- Š An estimated $20 billion increase in tected areas like the Ocmulgee National regional tax base.99 Monument in Macon. Evidence of the Funding for the project will come activities of the first European and Afri- from several sources. The biggest can residents of Georgia lies closer to source will be the recently approved Tax the surface. Other parts of the state Allocation District (TAD), in which any preserve evidence of events that shaped taxes paid on higher property values re- how the country developed, including sulting from the BeltLine will support the Civil War battlefields. project instead of being applied to gen- Historical parks preserve the past for eral city, county or school district ex- people to observe, appreciate, and learn penses.100 After 25 years, the TAD will from. They also are a major attraction expire and all property tax revenues will for the heritage tourist, an important part be distributed as usual to different levels of Georgia’s tourism economy. The of government. Additional funding could Travel Industry Association found that come from the Federal Transit Adminis- historic and cultural travelers spend 36 tration.101 Land acquisition has already percent more per trip than the average begun with $18 million in federal fund- tourist, helping to support local busi- ing.102 nesses.103

Jerri Sumlin, City of Atlanta Dept. of Parks, Recreation and Cultural Affairs

The BeltLine will travel through Piedmont Park in northeast Atlanta, pictured here.

32 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center The Squares of Savannah In the historic center of Savannah, over 20 public squares preserve the history of the city for 140,000 residents and over 5 mil- lion annual visitors to visit and see.109 The squares are woven into the city fabric and define the cultural heritage of Savannah. The squares are also one of the earliest examples of comprehensive city planning

and public space creation in North istockphoto.com America. With each square at the heart of mixed residential and commercial areas, for 270 years Savannah has embodied the concept of “smart growth.” In the mid 1700s, Savannah’s first planner, James Oglethorpe, laid out the city in a grid pattern based on wards, each about 600 feet on a side. Almost every ward had a public square in the center. Today, these squares are planted with live oaks and make Savannah one of the most beautiful and unique cities in America. Many of the parks have monuments to figures important in Savannah’s history. Chippewa Square includes a statue memorializing Oglethorpe. A boulder in Wright Square honors the Yamacraw chieftain Tomochichi, who befriended Oglethorpe and al- lowed him to settle in what is now Savannah.110 Walking through the city squares, people can directly see and learn about the city’s history while enjoying the natural beauty that makes Savannah famous. According to Savannah historian Edward Chan Sieg, Savannah’s “social life, the economic heart of the area, the religious and artistic endeavors, even the politi- cal and justice systems—all are intimately enmeshed in the little green parks that simultaneously separate and bring together the community.”111

Preserving Civil War History: the soldiers who died. Eventually, Con- Kennesaw Mountain and New gress authorized the creation of a na- Hope Church tional park at the site, expanding its size to 2,884 acres by 1947. However, the Kennesaw Mountain National Battle- government did not have enough money field Park in Cobb County, just outside available to protect all of the locations Atlanta, preserves the site of a major where significant battles occurred.106 clash between the Union and Confeder- Despite the fact that Kennesaw ate armies as Union forces marched to- Mountain is a national park, the Civil War 104 ward Atlanta in 1864. Today, well Preservation Trust classifies it as highly over one million people visit the site per threatened by development, ranking the 105 year. area among the top 10 most endangered Preservation efforts at Kennesaw sites in 2005.107 From plans to widen Mountain National Battlefield Park date huge roads through the park to building back to 1899, when a veteran of the shopping centers across from the his- battle returned from Illinois to purchase toric Kolb farm (the site of a major 60 acres of the area as a memorial for battle), the park continually feels pres-

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 33 sure from the growth of the surrounding battlefields in the area to the “most community. threatened” list of battlefields across the Many battlefields of significance ex- country. To date, the Civil War Preser- ist outside the national park as well. vation Trust has managed to acquire a Much of the western-Atlanta region 19-acre parcel of land at New Hope contains evidence of Civil War Church, complementing 750 acres pre- struggles. Some people even have battle served as a state historical area at lines, earthworks and remnants of forti- nearby Pickett’s Mill.108 fications in their backyards. Georgia currently has eight national Expanding development is a major parks and 15 state parks preserving im- threat to the continued existence of Civil portant parts of the state’s history and War history in unprotected areas across cultural identity. Countless additional his- the state. For example, before the Union torical landscapes remain unprotected. Army reached Kennesaw Mountain, it Communities across Georgia can pre- clashed with Confederate forces at New serve the educational value of historical Hope Church in Paulding County. open spaces by conserving them for The site of this battle is mostly pri- public use—and at the same time en- vate property. The Georgia Battlefields hance the benefits of heritage tourism Association has repeatedly nominated for the state.

Kennesaw Mountain NBP / RoseTaylor

Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park

34 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center Policy Recommendations

onserving additional land across Protect public lands from Georgia will require a variety of development. Ctools, including funding for land purchases and incentives for landowners Public lands belong to all Georgians to voluntarily protect their land or man- and should be protected for the public age it for the benefit of society. The rather than offered to private interests. state also needs an overarching plan, For example: unifying the efforts of state and local Georgia has more than 60,000 acres governments, civic leaders, and citizens of national forests yet to be impacted by around a vision for the future of roads. In May 2005, the Bush adminis- Georgia’s natural heritage. tration officially revoked the Roadless Governor Sonny Perdue recently set Area Conservation Rule of 2001, which aside $100 million, including $45 million would have protected these areas from in grants and $55 million in loans, to pro- development.112 Before November tect land with historical or ecological 2006, Governor Perdue should petition value. He also helped establish the the federal government to protect these Georgia Conservation Tax Credit, which areas. rewards landowners who choose to per- In the draft 2007 federal budget, the manently protect their land from devel- Bush Administration proposed the sale opment. While these are good steps in of 300,000 acres of national forests and the right direction, more needs to be other public lands, potentially including done in order to protect all the land 550 acres of the Oconee National For- Georgians want conserved. est in middle Georgia and nearly 4,000 In order to ensure that development acres of the Chattahoochee National does not outpace conservation efforts, Forest in north Georgia.113 The pro- Georgia should: ceeds would be used for rural schools

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 35 Gennie Bailey Cattails at the Savannah National Wildlife Refuge and roads. State and local leaders should Create priority areas for growth. join other Southern Governors, like Ten- In addition to a land conservation nessee Governor Phil Bredesen, in op- roadmap, Georgia should have a comple- posing this move. Selling public lands is mentary growth roadmap that identifies not a sustainable source of funding and priority areas for growth. Local govern- could negate important economic and ments should develop comprehensive ecological benefits that these lands pro- land use plans and zoning regulations to vide. implement those plans. With extensive opportunities for public input, these plans Develop an official land conservation can capture how people want their com- roadmap. munities to function and grow. Areas Using available scientific surveys and that already possess these planning tools studies about the most ecologically valu- should develop ordinances to encourage able areas in the state, Georgia should well-planned development in growth ar- create an official land conservation eas and conservation of ecologically roadmap to guide future conservation valuable areas. Maryland’s Priority efforts toward the most important Funding Areas are a good example. places. The most valuable lands provide drinking water, flood control, wildlife Create a dedicated funding habitat, recreation and other benefits as mechanism for land conservation. described in this report. Preserving A dedicated source of funding would these areas first will provide Georgians provide certainty as to the quantity of with more tangible results for their con- funds available for land conservation servation dollars. and lay out the time period for their

36 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center availability. States use a variety of grams.119 sources for land conservation including: Pennsylvania provides a dedicated bonds, general fund appropriations, li- source of funding for land conservation cense plate sales, real estate transfer and other environmental priorities taxes, lottery funds, oil/gas/mineral ex- through the Growing Greener program. traction fees, environmental penalty In 2005, voters approved spending $625 money, sales taxes, cigarette taxes and million over six years for Growing gas taxes. For example: Greener. The plan is financed by a fee Florida is home to the world’s largest assessed on waste deposited in Pennsyl- land conservation buying program, vania landfills. For every ton of waste, Florida Forever. In the last 5 years, trash haulers pay a $4.25 tipping fee Florida Forever has acquired more than specifically dedicated to environmental 1 million acres, including ecological programs.120 greenways, natural floodplains, wet- In New Jersey, residents voted for a lands, coastline, recreational trails and constitutional amendment to set aside habitat for 190 different rare and endan- $98 million from the state sales tax an- gered animals and plants.114 Beyond nually for 30 years for land conservation. land acquisition, Florida Forever helps to A portion of the funds was reserved for restore damaged ecosystems, protect matching grants to local governments. water supply, improve public access, The plan was developed by former New manage public lands and create conser- Jersey Governor Christine Whitman, vation easements.115 Florida Forever is who argued that state and local govern- funded by $3 billion over 10 years in rev- ments could not afford to provide neces- enue bonds, backed by document stamp sary public services if the state’s taxes on the sale of property.116 remaining open spaces were developed. Maryland’s Program Open Space is a Missouri’s State Parks/Clean Water nationally recognized program that pro- Initiative provides $54 million through a vides dedicated funding for state parks, one-half of one percent sales tax. Ar- local parks, and conservation areas. The kansas uses bonds in combination with a program has preserved over 265,000 one-eighth cent sales tax to protect its acres of Maryland’s natural heritage open spaces. since its establishment in 1969.117 Pro- Dedicating a one-tenth of one per- gram Open Space is funded by a real cent sales tax in Georgia (either through estate transfer tax. At the time of every redirecting a portion of existing sales real estate transaction, half of one per- taxes or increasing the tax) would gen- cent of the selling price is put into a spe- erate approximately $100 million annu- cial fund.118 This system allows land ally for land conservation. Any preservation in Maryland to adequately permanent funding program should be keep pace with development. In 2006, accompanied by a target for number of this tax is expected to generate nearly acres protected, a time frame, and $300 million for local open space pro- agreed-upon priority conservation areas.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 37 Notes 1 National Resources Conservation 15 About North Georgia and Golden 26 S. Postel and S. Carpenter, Service, National Resources Inventory Ink, Inc., Tallulah Gorge State “Freshwater Ecosystem Services,” in 1997, December 2000; Georgia Park, downloaded from G. C. Daily ed. Natures Services: Humanities Council and the Univer- ngeorgia.com on 31 January 2006. Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems (Island Press: Washing- sity of Georgia Press, “Urban Sprawl,” 16 Ibid. New Georgia Encyclopedia, 5 ton DC), 195–214, 1997. December 2002. 17 John Harmon, “Tallulah Falls: A 27 Floodplain Management River Runs Through It Once Again,” 2 Ibid, Georgia Humanities Council. Association, “Economic Benefits of The Atlanta Journal and Constitu- Wetlands,” FMA News: The Newslet- 3 Fulton County, Conservation tion, 11 May 1994. ter of the Floodplain Management Subdivision Ordinance, adopted 21 18 Personal Correspondence, Association, July 1994, as cited in April 2004. Interpretive Ranger Staff, Tallulah National Park Service, Economic 4 Georgia Planning Association, Gorge State Park, 1 February 2006. Impacts of Protecting Rivers, Trails, “Georgia Planning Association 2003 and Greenway Corridors, 1995; 19 Charles Seabrook, “Preserving 1991 dollars adjusted to 2003 dollars Awards,” Georgia Planner, December Pristine Georgia,” The Atlanta 2003; Georgia Planning Association, using inflation in the consumer price Journal and Constitution, 1 index. “Georgia Planning Association 2004 November 1992. Awards,” Georgia Planner, January 28 President’s Committee of 2005. 20 Georgia Forestry Commission, Advisors on Science and Technology, Forest Legacy Program; Assessment Teaming with Life: Investing in 5 For more information, see of Needs for the State of Georgia: www.chatthillcountry.org. Science to Understand and Use Georgia’s Forest Legacy Areas, America’s Living Capital, March 6 48 Million: Travel Industry 2001. 1998. Association of America, Economic 21 Habersham and Rabun Counties: 29P.C. Winter et al. United States Impact of Travel on Georgia: 2003 Travel Industry Association of Profile, Prepared for the Georgia Geological Survey, Ground Water and America, Economic Impact of Surface Water: A Single Resource, Department of Industry, Trade and Travel on Georgia: 2004 Profile: Tourism, May 2004; Top Ten: Mary USGS Circular 1139, 1998. Regional Analysis, Prepared for the Jo Torrey, Travel Industry Associa- Georgia Department of Economic 30 See Note 24. tion of America (TIA), 2002 North Development, August 2005. Carolina Governor’s Conference on 31 Betsy Otto et al., American Tourism (presentation), Greensboro, 22 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Rivers, Natural Resources Defense March 2002. Mobile District, History of the Council, and Smart Growth America, Allatoona Project, downloaded from Paving our Way to Water Shortages: 7 Office of Georgia Governor Sonny allatoona.sam.usace.army.mil on 22 How Sprawl Aggravates the Effects Perdue, Rise in Tourism Spending February 2006. of Drought, 2002. Boosts Georgia Economy in 2004, (Press Release), 11 May 2005. 23 Jo Hickson, Coastal Georgia 32 See Note 24. Greenway Steering Committee, The 8 Tourism Industry Association of 33 Storm-water Management Coastal Georgia Alternative: Systems, Cahill Associates, Porous America, 2002 TIA TravelScope Developing Heritage and Eco- Destination Visitation to Georgia, Pavement System with Underground tourism on the Coast, December Recharge Beds, Engineering Design Published by GDITT Tourism 2003. Division, 2003, available at Report, Spring 1993. my.georgia.org. 24 The Center for Watershed 34 Elizabeth Brabec, Stacey Schulte Protection, Site Planning for Urban and Paul Richards, University of 9 Travel Industry Association of Stream Protection: Chapter 2, The Michigan, “Impervious Surfaces and America, Economic Impact of Travel Importance of Imperviousness, Water Quality: A Review of Current on Georgia: 2003 Profile, Prepared downloaded from www.cwp.org on 4 for the Georgia Department of Literature and Its Implications for February 2003; Peter Lehner et al., Watershed Planning,” Journal of Industry, Trade and Tourism, May Storm-water Strategies: Community 2004. Planning Literature 16, 499-514, Responses to Runoff Pollution, 2002; The Center for Watershed 10 See Note 8. 1999. Protection, Site Planning for Urban 11 Outdoor Industry Foundation, 25 Clean Water Network and the Stream Protection: Chapter 2, The Business for Wilderness Program, National Resources Defense Importance of Imperviousness, Outdoor Recreation Participation and Council, Wetlands for Clean Water: downloaded from www.cwp.org on 4 Spending Study: A State-by-State How Wetlands Protect Rivers, Lakes, Feb. 2003; Travis Madsen, Douglas Perspective, 1 May 2003. and Coastal Waters from Pollution, O’Malley and Dena Mottola, April 1997; Albert Todd, “Making NJPIRG Law & Policy Center, Rivers 12 Ibid. Decisions About Riparian Buffer in Danger: The Impact of Develop- 13 Ibid. Width,” in Riparian Ecology and ment on Water Quality in New Jersey, Management in Multi-Use Water- April 2003. 14 Steven Uhles, “Tallulah Gorge sheds, (Middleburg, VA: American Falls Silent; But Still Draws Sightse- 35 Trust for Public Land, Water Resources Association, Tallapoosa Watershed, 26 March ers,” Augusta Chronicle, 5 August 2000), 445-450. 2004. 2004, available at www.tpl.org.

38 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center 36 Atlanta Regional Commission, January 2006. 63 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Water Supply, Downloaded from National Agriculture Statistics 52 See Note 49. www.atlantaregional.com on 26 Service, 2002 Census of Agriculture: January 2006. 53 Nanette Nelson, Jeffery Georgia State and County Data, June Dorfman, Laurie Fowler, University 2004. 37 United States Geological Survey, of Georgia, The Potential for Atlanta Area Water Supply and Use, 64 The University of Georgia Community Forests to Be Self- Downloaded from ga.water.usgs.gov/ College of Agricultural and Environ- Financing: A Hedonic Analysis of olympics/atlanta.wu.html, 28 July mental Sciences, Georgia Ag Facts, the Enhancement Value of Georgia’s 2004. downloaded from Trees, 30 November 2002. resources.caes.uga.edu on 26 January 38 William Stevens, “The High Risk 54 In 2001 dollars. Ibid. 2006. of Denying Rivers Their Flood Plains,” New York Times, 20 July 55 As Cited in John Crompton, 65 U.S Department of Agriculture, 1993. “The Impact of Parks on Property Economic Research Service, State Values: A Review of the Empirical Fact Sheets: Georgia, 8 December 39 Jeffrey Dobur and James Noel, Evidence,” Journal of Leisure 2005. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 33:1, 1 January 2001. Administration, “A Climatological 66 See Note 63. Assessment of Flood Events in 56 Laurie Anderson and Nanette 67 American Farmland Trust, Georgia,” Proceedings of the 2005 Nelson, University of Georgia, UGA Georgia Water Resources Confer- Study Reveals Property Values Rise Farming on the Edge: Sprawling ence, 25-27 April 2005. Near Greenspaces, (Press Release), Development Threatens America’s 2 May 2003. Best Farmland, 3 October 2002. 40 Ibid. 57 American Farmland Trust, Fact 68 University of Georgia College of 41 Ibid. Sheet: Cost of Community Services Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Housing Developments 42 See Note 27. Studies, November 2002, available at www.farmlandinfo.org. Costly to Communities: UGA 43 American Forests, Urban Research Shows Housing Develop- Ecosystem Analysis: Atlanta Metro 58 Alison Mitchell, New Jersey ment is More Costly to Counties than Area, August 2001. Conservation Foundation, “Eco- Farms, (Press Release), 10 January nomic Analysis Shows Farmland 2002. 44 Association of State Floodplain Preservation Pays,” New Jersey Managers, Georgia Flood Mitiga- Land Forum, Winter 1995; as cited 69 See Note 63. tion, downloaded from in Association of New Jersey 70 See Note 68. www.floods.org, 30 January 2006. Environmental Commissions (ANJEC), “Open Space is a Good 71 Ibid. 45 Ibid. Investment: The Financial Argu- 72 Carroll County Cooperative 46 Michael Blakely, CRS Program ment for Open Space Preservation,” Extension Service, Carroll County Manager, Chatham County Depart- in Leonard Hamilton, ed., Great Rural & Farmland Preservation ment of Engineering, Personal Swamp Watershed Association, The Communication, 2 February 2006. Benefits of Open Space, Chapter 9, Partnership, accessed at 1997. county.ces.uga.edu/carroll on 2 47 Ibid. February 2006. 59 Leonard Hamilton and Paul 48 11 floods: See Note 39; 14 When, Great Swamp Watershed 73 E.G. McPherson, “Economic floods: Chatham Emergency Association, The Myth of the Modeling for Large-Scale Tree Management Agency, Here Are 10 Ratables, 1992; as cited in Associa- Plantings,” Energy Efficiency and the Facts that Every Unincorporated tion of New Jersey Environmental Environment: Forging the Link, Chatham County Resident Should Commissions (ANJEC), “Open (American Council for an Energy Know, downloaded from Space is a Good Investment: The Efficient Economy), 1991. cema.chathamcounty.org/ Financial Argument for Open Space 74 University of Georgia, “Atlanta flooding.html, 30 January 2006. Preservation,” in Leonard An “Urban Heat Island,” With Higher Hamilton, ed., Great Swamp 49 Correll, Lillydahl, and Singell, Temperatures Than Surrounding Area, Watershed Association, The Benefits “The Effects of Greenbelts on New NASA Study Shows,” Science of Open Space, Chapter 9, 1997. Residential Property Values: Some Daily, 25 March 1999. Findings on the Political Economy 60 Nanette Nelson and Jeffrey 75 American Lung Association, State of Open Space,” Land Economics Dorfman, Center for Agribusiness 54: 207-17, May 1978. and Economic Development, of the Air 2005, Table 2a: People at Risk in 25 U.S. Cities Most Polluted 50 Correll, Lillydahl, and Singell, University of Georgia, Cost of Community Service Studies for with Year-Round Particle Pollution “The Effects of Greenbelts on (Annual PM 2.5). Residential Property Values: Some Habersham and Oconee Counties, Georgia, 11 February 2000. Findings on the Political Economy 76 Conrad Schneider, Clean Air Task of Open Space,” Land Economics 61 Ibid. Force, Death, Disease, and Dirty 54: 207-17, May 1978. Power: Mortality and Health Damage 62 Jeffrey Dorfman, University of due to Air Pollution from Power 51 Seth Wenger and Laurie Fowler, Georgia, Results for Appling, Plants, October 2000. University of Georgia Institute of Athens-Clarke, Brooks, Carroll, Ecology (for the Atlanta Regional Cherokee, Colquitt, Dooly, Grady, 77 American Forests, Trees and Air Commission), Conservation Hall, Jones, Miller, Mitchell and Quality, downloaded from Subdivision Ordinances, Downloaded Thomas counties, Personal www.americanforests.org/graytogreen/ from www.atlantaregional.com on 26 Communication, 27 February 2006. air/, 13 January 2006.

Protecting Our Natural Heritage 39 78 American Forests, Atlanta Urban 93 See Note 88. 109 Project for Public Spaces, Ecological Analysis, 1996, as Great Public Spaces: Squares of 94 Ibid. presented in Citizens for a Scenic Savannah, available at www.pps.org, Florida, American Forests’ Urban 95 Beltline Partnership, Maps, 2005. Ecological Analysis, downloaded downloaded from www.beltline.org, 110 Ibid. from www.scenicflorida.org/ 25 January 2006. lscurbanecolog.html, 13 January 111 Edward Chan Sieg, The 96 Beltline Partnership, 2006. Squares: An Introduction to Greenspace, downloaded from Savannah, (The Donning Co.) 79 Ibid. www.beltline.org, 25 January 2006. 1996. 80 Ibid. 97 See Note 95. 112 See Note 87. 81 Georgia Forestry Commision, 98 Beltline Partnership, Economic 113 S. Heather Duncan, “GA. Forest Legacy Program; Assessment Development, downloaded from Forests Included in Planned Sell-Off of Needs for the State of Georgia: www.beltline.org, 25 January 2006. Georgia’s Forest Legacy Areas, 2001. of Public Land,” Macon Telegraph, 99 Ibid. 21 February 2006. 82 Greg Krakow, Georgia Depart- ment of Natural Resources, Nongame 100 Beltline Partnership, Beltline 114 Florida Department of Wildlife and Natural Heritage Section, Tax Allocation District (TAD)—The Environmental Protection, Florida Who We Are, 22 May 2003, available Beltline’s Funding Source, down- Forever Land Acquisition Program, at georgiawildlife.dnr.state.ga.us. loaded from www.beltline.org, 25 downloaded from January 2006. 83 Ibid. www.floridadep.org/lands/ on 13 101 Beltline Partnership, The March 2006. 84 Greg Krakow, Georgia Depart- History of the Beltline, downloaded 115 State Environmental Resource ment of Natural Resources, Nongame from www.beltline.org, 25 January Center, Conservation Funding: Wildlife and Natural Heritage Section, 2006. Special Concern Plants List and Policy Issues Package, 2 September Special Concern Animals List, 22 102 Beltline Partnership, Transpor- 2004, available at October 2004. tation, downloaded from www.serconline.org. www.beltline.org, 25 January 2006. 85 Jannisse Ray, “Chattahoochee 116 Trust for Public Land, State National Forest: Deep in the Georgia 103 Office of Georgia Governor Funding Profiles, Funding Profile: Woods,” Sierra Magazine, March/ Sonny Perdue, Governor Perdue Florida, March 2003, available at April 2004. Unveils Heritage Tourism Initiative, www.tpl.org. (Press Release), 28 August 2005. 86 Ibid. 117 Maryland Department of 87 Charles Seabrook, “Bush OKs 104 Michael A. Capps, National Natural Resources, Introduction – Park Service, Kennesaw Mountain Opening Forests,” Atlanta Journal- Program Open Space 101, down- National Battlefield Park: Adminis- Constitution, 6 May 2005. loaded from www.dnr.state.md.us, 29 trative History, 1994. May 2003. 88 Georgia Department of Natural 105 Joni Leithe and Patricia Tigue, Resources, A Comprehensive Wildlife 118 Maryland Statutes: Tax – “Profiting from the Past: The Conservation Strategy for Georgia, Property, Sections 12-110, 12-116, Economic Impact of Historic 31 August 2005. 13-103, and 13-209; Karen Benton, Preservation in Georgia,” Govern- Department of Legislative Services, 89 C. Kenneth Dodd, National ment Finance Review, April 2000, Maryland General Assembly, HB 557 Biological Service, Reptiles and 37-41. Amphibians in the Endangered Fiscal Note: Recordation and Longleaf Pine Ecosystem, in: E.T. 106 See Note 104. Transfer Taxes – Transfers of Controlling Interests, 27 March LaRoe, G.S. Farris, C.E. Puckett, P.D. 107 Civil War Preservation Trust, 2002. Doran and M.J. Mac (eds.), National Endangered Battlefields, Georgia, Biological Service, Our Living downloaded from www.civilwar.org 119 Amanda Mock, Department of Resources, 1995. on 1 February 2006; Civil War Legislative Services, Maryland, 90 Charles Seabrook, “Bog, Longleaf Preservation Trust, Civil War Analysis of FY 2007 Maryland Woods Await Along Trail near Preservation Trust Unveils Most Executive Budget, 2006, 1. Moultrie,” Atlanta Journal-Constitu- Endangered Battlefields List, (Press 120 Commonwealth of Pennsylva- tion, 16 May 2002. Release), 24 February 2005. nia, Governor’s Office of the 91 See Note 88. 108 Civil War Preservation Trust, Budget, Gov. Rendell Enacts Land Preservation Accomplish- Growing Greener II, Makes Historic 92 Elliott Minor, “Help’s on the ments, downloaded from Investment in Environment, Way for Salamanders, Shiners and www.civilwar.org on 9 February Economy, (Press Release), 13 July Other Obscure Species,” Associated 2006. 2005. Press, 7 November 2005.

Tammy Sue Jekyll Island, Georgia

40 Environment Georgia Research & Policy Center