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Jewish Funerary Architecture in Britain and Ireland Since 1656

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Jewish Funerary Architecture in Britain and Ireland Since 1656 Jewish Historical Studies, volume 43, 2011 Jewish funerary architecture inBritain and Ireland since 1656 SHARMAN KADISH In Hebrew, a Jewish burial ground is referred to by several names: Bet Kevarot 'house of graves', Bet Hayim 'house of life' or Bet Olam 'house of eternity.' According to halakhah (Orthodox Jewish law) it is forbidden to disturb the physical remains of the dead. Burial grounds are regarded as sacred places in perpetuity. Although no great emphasis is placed on the afterlife in Judaism, which is primarily concerned with conduct in the here and now, the concept of Tehiat HaMetim (the Resurrection of theDead) is a basic doctrine. A Jewish burial ground is consecrated ground. In practice, therefore, Jewish burial grounds may not be disturbed through archaeolog? ical investigation or redevelopment. Britain's Jewish community which, since theCromwellian Resettlement of 1656, has never numbered more than about 450,000 people (after the Second World War), down to 267,000 according to the 2001 Census, has a significant legacy of burial grounds scat? tered all over the country. A total of 153 surviving Jewish burial grounds opened between 1690 and 1939 were recorded by the Survey of the Jewish Built Heritage in theUK & Ireland (SJBH).1 The significance of this her? itage as funerary architecture has never before been examined in detail.2 This essay describes the architectural and landscaping features of Jewish ceme? teries inBritain and Ireland, using both typical and unusual examples within a chronological framework. Special attention is paid to the art and symbolism of the Jewish tombstone. Georgian Jewish burial grounds Since London was the natural focus of the seventeenth-century Resettlement and has consistently remained home to about two-thirds of Anglo-Jewry in the modern period, it is not surprising that the oldest burial grounds of Anglo-Jewry are located in the capital. Six Jewish burial grounds dating from 1 All have entries in S. Kadish, Jewish Heritage in England: An Architectural Guide (Swindon 2006). 2 S. Kadish, 'Bet Hayim: An Introduction to Jewish Funerary Art and Architecture in Britain' Transactions of theAncient Monuments Society 49 (2005) 31-58. 59 Jewish Historical Society of England is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to Jewish Historical Studies ® www.jstor.org Sharman Kadish before 1830 are extant inLondon, five of them in the East End. They include the oldest Sephardi and Ashkenazi grounds in the country, dating from 1657 and 1696/73 respectively, located close to one another at Mile End and Alderney Road. When these were established, Mile End was a rural location and thus conformed to the ancient halakhic requirement that burial places be located beyond the walls of the city. The growth of towns has led to historic burial grounds becoming hemmed in by urban development. Unlike churchyards, Jewish cemeteries are rarely located in proximity to the synagogue. (A unique example of a Jewish burial ground situated next to the synagogue, in the manner of a churchyard, is found at Rochester, Kent. However, this ground, thought to date from the 1780s, predates theVictorian Chatham Memorial Synagogue of 1865-70 and is physically separated from it by a steep bank.) By choice, cemeteries were normally isolated from the residential Jewish quarter, with its places of worship and other religious and social amenities. In Europe, before emanci? pation and the lifting of residence restrictions, the burial ground was often sited at the extremity of the ghetto or Jewish quarter. The famous Old Jewish Cemetery in Prague, which dates from the fifteenth century, is a good example. The earliest burial ground of theResettlement, the Sephardi Velho, opened in 1657, is situated behind the Bet Holim, forming the garden to the almshouses (Manuel Nunes Castello, 1912-13) now occupying the site. The Spanish and Portuguese 'Jews' Hospital' existed on this site from 1790, housed in a purpose-built three-storey building of 1806 (extended in Palladian style around 1815, architects unknown).4 The proximity of hospi? tal to burial ground occurred inGerman Jewish quarters from at least the seventeenth century, for example in F?rth, Frankfurt and Berlin.5 The 3 B. S?sser (ed.)Alderney Road Jewish Cemetery, London Ei, 1697-1853 (London 1997), the pub? lished results of a field survey in 1993 organized as a student exchange project through ICOMOS UK and ICOMOS Israel by me. 4 Two early-nineteenth-century prints in theTower Hamlets Local History Library are reproduced inL. Fraser, 'Four Per Cent Philanthropy: Social Architectural for East London Jewry, 1850 1914' in S. Kadish (ed.) Building Jerusalem: Jewish Architecture inBritain (London 1997) 168-9,%s 8.1 and 8.2. A hand-coloured original of 8.2, drawn and engraved by T. Prattent, 1819, is in the s Jewish Museum, London, no. AR 790. It was published in the Gentleman Magazine, Dec. 1819: see A. Rubens, Anglo-Jewish Portraits (London 1935), no. 471. Fig. 8.1 is probably from a wood engraving published in the European Magazine (c. 1806) shown at the Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition of 1887: see J. Jacobs and L. Wolf (eds) Catalogue of theAnglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition Royal Albert Hall, London, 188j (London 1888), 'Edition de Luxe' [photographs by Frank Haes], no. 1205, also nos 558 and 559; and Rubens, Anglo-Jewish Portraits, no. 470. 5 J. Jacobs, Houses of Life: Jewish Cemeteries of Europe, photography by Hans Dietrich Beyer (London 2008) 84. He quotes from secondary sources that mistranslate the Hebrew word Hekdesch as meaning 'hospital', whereas it actually means 'consecrated', thus referring to the cemetery itself and not to the hospital built alongside; on Frankfurt, pp. 43-4; Berlin, Grosse Hamburgerstrasse, p. 81. 6o Jewish funeraryarchitecture inBritain and Ireland since 1656 pattern of siting theUnion workhouse and later the Infirmary close to the cemetery for the town's poor became common in Victorian Britain. For example, Manchester's Crumpsall Jewish Cemetery, Crescent Road, M8 (1884), is close to the former Union Workhouse, now North Manchester General Hospital. The establishment of the second Ashkenazi cemetery at Brady Street in the East End of London is well documented: land was acquired by the recently formed New Synagogue on a 95-year lease, dated 4 June 1761, and the site was described as: 'a certain brick field situate on the north side of Whitechapel Road, between the Ducking Pond there and Bethnal Green Church in the Parish of StMary, Whitechapel, to be used as a burial ground, . one more or rent was set at 12 containing acre, less.'6 Its annual ?12 shillings. The burial ground was evidently soon extended, because in 1780 it was referred to rather picturesquely as the 'new Burying Ground situate in Tuck and Pan Lane in the Parish of Saint Mary Whitechapel'. A building - ? contract7 survives for a Bet Tohorah (mortuary) now long gone to be con? structed of 'stock bricks' and 'plain tiles' and 'according to a design drawn . by James Campling Surveyor'. At this stage, the burial ground was enclosed within a wall, at a cost of ?450. Even the names of the bricklayers are known: 'Thomas Barlow of Cow Crofs in the Parish of Saint Sepulcher' and 'James Taylor of Turmade Street ClerkenwelP, both 'in the county of Middlesex'. They were to re-use bricks from the 'Old Building in the Old Burying Ground'. Portions of this boundary wall survive today. The ceme? tery contains more than 3000 tombstones; many of those dating from the Georgian period are badly weathered. It is chiefly remarkable for the large mound in the centre which contains multiple layered burials, the only example of this practice in a Jewish cemetery in Britain, comparable to the Old Jewish Cemetery in Prague. Thus, like early synagogues, early Anglo-Jewish cemeteries were opened on leasehold land. Freehold possession is preferable according to Jewish law because, as mentioned already, burial grounds are regarded as sacred places in perpetuity and ought not to be disturbed. In practice this has not prevented their destruction, even inBritain whose Jewish community escaped the fate suffered on Continental Europe during theHolocaust. Georgian cemeteries, especially in theMidlands and North, at Liverpool, Birmingham, Hull and 6 London Metropolitan Archives (hereafter LMA) acc/2712/GTS/337/1. Important sources on early London Jewish cemeteries are D[aniel] Lysons, The Environs of London; Being an Historical Account of theTowns, Villages, and Hamlets, within Twelve Miles of that Capital, Vol. II, County ofMiddlesex (London 1792-6) and Supplement to theFirst Edition oftheHistorical Account of theEnvirons ofLondon (London 1811); P[Philip] Ornstien, Laws and Bye-Laws of theBurial Society of the United Synagogue, adopted by the Council, March 24th, 5662-1902. With an Historical Preface of theSociety and theUnited Synagogue Cemeteries (London 1902). 7 LMA acc/2712/GTS/337/1, dated 12March i78i[?]. 6i Sharman Kadish Sheffield, fell victim to railway development in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century several Georgian Jewish burial grounds were exhumed, usually but not always with the sanction of the Jewish religious authorities, for example at Gloucester in 1938, Hoxton, east London, in i960 and, most controversially, from the older part of the Sephardi Nuevo ground (1733) at Mile End in 1972.8 Freehold possession of land was generally forbidden to Jews inChristian Europe before the nineteenth century. In England, the legal position was not clear-cut.9 The Jews of theResettlement were classed as aliens and therefore forbidden to own freehold land for any purpose. Aliens were permitted to take leases on domestic dwellings for a fixed term of years; itwas legally ques? tionable whether a lease could be taken for the purposes of building a syna? gogue or opening a burial ground.
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