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The Virangana in North Indian History: Myth and Popular Culture Author(s): Kathryn Hansen Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 23, No. 18 (Apr. 30, 1988), pp. WS25-WS33 Published by: Economic and Political Weekly Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4378431 Accessed: 13/06/2009 19:05

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http://www.jstor.org The Virangana in North Indian istory Myth and Popular Culture Kathryn Hansen Thepattern of women'slives and their orientationto social realityare significantlyshaped by the models of womanlyconduct set out in stories, legends and songs preservedfrom the past. The epic heroine type-the sacrificing,chaste loyal wife-is viewedas representingthe idealfor female behaviourat least among the high Hindu castes.Hindu mythologyalso offersanotherfemaleparadigm-the all-powerfulmother goddess. Between thesepolarities lies an overlookedand yet importantalternative paradigm of Indian womanhood:the virangana, the woman who manifeststhe qualities of virya or heroism. IN as in other societies, historicaland Dworkinhave analysedthe attitudestowards among the high Hindu castes.The ideal may mythologicalaccounts of heroic behaviour women contained in the common fairy tale be far from the reality as experienced by frame paradigms which assist individuals heroinesSnow White, Sleeping Beauty,and many women.7 However, the prescriptive and groups in defining their identities, in- Cinderella,all of whom, she declares, "are force of the epic heroines is such that few culcating values to the young, and judging characterisedby passivity,beauty, innocence, can escape their example. The story of the actionsof others. Womenas well as men and victimisation"4These heroines figure Savitri, for instance, teaches unswerving are powerfullyinfluenced by the exemplars largelyin the reproductionof a culturewhich devotionto the husband,which, if faithfully of their culture. The patterns of women's diminishes women, from generation to practised, can endow the wife with super- lives, their expectations and ideals, their generation. naturalcapacities, even the power to bring orientationto social reality,are significantly In the personsof the fairlytale-the wicked back the dead. Passive endurancein adver- shaped by the models of womanly conduct witch, the beautiful princess, the heroic sity is the lesson imparted by Sita, heroine set out in stories,legends, and songs preserv- prince-we find whatthe culturewould have of the who follows into ed fromthe past. Eventhe contemporaryim- us know about who we are. forest exile. Willingness to suffer even self- ages of women promulgated in the mass The point is that we havenot formedthat immolation for the preservationof the hus- media-cinema, advertising, popular ancientworld-it has formedus. Weingested band's honour is enjoined by the examples music-owe much to the prototypes of it as childrenwhole, had its valuesand cons- of Sita's fire ordeal as well as the self- on minds womanhood inherited from older sources. ciousnessimprinted our as cultural sacrifice of Sati, wife of Siva. In each case, absoluteslong beforewe were in fact men Moreover, in countries like India, these the self-abnegationand subservienceto the and women.We have sourcesare sanctified by their great and takenthe fairytales of husbandare seen to age childhoodwith us into chewedbut bestow power upon the prestige. maturity, wife. Literarymasterpieces such as the still lying in the stomach,as real identity.5 This povWermay be used for various epics Ramayana and Mahabharataamong ends. but customarily it is For Dworkin, the woman-hating stance directed toward the welfare, and other repositoriesof ancient lore, continue displayed in the fairy tale leads directly to long life, good name of the to provide lessons to today's women and the exploitation of women found in literary husband and the couple's offspring, par- men, with an authority that even the tech- and cinematic pornography.In responseto ticularly the sons. The epic stories do not nologicallysophisticated current generation portraywomen as powerless,but define their this type of analysis, some feminists have accepts.1 power as derived from begun to rewrite the traditional European self-effacementin a The nature of these relationship of : culturally-embedded fairy tale corpus with the non-sexist educa- subjugation to the male. images and their ideological in Hindu mythology offers dominance tion of childrenin mind. guniti Namjoshi's another impor- women'slives has been an issue for tant female women's FeministFables providesa parallel example paradigmwhich contrastswith activistsin both India and the west. Madhu of an adult-orientedreworking of tales from the wifelyideal, namely,the mothergoddess. one Kishwar, of the pioneers of feminist various traditions. The goddess,whether manifest in her benign journalism in India in 70s aspect as Lakshmi or or in the and*8Os,ex- The mythic female figures most often , her more presses dismay at "the pervasive popular menacingform as Kalior identified in India are the well known Durga,derives her cultural ideal of womanhood" power from her conveyed heroinesSita, Savitri,Anusuya, and others. fundamentally relationship through mythic role-models: as mother rather than as a The classical epics are the texts which pro- spouse, role in It is woman a which she exercises as selflessgiver, someone who vide authoritativereferences for them, but distinctive female con- givesand givesendlessly, gracefully, smiling- trol throughthe ability to generateand nur- ly, whatever the demand, however the storiesare actually transmittedto most people through vernacular retellings; folk ture life. Outside of folk religion, however, unreasonableand harmful to herself... Sits, her power is often versionsin traditionalgenres of song, dance subvertedor leashed by Savitri,Anusuya and variousother mytho- subordinationto a male Thus or drama,or in the urbanareas, comics, pic- deity. each god logical heroinesare used as the archetypes is matchedwith a consortwho is ture books, cassettes, records.For villagers, understood of sucha womanand women themrsleves are as his activating energy or shakti, deeplyinfluenced by this culturalideal.2 the 'texts' are usually performances of theatre,music, and dance which recreatethe Philosophically, the individual goddess- Kishwar,while acknowledgingthe tenacity consorts may be subsumed under one of such mythologicalantecedents, urges that stories in a t4ually-charged atmosphere. Recently scholars have begun to examine universal energy-principle or shakti, of indigenous cultural traditions be reinter- which they are moreclosely the contextswhich elucidatethe considered manifestations. preted and appropriated by the women's The Hindu recognition of an underlying movement rather than be rejected from a significance of the text to the participants, female principlehas impressedsome obser- western modernist standpoint. Thus she and there is a new appreciationof the wide vers as a more positive formulation of asserts, "Our cultural traditions have range of meanings which an epic character woman'splace in the cosmos than that of- or story may acquire within varying social tremendouspotential within them to com- feredby the Judeo-Christiantradition. Joan- and performativecircumstances.6 bat reactionaryand anti-womenideas, if we na Liddleand RamaJoshi go furtherto ion- can identify their points of strengthand use The epic heroinetype-the sacrificing, nect goddess worship with a strong self- them creatively-'3 chaste, loyal wife-is viewedas representing image of women and a matriarchalworld- In the west, feminists such as Andrea the ideal for female behaviour at least view in India:

Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 WS-25 Theworship of the mothergoddess does not defence of her people. Above all, she is a tempt has been made to delve into primary constitutea matriarchy,but it doesconstitute fighter and a victor in the struggle with the historical documents and resolve the con- a matriarchal culture, in the sense that it forces of evil. troversies regarding the events that took preservesthe value of womenas life-givers The evidence for the virangana is derived place duringtheir reigns.The synopsesgiven and sources of activatingenergy, and it first of all from the historicalrecord, which here are derived from secondary materials representsthe acknowledgernentof women's documents the existence of outstanding such as Madhavananda and Majumdar's powerby women and men in the culture.8 queens in various regionsof India since an: Great Womenof India (1953) and also from They maintain that the goddess empowers cient times. Folkloreand mythology provide the popular accounts found in Amar Chitra women to act in a strong and assertive many other examplesof wormrenof this type, Kathacomics, children'sbooks in , and manner.9 especiallythe non-eliteforms: local legends, folklore sources as noted. This then is a The feminist movement in the west has folk. theatre, popular song. The twentieth popular 's queens, as sparkeda renewedinterest in goddess figures century descendants of the virangana are rememberedby the people. fromvarious cultures, together with an agen- represented in the valiant women of the Razia Sultana was the first and only da of reconstructingwomen's spirituality to popular cinema and-in the 'bandit queen. womanof the Sultanate(or any laterperiod) free it from the patriarchalpremises of the These heroines are also the topics of comic to ascend the throne at . She was the major world religions. It is not surprising books, children'sliterature, and school texts. daughterof ,the powerfulruler of to find a revaluationof the Hindu goddess The virangana ideal has been adopted by the Slave dynasty. Her father had a special also underway among feminists in India. political and social reform movements and fondness for her as a child, and trainedher The use of goddess imagery to identify the prototype has undergone change with himself in politics and affairs of state. She women'sconcerns is taking place, as in the historical and cultural developments. The was well-versedin the Quran, knew several title and logo of the publishing collective, abundance of examples suggests that the other sciences, and demonstratedher mar- 'Kalifor Women'.The wordshakti has been virangana, while not the dominant norm for tial courage in various campaigns early in incorporatedinto the Indianwomen's move- the high castes of north India, has had a life. She was chosen over her brothersto take ment, rich as its ambiguity is, implying continuous presence for many centuries as chargeof the administrationfor severalyears 'power'or 'energy'and also referringto the an alternativefemale paradigm. It is a uni- while Iltutmish conducted military excur- Great Goddess. que vision of womanhood,combining direct sions to the south. Her father then desig- The questionremains, to what extenthave assumptionof powerwith exemplaryvirtue. nated her heir-apparenton the basis of her the traditionalforms of goddess worshipaf- Examples of the virangana exist in many competence and experience and following fectedthe society'sattitudes toward women? partsof Indiaanid one suspectsthat the type, his death, she established herself on the Does the goddess serveto enhance women's if not the nomenclature,is not restrictedto throne even though her mother supported status?Were goddess cultsconnected in their the south Asian sub-continent.The warrior- the claims of her brotherRuknuddin Firoz. evol.ution to women's experience or self- woman was undoubtedly a more common Razia'saccession raised questions about perception?Does the goddess function as a phenomenon in the tribal cultures situated the rightof femalesto enjoysovereign power, model for emulation?These are large ques- on the periphery of the central Indian a practiceknown to the Turksand Persians tions which cannot properlybe addressedin culturalzone, particularlyin the matrilineal but new to India. For some time Razia was this essay. However a heuristic distinction culturessome of whichexisted before the ad- able to neutralise the factions which may be tentatively proposed between the vent of the Indo-Aryansand still flourish in challengedher authority.She appeareddaily mother goddess, a powerful transcendent the mountainousareas. However, this article on the imperialthrone in male attire.Accor- figureaccessed through propitiation, and the will confine itself to examining the virangana ding to Sir H Elliot, "She discarded her epic wife-heroine, a gender-specific role in north India, primarily in the Indo- female apparel and veil, wore a tunic and model available for imitation. In Sandra Gangeticplain, althoughthis means neglec- cap like a man, gave public audience, and Robinson'sterms, the Hindu goddess'sfunc- ting famous figures such as Rani Chennam- rode on an elephant without any attemptat tion may be viewed as primarily revelatory, ma of Karnataka.For the sake of economy, concealment:"' She was involved in several in contrast to the role played by the epic omitted also is the ancient period of Indian battles against rebelliousTurkish nobles and heroines as exemplary women.10 history; the focus is on the medieval and was finally capturedand put to death while modern periods, beginningwith the arrival a prisoner.In all, she was the sovereignruler THE VIRANGANA AS ALTERNATIVE of the Muslims around 1000AD. Hence the for four years (1236-1240). PARADIGM pictureto be sketched may be magnified to Man'y of the characteristics of Razia's fit the broader canvas of south Asia, yet in career are found in the later viranganas Betweenthe polaritiesof self-effacingwife itself it tells much about the counter-culture and all-powerfulmother lies an overlooked known to history: her early tutelage by her of womanhood that existed and still exists father;her education in both the arts of war and yet important alternativeparadigm of in the heartland of Sita and Savitri. Indian womanhood: the virangana, the and the skills of reading, writing, and ad- womanwho manifests the qualitiesof virya ministration;her rise to power at the death WARRIORSAND QUEENS male or heroism. The virangana seems to be a of a kinsman;her reputationas a wise, paradoxwithin the normativecategories for The number of women who played pro- just and generous ruler;her assumptionof gender in high-caste north Indian society. minent roles in the politicalhistory of north male costume and perquisites of royal of- She is a valiant fighter who distinguishes India is probably larger than is ordinarily fice; her military leadership and valour in herself by prowess in warfare, an activity acknowledged,especially if the influenceof defendingher kingdom againstenemies; her death in normally reserved for men. She demonst- wives, mothers, and sisters upon ruling battle. But while Razia was named ratesher martialskills and courageby direct males is included. Our object here is not to heir-apparentby her father,it was morecom- participationin combat, at the risk of her rewritethe historyof thesewomen but rather mon for royal women to ascend the throne life: in fact, sometimes she dies in battle or to considerthe most visiblewomen in power, while serving as regents for their underage takes her own life on the battlefieldto avoid those who became rulers of kingdoms. sons. Queen-regents ruled among the ignominious .defeat. She is a leader of and/or defended them. These exceptional ,Muslims, Marathas,and Gonds, as womenand men, actingas head of statedur- figures have retained a strong grip on the we shall soon see. ing peace and general in time of war. She Indian imagination, and have been cele- Whatis significantabout the queen-regent adopts male attire, as well as the symbols bratedin stories, legends,poems, and songs is the rejectionof the practiceof sati, ritual of male status and authority,especially the down throughthe ages. What followsis only suicide, implied in this role. These queens swordand she ridesa horse.The -virangana a brief outline of some of the most famous chose not to immolatethemselves upon their is dedicated to virtue, wisdom, and the viranganas of northIndian history. No at- hu.sbands'deaths, defyinlg the code of female

WS-26 Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 Virtue through self-sacrifice. Instead they ner fifteen or sixteen years of regency,and with bow and quiver,subsequently accom- assumed power and ruled in place of male accordingto the CentralProvinces Gazetteer, panied him in many perilous enterprises"9 offspring until the age of majority (and her death in 1564was "as noble and devoted Thrabaidid not rule in her own right, sometimes beyond). Severalstories of such as her life had been useful!'16 although she defended her kingdom on a queensemphasise the depisionto foregosati, While Abul Fazl celebratedthe virtues of numberof occasions. When Prithvirajwas with its promise of earthly prestige and Durgavati in the Akbarnamah another laterpoisoned, she joined him on the funeral spiritual liberation, for the greaterobliga- queen-regentof the same period,Chand Bibi pyre as a sati. tion of serving one's family and one's peo- of Ahmadnagar, also resisted the Mughal The rule of Ahalyabai in Maha- ple in the face of hostile threats. advance and was lauded by generations of rashtrain the eighteenthcentury lasted thirty Once in office, such queens did not stint historians as well as luminaries like Annie years, and in this queen we find the virtues in the defence of their kingdoms. When Besant. As she reignedin the Deccan, out- of just and efficient administrationcarried Samar Singh of Chitor was vanquished in- side the geographicalfocus of this essay,we to the highest point. Married at the age of the second battle of Tarainagainst Muizud- will only recapitulatea few points whichlink eight to Khanduji (or Khande Rao), son of din Muhammad in 1192, his queen Kurma her with the other viranganas. Daughter of MalharRao Holkar, Ahalyabai was trained Devi stood in for the minor heir, Karan. Husain Nizam Shah and sister of Burhan- for her future duties by her father-in-law Possessedof militaryvalour and skill in ad- ul-mulk, she was well-trainedin Arabicand ratherthan her father; "he coached her in ministration,she "nobly maintained what Persian and spoke several Deccani langu- the collection of revenue,writing of dispat- his father left. She headed the Rajputsand ages. She participatedequally with her hus- ches and in the management of the army. gave battle in peison to Kutubuddin,near band Ali Adil Shah in both militaryand ad- Many a time he also took her with him in Amber,when the viceroy was defeated and ministrativeaffairs while he was alive, and his campaigns'20In addition to learningto wounded"12 when he died, she succeeded to the throne ride, wield weapons, and exercisethe arts of A similarstory is that of Rani Durgavati, of Bijapur and became regent for his statecraft, she was educated in the Hindu a favourite judging from the amount of nephew.One famous anecdote relatesto the scripturesand later showedgreat interestin detail included in the various sources. Rani siege of the Ahmadnagar fort by the religious texts. Before she was twenty, her Durgavati,ruled among the Gonds of what Mughals shortly before her death in 1599: husbandwas killed-duringan expeditionon is now Madhya Pradephat the time of the Once, when a portion of the rampartwas which Ahalyabai, MalharRao, and Khande emperorAkbar. The sources differ as to her blownaway by mineslaid by the besiegers, Rao had embarked. Ahalya decided to origins, but several say that she was the she rushedout of herpalace barefooted with become a sati, but Malhar Rao dissuaded daughterof the Chandella chief of a numberof trustedfollowers, a veil on her her.2'She began to assume more and more . Fatherand daughterwere fond of face and a naked swordin her hand, and of the responsibilitiesof rulership.Malhar riding and hunting together. Her marriage rallyingher men succeededin repairingthe Rao'sdeath soon followed,and Ahalyabai's to Dalpat Shah, the king of , damagedwall overnight.'7 son Male Rao was named head of the representedan unconventionatalliance, and In honour of her bravery,the Mughalprince government, but he was mentally unstable this element has been used to construct a Murad bestowed on her the title Chand and died shortly thereafter. modern-dayimage of her as a high-minded, Sultana,and withdrewhis troops. LikeRazia Ahalyabaithus took complete control of forward-thinkingreformer, struggling with Sultana, she fell victim in the end to dissen- the administrationin 1765 and ruled until the society's prejudicesand the opposition sions among her own nobles. her death in 1795, assisted by Tukoji Rao, of a caste-conscious father. Soon after she The story of Tarabai,wife of Prithviraj, and adopted son who was in charge of the gave birth to a son, Bir Narayan, her hus- as recounted in Colonel Tod's Annals and army. During the early stage of her reign, band died and she became regent.'3Early Antiquitiesof ,offers an example she prevented an attack by Raghoba by on, she had to face several attacks on her of the valour achieved by certain Rajput organisinga regimentof women, preparing kingdom, and she successfully repulsedthe queens in the sixteenthcentury. Tlrabai was her troops for combat, and displaying her- incursions of Baz Bahadurof . The the daughter of a deposed chief, Rai Sur- self in command, "directingfour bows, with legends about her skill in tiger-huntingap- tan, whose lifelong ambition was to regain quiversfull of arrows,to be fitted to the cbr- pear to have their origin in Abul Fazl's ac- his kingdomat Thoda. Trainedby her father ners of the howdah,or seat, on her favourite count. "She was a good shot with gun and in sports and the use of the bow and spear, elephant!'22She also quelled uprisings by arrow,and continually went a-hunting and. at fourteen, "scorningthe habiliments and the ChandravatRajputs and the Bhils, per- shot animals of the chase with her gun. It occupations of her sex, she dressed pretty sonally leading her forces.After these initial was her custom that whenevershe heardthat much like her father'scavaliers, learned to challenges, her country enjoyed peace for a a tiger had made his appearanceshe did not guide the war-horse,and to throwwith uner- long period. "The undisturbedinternal tran- drink water till she had shot him'"4 She ring aim the arrow from its back even while quillityof the country was even moreremar- was also known for her wise counsel and at full speed"18 Tarabai and her father kable than its exemption from foreign at- munificence,and while she ruled therewere made an attempt to recaptureThoda from tack" wrote Sir John Malcolm in 1832.23 no rebellions in her kingdom. the Afghans but failed, and subsequentlyit She sat every day in open court, transac- Durgavati'schallenge came with the ad- was declaredthat whoeveraccomplished the ting business and distributing justice, in- vance of 's imperial army under the deed would win her hand in marriage. vestigating even the smallest appeals in leadership of Asaf Khan. Cloaked in ar- Prithviraj's brother Jaimal proceeded to detail. Unlike the other viranganas, she is mour, mounted on an elephant, "with her court her, but when he tried to dishonour not commonly pictured in male dress, but bow and quiver lying by her side and with her in the palace, he was.killedby.her father. instead wore simple widow's attire, plain a burnished lance in her hand, the Rani Prithvirajthen stepped in and declared his white clothing without any jewelleryexpept herself led the troops:' even in opposition intention to become her husband. Riding a small necklace Ahalyabai'srule was mark- to the advice of her officers.'5 She inflicted with Tarabaiat his side,.the two with only ed by an increase in the prosperity of her two defeats on the Mughal invaders,but in one cavalrymaninfiltrated a Muslimproces- people, moderate taxation, stability in the the third contest her badly outnumbered sion in Thoda and struckdown the Afghan ministerial ranks, the construction of forces became demoralised when her son chief: Prithvirajdealt a blow with his lance highways,forts, wells, and temples, acts of was wounded, and they deserted the field. while krabaidelivered the fatal wound with charity directed to the poor and , At this point, Durgavaticontinued the fight an arrow from her bow. She then killed an and a high level of piety in her personallife. on her elephant, sustaining a series of elephantsingle-handedly, enabling the cou-. Laudedby the Britishas "one of the purest wounds, and she finally stabbed herself ple to escapesafely. "The exploit... won the and most exemplaryrulers that evere,dsied'9, when captureseemed immIinent. Thuc ended hand of the fair Amazon, whio, equipped lAhalya found favour among both Muslims

Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 WS-27 and Hindus and is still revered in the sword. songs. In these narrative traditions, the .24 Lakshmibai'smasculme appearance is fre- virangana is often likened to the goddess The most famous virangana in north quently mentioned as part of her legend. Durga or Kali, particularly during battle. Indian history is also the closest to the pre- Casting aside the constraints imposed on Her iconographylinks her with the goddess sent time. In Lakshmibai, Rani of , brahminwidows, she chose clothing which visually, for she carries a sword, as Durga is found the summationof the traitsalready enabled her to ride and lead a vigorous life. and Kali do (sometimes one in each of their discussed. Born in a Brahminfamily from In portraitsshe wearseither-a Maharashtrian many hands), and she rides on her 'vehicle', Nagpur,her father Moropantwas a military sari drapedbetween the legs, or trousersand her horsecorresponding to Durga'slion. Her adviser to the exiled , and she grew a long tunic belted at the waist, with her defeat of threateningenemies is comparable up with Nana Sahib and Tantya Tope, her sword stuck in the waistband. At the time to the warringgoddesses' punishment of evil later allies, in the court at Bithur, learning of her death, according to Hugh Rose, she demons. This description of the goddess militaryskills as well as readingand writing. was wearinga red jacket, red trousers,and Durga fits the historical virangana well: When she was marriedto GangadharRao, white turban. Among the many songs, Sheis not submissive,she is not subordinated the ruler of Jhansi, she brought her father poems, and novels dealing with her life, to a maledeity, she does not fulfilhousehold with her.To GangadhariRao,who had been perhapsthe best-knownis SubhadraKumari duties,and she excellsat whatis traditionally issueless by a previous wife, she produced Chauhan's paean in Hindi which uses the a malefunction, fighting in battle.As an in- a son, but he survived only three months. refrainkhub lari mardanivoh to Jhansi vali dependentwarrior who can hold her own Overcome by grief, died rani thi, "bravely fought the mardani the against any male on the battlefield, she soon after, although first he made sure to Queen of Jhansi"'Here mardanisignifies a reversesthe normal role for females and adopt a son as heir. Lakshmibaitook over masculinewoman, mardanabeing,a Persian thereforestands outside normal society.30 the affairs of state as regent, and began a adjectivemeaning 'masculine,valorous', and The details of folk and popular accounts of seriesof negotiationswith the Britishto have 'i' the feminineending in Hindi. John Lang, historicalwarrior-queens may indeed be in- the adopted son recognised. However, a British visitor who chanced to meet her spiredby well known legends of the warring Dalhousie'sDoctrine of Lapse was put into in person, describedher physiqueas that of goddess. effect and Jhansi was annexedby the British a strong,intelligent, dignified individual. Far And yet the virangana partakes almost in 1857. from being consideredodd or inappropriate, equally of the character of the sati, the During the disturbances which spread the Rani's physical presence was extremely virtuous female who is truthful, just, and over north India in 1857, troops in Jhansi effective in mobilising her forces to action. capable of self-sacrifice. Much is made in revoltedand killed a largenumber of British Her very arrivalon the battlefield is said to thesestories of the queen'sdecision to forego citizens. The Rani's responsibility for this have inspired her troops with courage and ritual suicide, implying that greater virtue massacreand her relations with the British hope. (sat) residesin servingthe country.In several earlyin her rule are controversialtopics, but While Lakshmibai'sfame derivesprimari- cases, the queens do eventually kill them- it is clear that subsequentlyshe took active ly from her qualities as a warrior, she was selves when honour cannot be preservedby leadershipin opposing the British suppres- also an able administrator,known for her any other means. Sat or 'truth' in many sion of the rebellion.When the Britishunder diligence and sense of justice. Like the popular tales of women signifies chastity Hugh Rosemarched against her, she defend- queensalready discussed, she acted not only (also commonlyreferred to a pativratdharm, ed and only fled to safety when for the protectionof her people,but was also see section on folk dramabelow). However, the Britishoverran the ramparts.She faced fond of learning,supported the development in the viranganaaccounts, sat is construed the British again in major battles at of the royal library, provided for the poor somewhat differently. The notable fact is and at , where she died in combat. patronised musicians, and dispensed reli- that little or no emphasis is placed on the While the historical details of Lakshmi- gious charity.Even her enemies praisedher sexualfidelity of the viranganaor her status bai's rule are subjects of debate, in the virtues: "The high descent of the Rani, her as 'wife' or 'widow'. Here virtue exists popular Indian mind she is unequivocally unbounded liberality to her troops and re- without being reducedto the physicalpurity identified as a great freedom fighter inthe tainers,and her fortitudewhich no reverses of the femalebody, in fact, historypreserves first stage of India's war of independence could shake renderedher an influential and the names of severalof the warrior-queens' against the British. With this are linked a dangerous adversary:' wrote Sir Hugh lovers and companions. the virangana's number of heroic images and anecdotes, Rose.29. status is not defined by her relationshipto which can now be seen as part of a larger The evidence presentedso far should be a man (as wife, mother or paramour), but viranganacomplex. Thus when she was a sufficient to indicate the historicity of the by her valorous deeds, and therefore,sexual girl of sevenor eight, she tamed an elephant viranganaamong the major ruling groups relations cannot impugn her 'truth'. The by climbingup its trunk to its tusk.25After of north India during the last millenium. startling conjunction of physical prowess, her marriage, she was stifled by court life Additionalexamples could be providedfrom moral strength, and sexual freedom with and formed a regiment of women, with Bengal,Assam, Kashmir,the South, and the womanhood in the viranganaindicates how whom she could practicehorseback riding, tribalregions. Certain political and personal extraordinary and positively powerful a swordsmanship,pole climbing, and wrestl- circumstances seem to foreshadow the figure she truly is. ing.26It is said that sometimes she fought emergence of these queens. Thtelage and Weturn now to the perspectiveof modern her enemies with swords in both of her support by a senior male prepared the political movementsand consider how they handsand the reinsof her horse betweenher women for high office, and absence or in- have altered and adapted the ideal of the teeth.27She was also accomplishedat shdot- competenceof adult male heirsoften afford- virangana. ing. Most paintings depict her mounted on ed an opportunity to take power. An exter- horseback, carrying a shield in one hand nal threat also appears to have served as a THE VIRANGANA AS POLITICALAND with her sword raised high over her head. catalyst.Personal inclination and talentwere SOCIAL SYMBOL Frequently a male child is shown seated no doubt significant if unchartablefactors behind her or tied to her back in a satchel, enablingwomen to become powerfulqueens The historical viranganaas remembered a referenceto the story of her flight from and warriors. and valued today has been shaped by the Jhansi when she "left the fort under cover Of equal importance to our study is the emerging political and social ideologies of of darknesson horsebackwith, as popular enduringplace these warrior-womenhold in the last century.Reform movements like the tradition has it, her adopted son on her the minds of the people. Their heroic deeds , the nationalistmovement in its back"28 Legends -abound regarding are celebrated in all toie vehicles of com- many phases,and more radicalpolitical and miraculousfeats such as her extraordinary munication known td the culture, from social programmeshave addressed the status leaps,long and swift rides,and prowesswith historybooks to comics, legends, films,and; of women, and in so doing have claimed the

WS-28 Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 virangana as a potent symbol, both to com- for womanhood, while the more radical Rani, dressed like her with sword and bat colonial dominationand to overturnop- position embraced the activist virangana shield.41 pressiveattitudes towardwomen within the ideal. , committed as he society. In the arguments made to justify was to non-violence and passive resistance, VIRANVGANASIN HINDI FOLK DRAMA theirempire, the Britishasserted their moral saw the epic heroines Sita and Savitrias the superiority by citing Indian practices like ideal embodimentsof his political strategy. Complementing and overlapping the parda, sati and kulinism which constituted He believed women were by nature hon- historical virangana is the virangana of 'proof of the inferior and inhuman treat- violent, and, therefore, they could and folklore and legend. The sources analysed ment of Womenand the depravityof men. should play a major role in the nationalist in this section all belong to the folk theatre A discourse was thus generated in which movement. Gandhi emulated the virtue of genre known as Nautanki, or in earlier "Indianreformers were keen to show that, taking suffering upon oneself, as a purifi- parlance,Swang, Sang, orSangit. Nautanki whatever the current position, women's catory path to spiritual power, and insofar textshave been printedby popularpublishers status had been high in ancient India and as womenwere "the embodiment of sacrifice, in the Hindi-speaking region since the many outstanding women had made their silent suffering, humility, faith and mid-1800s,and they providean unparalleled mark on Indian history.'31The virangana knowledge:'they werethe most effectiveand resourcefor analysing the cultureof the or- ideal would not have been ernbracedhad it reliableforce for his non-cooperationcam- dinarypeople. These texts (or moreaccurate- only servedas a refutationof Britishallega- paigns." Thus even as he brought women ly, libretti)form the basis of entertainment- tions, however.Much more was conveyedin out of seclusionand into the streets,Gandhi oriented performances,played by itinerant this heroic model: the viranganawas an in- together with and other troupes at fairs, festivals, or weddings.Tex- spirationto all freedomfighters, men as well followers redefined the passive heroism of tual portions are sung to fixed musical pat- as women. Indeed the viranganaby exten- the traditional woman in positive terms, in terns,accompanied by the loud naggara(ket- sion became an emblem of the nation itself contrast to the bolder models of female tledrums)and a melodic instrumentsuch as (Mother India) engaged in righteous strug- achievement and bravery filling the new harmonium, shehanai, sarangi, or flute. gle. The images and stories of women- classrooms.36 Performancesmay also includeclowning se- warriors thus acquired a wide range of Perhaps,as some havesuggested, Gandhi's quences, erotic dancing, acrobatics, or meanings, a richness of implication that Sita was not so passive after all.37There is topical skits. Stories are drawn from Hindu enabledthem to servethem many new uses. no doubt, however, that his concept of and Islamic romances, local legends, tales One dimension of this process occurred ahimsa was in opposition to the virangana's of saints, even newspaper accounts and, in the field of education. Lala Devraj, the direct appropriationof force in defence of recently, film plots. Arya Samaj leader who pioneeredwomen's honour and justice. JawaharlalNehru's at- In the nineteenthcentury, women did not higher education in the Punjab, created a titude towardSita and Savitrias role models appear on the Nautanki stage, and female new curriculumfor women which included was more suspicious. In a speech in 1928he roles wereenacted by men, but beginningin a model of Indian womanhdodconforming said, "Wehear a good deal about Sita and the 1920sand 30s, womenbegan to sing and to the virangana type. While writing text Savitri.They are reverednames in India and play parts,and in the latestphase of develop- books, he emphasisedcourageous European rightly so, but I have a feeling that these ment, they own and operatesome of the ma- women'slives and created Indian heroines, echQes from the past are raised chiefly to jor Nautanki companies. The position of such as Suvrita and the near-mythic Suri hide our presentdeficiencies and to prevent women in this theatre is made more com- Suvirawho manifestedthe heroic virtues.In us from attackingthe root cause of women's plex by the negative moral associations of his women's college, a game called Suvira degradation in India today.'38That root Nautanki-viewing for the high castes. was played "about a warriorgirl who is not cause was economic bondage, which could Womenhave often been preventedfrom at- only bravein defence of her rights but can be alleviatedonly when women wentto work tendingNautanki shows, which haveevolved also wield modern weapons".32Other fic- outside the home and became economically in such a way as to cater to male interestin tional materialsused dealt with themes like independent. sexual display and innuendo. Nonetheless 'Ek Rat, 'which describesa braveyoung girl The symbolismof the viranganawas most the traditional stories of Nautanki often who fights single handedly with four eagerly seized upon by the proponents of show women in strong,warlike stances. This burglars while her brother is terrified. revolutionary nationalism, heirs of Bal sectionwill demonstratethe operationof the Through these role models, educationists GangadharTilak, who favouredthe use of viranganaideal among female protagonists presentedgirls with the possibility of new force in defeatingthe British.For this group in the Nautanki folk theatre.. careeralternatives, including the option of and their many sympathisers, the Rani of One of the earlieststories in the Nautanki "becomingnot only the pride but also the Jhansibecame a bywordfor resistanceto the repertoireis Syahposh, or, as it was called saviours of the nation'33 British, and was the subject of many in the nineteenth centry- Saudagar o The reinforcementof a strong, positive clandestineliterary works.39 In 1911during Syahposh. This is the tale of a merchant's female identity through the invocation of Ramlila celebrationsin UP, picturesof the son, Gabru(the saudagar),who attemptsto historicallyprominent women continues in Rani appeared together with Aurobindo win the hand of Jamal, the daughter of a practices such as naming hostels after Ghosh, Tilak, and , esta- minister of state, after being enchanted by famous queens, philosophers, and poets.34 blishingthe associationthat the Britishwish- hearingher reading from the Quran. While As women'shigher education continues to ed so vigilantly to suppress. During World visiting Jamal, Gabru is apprehendedone be segregatedfrom that of men in many in- WarII, when Netaji SubhashChandra Bose night by the king, disguisedas a police con- stances in south Asia, the possibilities for reconstitutedhis in sable roaming the city to ensure its safety. preservingwomen's histor-yand lore would southeast Asia, he created a women's regi- Gabruis sentencedto hang, and at the scene appear to be greater than. in the western ment and named it after the . of the gallows, he waits anxiously for a last educationsystem, wheremale-centred inter- Over fifteen hundred women joined under vision of his beloved. Jamal finally appears pretations of history and culture have the command of Lakshmi Swaminathan.A dressed as a man all in black (syah posh), dominatedfor centuriesand are only slowly The virangana'sexemplary valour seemedto riding a horse, wielding a dagger and a being challenged by feminist scholars. be coupled here with a notion of female sword. She threatens to commit suicide by In the political ideologies which arose in solidarity that has become more common stabbingherself or drinkinga cup of poison. pre-independenceIndia, it can generallybe of late.Feminist groups are now claimingthe The king is persuadedof the true love of the said that while wpmen's,issues were rarely Rani of Jhansi, while at the same time, the couple andspI. marries them on the neglected, the more conservative view Congress(I)has reportedlydepicted Indira Similar tales of dangerous love between favoureda passive, self sacrificing posture Gandhi in a film as a reincarnationof the a highly ranked, valorous woman and a

Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 WS-21 commoner male abound in the Nautanki historical queens, including the male Kali dancing on the chest of her victims.43 literature.In Shirin Farhad, the stonecutter costume, position on horseback, and pro- In the second part of the story,'Virmati Farhadfalls in love with queen Shirin while tective use of sword and dagger. Her cause, proves herself capable of even greater engaged in building a canal for her. Later however,is not defenceof the homelandbut couragewhen she beheadsher own husband. he is given the task of digging a tunnel salvation of her lover and achievement of Jagdev was tricked by the goddess Kankali through an impenetrable mountain, and ultimate union with him. She appearsonly (also called Kalika,both variantsof Kali)in- while he is working, Shirin rides out on as a virangana when her lover is mort,ally to giving her his head, which she demanded horseback to meet him for a rendezvous. threatened,although her social superiority as a religious gift (dan), in retribution for Lakha Banjara relates the love between a to the male invests her with power through- his assault on her son, the demon Kalua. princess and Lakha, the son of a banjara out the story. Virmati impresses even the bloodthirsty (trader). Similar to Syahposh in many The queenly type of viranganaknown to Kankaliwith her tearlessfulfilment of duty, details, it culminates in Lakha's being ar- history has also been made the subject of and eventuallyKankali joins Jagdev'shead restedby a policeman while returningfrom Nautanki plays. Three plays with the title back to his body and reviveshim. Through the princessone night, followed by a death- Sangit Maharani Tara (presumably the this test, Virmati provesherself to be a true sentenceby the king, and the appearanceof Tarabai discussed earlier) appear in the daughter of the goddess, and Kankali ad- the princessat the gallowspleading with her catalogues of the British Museum and the dresses her as such while Virrnatiin return fatherfor her lover'srelease. However, in this India Office Library. Two plays exist on addresses Kankali as mother. In the end, story the king does not relent, Lakhais kill- MaharaniDurgavati, but the one in my col- Jagdev and Virmati return home, where ed, and the loversare unitedonly afterGuru lection appears to be quite a different story Baghelin has repented, and they all live Gorakhnatharrives and resuscitatesLakha. from that of Durgavati of Gondwana. happily. Perhapsthe most striking instance is the The most popular viranganastory in the In the viranganasin Nautanki, we see a story of Nautanki Shahzadi, "The Princess Nautanki world appears to be Virangana shift from the brave acts .of the historical Nautanki,'whose name came to signify this Virmati.Virmati and her husband Jagdev's queens in defence of their homeland, to theatre genre. 'Nautanki' means a woman tale was first recordedin dramatic form in bravedeeds aimed at the pteservation of a whose weight is nine tanks (a tank equals 1876,but it reachedprominence in the 1920s woman's family honour and sexual purity. four grams), implying that she was very when the two most commonly performed The two are closely related; if a woman is delicate (at least in the beginning of the versions of it were published, those of married to a king, her chastity constitutes story). Phul Singh sets out in quest of her ShrikrishnaKhatri of the style of partof familyhonour, which is equatedwith following a dare from his sister-in-law, Nautanki and of Natharam Sharma Gaur the honour of the kingdom.The fundamen- travellingfrom Punjabto , and final- of the style.42The present discus- tal point of comparisonis that in both cases ly gaining entrance to her private garden. sion follows Natharam'stext. womenare fightingactively, moving on their There he courts her, but their love is dis- King Udiyadityaof Malwa has two wives, own initiative and strengthto protectthem- coveredduring the ritual weighing that oc- Baghelin and Solankin. Baghelin'sson is a selves and gain their own victories. The im- curs every day to test Nautanki's chastity. coward, while Jagdev, son of Solankin, is agery of the virangana is also remarkably Sentencedby the king to hang, Phul Singh braveand virtuousand his father'sfavourite. consistent, with repeated mention of the awaitshis executionwhen suddenlyNautanki Baghelinfears that Jagdevmay soon become woman riding on horseback, armed with arrivesat the gallows, dressedas a man and king, and she forcesthe king to insultJagdev sword and dagger. armed with sword and dagger. Phul Singh by askinghim to returnthe horse and swords is content with this last glimpse of her, and he had presented to him previously. As a CINEMA CLAIMS THE VIRANGANA he bids farewellto the world as the noose result, Jagdev leaves the court followed by is placed around his neck. But Nautanki his wife Virmati, who vows to be at his side The early Indian cinema in many ways pulls out a cup of poison and preparesto no matter what difficulties lie ahead. After transportedthe folk theatreof the late 19th commit suicide, vowing to die like Shirin wanderingfor some time, they reacha lake, and early 20th centuries into the celluloid died for Farhad and Laila for Majnun. As and Jagdev leaves his wife while he goes to medium. The singers and actors from the the executionersadvance to pull the cord, find lodging in the nearby city. Virmati is theatrefound new jobs for themselvesin the she rushes with he dagger and drives them then approachedby a prostituteand enticed film industry, and many of the former off. She then turns her sword on her father, to the brothelof Jamoti, on the pretextthat theatre managers and commercial backers demandinghe pardonher lover at once. The Jamoti is her husband's sister. joined to form film companies. The stories in so of Indian king consents to the marriage and the t-wo So far the events bear an uncanny re- used the first twentyor years cinema repeatedthe popular from the are wedded at once. semblanceto the Ramayanathe rivalrybet- plots Although details differ, these stories all ween co-wives to determinewhose son shall Nautanki, Tamasha, and Parsi theatres, which inherited them from all- involvea romantic quest by a lover (usually be heir,the exit of the favouredson, accom- had earlier India and sources. As a social inferior) for a princess. The quest panied by his devoted wife, the wife's aban- regional Pradip is fraughtwith danger, expressed not only donmentin the hostile forest and her abduc- Kishenhas noted, "that the cinema actively in the lover'stravails in reachingthe princess tion. At this point in the Nautanki,however, set out to displacefolk entertainmentsis sug- and obtainingher consent,but in the punish- Virmati's similarity to the passive, patient gested by the fact that the cinema appro- mentmeted out for violation of her honour. Sita ends. Lalji, son of the Kotwal, tries to priatedits forms, transposingits ingredients In eachcase, the princessbecomes her lover's seduce Virmati, but she gets him drunkand and often its subjects,into the standardfare rescuerin the enid.She bravessocial censure, then kills him with his own sword. She of the Indian screen." daring to leave the seclusion of her palace dumpsthe body fromthe window,and when Given these continuities, it is not surpris- and appearin public,thus demonstratingthe the Kotwaldiscovers his dead son, he rushes ing to find a veritablespate of films in the great measure of her love. She also chal- in to the brothel to arrest her. However twenties, thirties and forties devoted to the lenges the chief representativeof society's Virmati,still holding the sword, proceedsto, viranganatype. Among the silent movies of moralorder, the king or her father(frequent- kill twenty-fiveof the Kotwal'smen. Jagdev the twenties, the following were based on ly one and the same), by pleading for per- eventuallyfinds Virmatiand the couple are specific women-warriorsdiscussed above: mission to marry and even threatening his welcomed by the king of the city. In this Sati Veermat(1921), Devi Ahalyabai (1925), life. To carry out her brave resolve, she episode, Virmati's bravery is explicitly and Sultana Chandbibi (1932);talking ver- transforms herself into a warrior figure, directed toward protecting her chastity sions were later released of TaraSundari attired as a soldier on a horse, carrying (pativrat dharm). In the text, she is com- (1934),Sultana ChandBibi (1936), Taramati weapons.In these cases then, the virangana pared to a lioness (skein,) with bloodshot (1945), as well as severalfilms on the other shares some of the characteristics of the eWyesand a fierce roar.She is also likened to Rajputheroines like Padmini,Pannabai, and

WS-30 Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 Minaldevi. There were also a number of situations,although currentfilms still incor- kis, Barahmasis,Birahas, and other folklore films dealing with less historical, and occa- porate noticeable virangana elements. genresin Hindi dialects.Several Hindi films sionally more fanciful, viranganas. In the Prior to independencein 1947, fims sug- havebeen producedabout her, includingthe silent category,these included:A Fair War- gesting nationalist messages were strictly rather faithful version of her life, Kahani rior (1927), Veerangana(1928), FemaleFeat censored. It is significant that not one film Phulvati ki.50 Clay idols of her have been (1929), Chatur Sun'dari (Wily Heroine), on the list above appears with the Rani of sold togetherwith other gods and goddesses Goddess of War (Ran Chandi, based on Jhansi, the most famous virangana, as its in the local markets.5' Her example has Puranic mythology, 1930), Shurvir Sharda heroine. The Rani was simply too potent a madesuch an impactthat manyother women (GallantGirl, 1930), ValiantPrincess (1930), nationalist symbol to be allowed on the of her region have become dacoits.52 By Lioness (1931), Valiant Angel (Chitod ki screen.Articles, poems, plays, eventhe noted 1986, bandit gangs consideredit de rigueur Veerangana,1931), Stree Shakti (The Super Hindi novel by VrindavanLal Vermaon the to have at least one female member.53 Sex, 1932), Daring Damsel (Azad Abla, Rani of Jhansi, were immediately banned Prior to her arrest in i983, Phulan had 1933), The Amazon (Dilruba Daku, 1933), upon publication.48In the absence of such become a media phenomenon,the object of and TheLady Cavalier (Ratna Lutari,1933). readily understood nationalist images, one sensationalistic exaggeration and roman- Among the sound pictures, similar titles wonders how much patriGticcontent was ticisation nourished by lack of concretein- abound. VeerKumari (1935), Jungle Queen more covertlyconveyed through figureslike formation.Since the releaseof photographs (1936), Chabukwali(1938), Aflatoon Aurat Fearless Nadia and the other cinematic taken at her surrenderand the publication (Amazon, 1940), Veerangana(1947), and so viranganas.The popularity of these films of various interviewsconducted in jail, the on.45 Worthyof special mention are the seems to be linked to their allegorical fantastic rumours about her beauty and films that starredthe actressNadia: Hunter- political content. charm have been put to rest, and the myth wali (1934), Sher Dil, Lutaru Lalna (1938), This is not to deny the obvious entertain- has been partially dismantled. Nonetheless Diamond Queen (1940), and many others. ment value which the virangana came to it is a measure of the meaningfulness of These films, directed mostly by Homi possess in the process of becomirng a Phulan'sstory that it continues to be an oft- Wadia,were extremely )opular in the thir- cinematic image. The wonderment and told one, and that in its essentialdetails there ties and forties, and were part of the reverenceassociated with the earlierlegends is little variance between the many types of childhood experienceof many of the actors of valiantwomen now acquireda crudercol- sources, be they folk poems or journalistic and directors of today, as Girish Karnad ouring as heroic feats were converted into accounts. The following synopsis is a com- recalls: 'stunts' and the female body was displayed posite of elements drawn from folk and The single most memorablesound of my in erotically charged, athletic poses. None- media sources. childhoodis the clarioncall of 'Hey-y-y-y-y' theless the cinematic viranganaemerging in as FearlessNadia, regal on her horse, her this period indicatesthe full assimilationof Phulan was born a Mallah (boatman handraised defiantly in the air, rode down the paradigminto the popularculture of the caste), in 1956 in a village in district, uponthe bad guys. To us school kids of the twentieth century. UP. The chain of exploitation that charac- mid-40s Fearless Nadia mearit courage, The most recentmanifestation of this type terises her life began with her marriage at strength,idealism.46 is the female outlay figure, counterpartto the age of ten to a lustful widower twenty In these films, Nadia played the valiant the Robin Hood-like male outlaw or dacoit yearsher senior. When she escaped from his heroinewho alwayscomes to the rescue,her (daku), a common subject of north India advances and returned to her village, the most frequent entrance,as recounted here, folklore.Just as the daku is considereda panchayatexpelled her, and she went to live being on horseback. Stills from her films or king by his followers and the villagers with an uncle whose sons and friendsharass- show her carryingevery conceivable kind of withinhis territory,so too the 'banditqueen' ed her.According to some folk accounts,she weapon-bow and arrow,sword, bullwhip, sharesthe symbolic characterof sovereignty then met a dacoit named Kailash and mar- and pistol-as well as lifting men over her with the historical queens discussed above. ried him in court, but was later offered to head and thowing them. She is a woman of indomitable courage, a his friend Vikram(another Mallah) and the The theatrical origins of Nadia's role are mercilessexecutrix of justice. Adoredby her gang leader Babu Gujar for their sexual en- suggested in the following excerpt, which people both for her beauty and her power, joyment. She was arrested on a,robbery seems to describe the Syahposh type of she leads her gang, utilising the same charge and spent three weeks in police viranganadiscussed above: weapons and costume as her male cohorts. custody where she was-sexually assaulted. Thegood king was imprisoned by the schem- Formerviranganas defended their kingdoms Released through the good graces of a ing minister.The righteousamong the sub- and fought enemies of opposing ethnic arid thakur,she was afterwardsforced to become jectswere tortured or lockedup. The helpless religious composition; the female outlaw his concubine.Kailash meanwhile was killed princess,driven to despair,unable to find fights the police, the landlords, and the by the police, and Phulan came under succourfinally decided to act on herown and wealthy, and she defends the rights of the Vikram's protection. After killing. Babu set thingsright. And in a moment,the large poor and oppressed.Since the 1960sand 70s, Gujar,Vikram established himself as a gang fair woman, whose discomfortseemed to she is increasingly a low-caste heroine, in leaderwith Phulan as his mistresg.>Hetaught arisemore from the sarishe was wrappedin alliancewith the disprivilegedin ruralsocie- her to shoot, and the two began a series of thanfrom the politicalsituation, transformed ty, in opposition to brahmins,thakurs, and robberies and murders in the herselfinto a maskedwoman, in tightblack governmentofficials. region. Internal feuding in the gang led to costume,who could ride,swim, fight, wres- Vikrambeing killed by Sriramand Lalaram, tle, fenceand eventake a reversejump from The female outlay as a sub-type of the two thakurgang members.They kidnapped groundto balcony.47 viranganaappeared in several films of the Phulan Devi, took her to Behmai village, The Nadia/Wadia productions, beginning thirties,e g, Lady Robinhood, TheAmazon and kept her captive while she waj rapedby with (The Lady with the Whip), (DilrubaDaku), and Lady Cavalier (Ratna a number of other thakur men for several created a new genre, the stunt film, but Lutari).Numerous legends grew up around days. Beaten and humiliated, she was forc- without the luxuries of stunt directors, Putli Bai, a famous one-armeddacoit of the ed to drawwater from the village and serve duplicate stuntmen, and the trick photo- fifties, celebrating'herexploits in the Cham- the men. This incident fuelled Phulan'sfinal graphyof today. The famous trainfilms like bal Valley.49But the most widely publicis- revenge.After escaping from Behmai, she FrontierMail (1936) also originated at this- ed story has been that of Phulan Devi, joined with another dacoit, Mustaqim, and time, with Nadia performingdaring feats on whose recentcareer has been featuredin in- returnedwith his gang to Behmai to avenge the top of moving trains. These popular ternationalmagazines like Time and Esquire the murderof Vikramand repaythe thakurs genres eventually gave way to the 'socialsJ, on the one hand, and who on the otherhand for dishonouring her. She lined up twenty famiily dramas involving more 'realistics has inspiredfolk poets to compose Nautan- thakulrmen and massacredthem on Valen-

-4-Pnlitir-I Weeklv Anril Ann 1988 WS-31 tine's Day, 1981. After evading police pur- and public life. Her powerful presencehas 7 The account of Doranne Jacobson's infor- suit for two years,she was finally sent to jail quickenedawareness about the changesthat mant Bhuri, a Brahminvillage woman from in MadhyaPradesh following a negotiated await both women and men in the years to , suggests that the 'chaste the breach surrenderwith the police. come. For some, she has heightenedanxieties wife' norm is observed more in theme of Phulan's life, as in- about the currenttransformation underway than the practice. The central 55. opinion, is one of in women's roles, while for others she has 8 Liddle and Joshi, terpreted to popular and Joshi, 56. sexual commitment to 9 Liddle repeated victimisation, particularly come to inspire determined 10 Robinson, 188. to assault by men, leading eventually the struggle for equality and justice for 11 Pool, 86. resistance and counter-attack upon the women. In Phulan, the contemporaryincar- 12 Madhavananda, 321; also Tod, 211. perpetrators.Phulan was robbedand looted nation of the virangana lives on. 13 The Amar Chitra Katha version notes that of her chastity('to rape'in Hindi is izzat lut- she first intended to become a sati but na, 'to steal one's honour'), and so she turns CONCLUSION decided to raise her son instead. to robbingand looting in return.Her strug- 14 Abul Fazl, cited in Madhavananda,323-324. preliminary survey establishes the gle has much to do with the oppressivecaste This 15 Madhavananda, 324. in which the system of rural north India. As a low-caste wide range' of contexts 16 Cited in Madhavananda, 324. woman, she was rapedmany times by high- virangana appears in north Indian history 17 Madhavananda, 392. have caste men, and it is towards them that she and myth. Despite the differencesthat 18 Pool, 143-44. folklore directs her avenging fury. As she states in been noted among warriorqueens, 19 Tod, 237. equivalents the Nautanki play Phulan Debi: heroines, and their cultural 20 Madhavananda, 359; see also Amar Chitra today,these women sharean ideology based Katha comic, 5-6. done whatever they wanted Thakurs have on valour, and physical prowess, and an 21 In the Amar Chitra Katha version, Ahalya men always played with with me. High-caste iconographywhich representsthese qualities wavers between the selfish performance of until I shoot them each one my honour. Not through the sword, the horse, and male at- sati for her own salvation, and the decision will their oppression 'of me be by one Their stories are sufficiently similar to to dedicate her life to the service of others, repaid.54 tire. allow us to characterisethe viranganaas a 12-13. khaki Becominga bandit, she dressedin the type, and a type of considerablepersistence 22 Malcolm, 162. uniformof a senior superintendentof police, and prestige, instead of viewing each in- 23 Malcolm, 179. tied a headband around her cropped hair, stance as an anomaly unrelatedto a larger 24 Malcolm, 194. and toted a rifle-a donned running shoes, pattern. 25 Lebra-Chapman, 16. turbaned, 22. modern-day equivalent to the As such, the virangana compels us to 26 Lebra-Chapman, 19, sword-wielding historical virangana on revisethe earlirtypologies of womenlimited 27 Sinha, 97. 28 Lebra-Chapman, 93. horseback. In defending her honour, and to epic heroinesand mothergoddesses. This a 29 Sinha, 97. that of all low-caste women, Phulan is female figurerefuses to fit the polaritiesen- woman-warriorwho securesthe triumphof 30 Kinsley, 97. compassed by the pairs good woman/bad 31 Jayawardena, 78. the sexuallyand economicallyexploited. She woman, chaste/unchaste, self-denying/all- of valiant 32 Kishwar, 'Arya Samaj', 13. continues the noble tradition destroying. Nor is she defined by her rela- women who protect themselves and others 33 Kishwar, 'Arya Samaj', 17. tionship to a male, and for this reason, her with Tara Sinha. throughtheir own courageous,albeit bloody, 34 Conversation sexualityis inconsequential.She is virtuous 35 Jayawardena, 95-97. deeds. and strong,powerful and prudent,physically Naidu's role in invoking the been 36 For Sarojini In the masculinistpress, Phulan has adept and wise. Rather than reversingany epic heroines, see Ratte 367-370. man- portrayedas an irresistible,insatiable one particularrole which may be viewed as 37 Kishwar, In Search, 47. com- eater. The image constructed of her dominant, the viranganamoves beyond the 38 Jayawardena, 98. seductiveness, bines elementsof wild beauty, roles for women prescribedby patriarchal 39 Lebra-Chapman, 143-146. describes and extraordinarydanger. Esquire society. She transcends and subverts the 40 Lebra-Chapman, 150. raven- her as "a legendary six-foot-tall, categories which ordinarily divorce power, 41 Lebra-Chapman, 149. beautiful haired, one-armed beauty", "a strength,and independencein women from 42 Other narrative versions of it are contain- as femme fatale who had butchered twice goodness, charity,and nurturanceof others. ed in R C Temple's The Legends of the Pan- is II: 182-203, and Bhartiya Viranganaen, many men as she had bedded".55 There The virangana constitutes an alternative jab, of no doubt that a genuine terrorof her (as paradigmof womanhood,repeatedly surfac- 58-71. 43 Gaur, 1, 42-43. dacoits in general)existed in the countryside ing to challenge the patriarchalpremises of the months following the Behmai 44 Kishen, 31. in north Indian society and assert the female massacre and preceding her capture. 45 Information drawn from Rangoonwalla. potential for power as well as virtue. The However,it is noteworthythat Phulan has 46 Karnad, 86. tales summarisedhere point to a 'herstory', 47 Karnad, 85. also become a symbol of women's liberation, and forcedunderground at times, as well as to the rural suppressed 48 Lebra-Chapman, 146. to urban Indians but constantlyre-emerging into popularcon- who emulate her. Phulan and her 49 Bhaduri, 54-66. women sciousnessthrough memory and celebration. with Alan Entwistle. KusumaNain, MeeraThakur, 50 Conversation sister-bandits, In the search for mythic identity within the 51 Times of India, October 24, 1984. been called "beacon of and others, have the 52 Times of India, August 18, 1985. women who have boundaries of cultural authenticity, hope for countless young model for to- 53 India Today, October 31, 1986, 33. with In Bombay virangana present a valuable a score to settle society.'56 as well as a timeless reminder 54 Phulan Debi, 46. to day's women, and Delhi, Phulan "appeared represent of the achievements of the past. 55 Bradshaw, 73. the ideasexpressed by such feministsas Kate 56 Times of India, August 18, 1985. Millett,Betty Friedan,and GermaineGreer,' Notes 57 Bradshaw, 86. in her stanceas "the new woman... a brash Amazon who had risen above her caste and 1 Witness the recent spate of hi-tech film and References the traditionallysubservient position of the television versions of the great epics in Indian female"57 India. I Books and Articles Phulan achievedprominence in an era in 2 Kishwar, In Search, 46. A English which more and more women were emerg- 3 Kishwar, In Search, 47. ing fromtheir domesticseclusion and taking 4 Dworkin, 42. Altekar, A S, The Position of Womenin Hfiindu up positionsside by side with men in schools 5 Dworkin, 32-33. Civilisation, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, and colleges, in the workplace, in politics 6 See the volume edited by Blackburn, et al. 1973.

WS-32 Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 Bhaduri,Taroon Coomar, ChambaL The Valley University of New YorkPress, 1985, 351-76. Book House, reprinted 1984. of Terror,Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, Robinson, Sandra P, 'Hindu, Paradigms of B Hindi 1972. Women: Images and Values' in Yvonne 1 Amar Chitra Katha comic Blackburn, Stuart, et al, eds The Oral Epic in YazbeckHaddad, ed, Women,Religion and India, Forthcoming. Social Change, Albany: State University of Khanna, Prakash, trans, Rani Durgavati, Bradshaw, Jon, 'The B,andit Queen'. Esquire, New York Press, 1985, 181-215. Bombay: India Book House, reprinted1983. October 1985, 73-88. Sakala, Carol, Womenof South Asia: A Guide 2 Folk texts 'The Bullet Queens'. Times of India, August 18, to Resources, Milkwood, New York: Kraus Barahmasi Phulandevi, Courtesy of Archives 1985. International Publications, 1980. and Research Centre for Ethnomusicology, Caplan, Patricia, Class and Gender in India: Sinha, Shyam Narain, Rani Lakshmi Bai of New Delhi. Womenand Their Organisations in a South Jhansi, : Chugh Publications, Natharam Sharma Gaur, Sangit Kshatrani Indian City, London: Tavistock Publica- 1980. Durgavati, Hathras: Shyam Press, 1973ed. tions, 1985. Temple, Richard Carnac, The Legends of the -, Sangit Lakha Banjara, Hathras: Shyam 'Day of Reckoning', India Today, March 1-15, Punjab, Vols I-III, Patiala: Language Press, 1982 ed. 1981, 30-33. Department, Punjab, 1962 (first published -, Sangit Nautanki Shahzadi, Hathras: Shyam Dworkin, Andrea, WomanHating, New York: 1884). Press, 1982 ed. E P Dutton, 1974. Time magazine, February 14, 1983, 25 (Phulan -, Sangit Shirin Farhad, Hathras: Shyam Jacobson, Doranne, 'The Chaste Wife: Cultural Devi). Press, 1975 ed. Norm and Individual Experience' in Sylvia Tod, James, A nnals and Antiquities of Ra- -, Sangit Syah Posh, Hathras: Shyam Press, Vatuk, ed American Studies in the An- jasthan, Vol 1, London: George Routledge 1982 ed. thropology of India, New Delhi: Manohar and Sons Ltd, 1914 (first published 1829). -, Sangit Virangana Virmati, Parts I and 2, Publications, 1978, 94-138. Wodeyar, Sadashiva, Rani Chennamma, New Hathras: Shyam Presss, 1971 ed. Jayawardena, Kumari, Feminism and Na- Delhi: National Book Trust, 1979. Svaminath, Sangit Phulan tionalism in the Third World, London: Zed Debi, : B Hindi Ramlakhan Books Ltd, 1986. Gupta Bookseller, 1982. Karnad,Girish, 'This One is for Nadia. Cinema Anil, Rajkumar,Bharatiya Viranganaen,Delhi: VisionIndia, Vol 1, no 2 (April 1980), 84-90. Kitab Ghar, 1984. 3 Oral performances Kaur, Manmohan, Role of Women in the II Comics, Folk Texts and Oral Nyay aur Kartavya (Rani Lakshmi Bai), a Freedom Movement (1857-1947), Delhi: Performances Nautanki composed by Ramji Lal Bhatt, Sterling Publishers Private Ltd, 1968. A English performed by Kamlesh Lata, Bhuresh Kinsley, David, Hindu Goddesses: Visions of Kumar Varma, Chunnilal, and Ram Dayal the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious I Amar Chitra Katha comics Sharma, produced by Tibuvan Sharma for Tradition,Berkeley: University of California Chandrakant,Kamala, Tarabai,Bombay: India All India Radio-,Courtesy of Alan Press, 1986. Book House, reprinted 1983. Entwistle. Kishen, Pradip, ed, India Interpational Centre Parel, Toni, Chand Bibi, Bombay: India Book Phulan Devi Biraha, performed by Ramji and Quarterly, Special Issue on Indian Popular House, reprinted 1983. Party of Ramman , , Cinema, VIII: 1 (1980). Ranade, Meena, Ahilyabai Holkar, Bombay: recorded 1983-84, Courtesy of Scott Kishwar, Madhu, 'Arya Samaj and Women's India Book House, nd. Marcus. Education: Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Jalan- Singh, Mala, Rani of Jhansi, Bombay: India Phulan Devi Biraha, performed by Hans Raj ' in Economic and Political Weekly, Book House, reprinted 1984. and Party, Varanasi, recorded 1983-84, Vol XXI, no 17, Review of Women Studies Subba Rao, Tales of Durga, Bombay: India Courtesy of Scott Marcus. (April 26, 1986), WS 9-24. Kishwar, Madhu and Ruth Vanita, eds, In Search of A nswers: Indian Women's Voices from Manushi, London: Zed Books Ltd, 1984. CENTREFOR SOCIAL STUDIES Lebra-Chapman, Joyce, The Rani of Jhansi A Surat Study of Female Heroism in India, Honolulu: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1986. Liddle, Joanna and Rama Joshi, Daughters of iWo Week Course on Independence: Gender, Caste and Class in Computer Applications in Social Sciences India, London: Zed Books Ltd, 1986. Madhavananda, Swami and Ramesh Chandra The Centre for Social Studies, Surat is organising its Majumdar, eds, Great Women of India, fifth two week ICSSR Almora: Advaita Ashrama, 1953. sponsored course on COMPUTERAPPLICATIONS IN SOCIALSCIENCES for Malcolm, John, A Memoir of Central India, 20th JUNE1988 to 3rd JULY1988. The course is meant for researchers and including Malwa, 3rd edition, Vol I, university teachers who are engaged in survey based research and need to London: Parbury, Allen and Co, 1832. deal with analysis and processing of data. The orientationof the course would Misra, Rekha, Women in- Mughal India (1526-1748 AD), Delhi: Munshiram be to expose the participants to fundamentals of computer, computer pro- Manoharlal, 1967. cessing, FORTRANlanguage and foundation of data processing and quan- Namjoshi, Suniti, Feminist Fables, London: tification methods. Sheba Feminist Publishers, 1981. 'Phoolan Fever', Times of Idia, October 24, To facilitate meaningful interaction, it has been decided to restrict the size 1984. of the group to 20 comprising a suitable mix of participants. Travel,lodging Pool, John J, Famous , and boarding will be provided to the selected participants. Calcutta: Susil Gupta Ltd, 1954. Rangoonwalla, Firoze, Indian Filmography: Applications of those who are interested should reach the Course Co- Silent and Hindi Films (1897-1969), ordinator,Centre for Bombay: J Udeshi, 1970. Social Studies, UniversityCampus, Udhna-MagdallaRoad, Ratte, Lou, 'Goddesses, Mothers, and SURAT- 395 007 latest by May 9th, 1988. Heroines: Hindu Women and the Feminine in the Early Nationalist Movement' in Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, ed, Women, Religion and Social Change, Albany: State

Economic and Political Weekly April 30, 1988 WS-33