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Progress in the Making 3D Printing Policy Considerations through the Library Lens

Charlie Wapner

ABSTRACT

Libraries nationwide are expanding access to 3D printing. Library mak- erspaces that offer 3D printing services provide people with the ability to create essentially any object they can imagine. These libraries serve as labs of innovation and experimentation for aspiring entrepreneurs look- ing to bring new products to market—and for everyone to advance learning and creativity.

As 3D printing becomes more common inside and outside of libraries, it has the potential to transform our society in a number of ways and, in the process, raises numerous new issues for policymakers to consider.

No. This paper provides a history and overview of 3D printing technology; 3 discusses the potential economic impacts of the growth of the 3D print- JANUARY ing industry; outlines the role 3D printing now plays in formal education 2015 and libraries; provides an analysis of the policy implications of 3D print- ing; and offers insight into the role the library community should play as lawmakers, government agencies, companies and the courts craft frameworks for 3D printing activities. The paper’s public policy discussion cuts across a number of issues, including intellectual property, intellectu- al freedom and individual liberty and product liability.

Why is 3D Printing Important for Librarians? Using a 3D printer in the Maker Lab at the The library community stands on the front Allen County Public Library in Ft. Wayne, lines of the digital revolution. Libraries con- Indiana, a Boy Scout troop printed resin nect entire communities with the digital wheels for its robot team.2 At the Libraries technologies that are fundamentally chang- of the University of Florida, mathematical ing the way we process and utilize infor- models were printed to illustrate concepts mation. 3D printing is among the most re- that are difficult to depict in two dimen- cent transformative digital services to be sions, such as fractals and spherical projec- offered in libraries. A small, but rapidly tions of grids.3 To promote learning and growing number of public libraries— creativity, a student printed multi-color currently about 250 locations1—in every globes at the school library of West De Pere part of our country are adopting 3D printers High School in Wisconsin.4 In Kansas, a high and making them available for patron use. school junior created a functioning pros- thetic hand for a nine-year-old family friend OITP P ERSPECTIVES

using the 3D printer at the Johnson County Lab.”6 A number of learning labs offer 3D Public Library. printing services, including those at the An- ythink Wright Farms and Anythink Brighton These examples highlight a few of the excit- libraries within the Rangeview Library Dis- ing applications of library 3D printing. As trict in Adams County, Colorado.7 this technology continues to take off, library staff should continue to encourage patrons History and Overview to harness it to provide innovative health In 1983, a young man named Charles Hull care solutions, launch business ventures had an idea. Hull—who at the time was and engage in creative learning. In order to working for a small firm that made durable do so, library staff must have a clear under- coatings for tables using ultraviolet (UV) standing of basic 3D printer mechanics; the lamps—thought computer designs of solid current and potential future uses of 3D objects could be converted into prototypes printers inside and outside of library walls; by fusing together successive layers of cur- and the economic and public policy consid- able UV material.8 After months of experi- erations regarding 3D printing. mentation, Hull pioneered stereolithogra- phy: The first 3D printing (or “additive man- ufacturing”) technique.9 All modern 3D printing techniques still follow the same fundamental process Hull developed.

The process begins when computer aided design (CAD) software renders the virtual blueprint of a solid object. A blueprint can be generated from scratch using a modeling program, or by using a camera or a 3D Prototype of a 3D-printed prosthetic hand scanner to capture the exact dimensions of an object and convert them into a CAD It is important to note that institutions and model. Once CAD software creates an ob- agencies that provide funding to the library ject’s blueprint, a plating and slicing pro- community have already begun to help li- gram divides the object into cross-sections. braries use 3D printers to effect meaningful A 3D printer builds the object layer-by- community change. For example, in re- layer, either by extruding sheets of raw ma- sponse to President Obama’s call to make terial onto a build platform, or by focusing science, technology, engineering and math- lasers onto thin sheets of raw material. As ematics (STEM) education a national priori- the sheets cool, they fuse together to ren- ty in 2010 as part of his Educate to Innovate der the final object. initiative, the Institute of Museum and Li- brary Services (IMLS) and the John D. and A number of websites provide services re- Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation lated to CAD files for 3D printers. One of the launched the Learning Labs in Libraries and most robust online platforms for CAD file 5 Museums program. This program provided sharing is Thingiverse, 3D printing manufac- sites in 24 cities and counties with $100,000 turer Makerbot’s online repository of open- each for the planning and design of an “in- source, user-generated designs. Other web- novative teen space” known as a “Learning sites will print, ship and even market design

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files for users. One of the leading websites NASA launched a 3D printer into space to providing these services is the Dutch- experiment with the creation of spare parts founded website Shapeways. In addition to for the International Space Station.15 With building and sending users designs they up- the development of more complex 3D print- load to the site, Shapeways helps those ing applications, bioengineers, metallurgists looking to market their designs reach cus- and other materials scientists are continu- tomers around the globe. The site allows ing to find new materials compatible with users to upload designs to personalized the 3D printing process. pages known as “shops,” and link these pages to a Paypal account. Shapeways will handle the production and distribution of an item following a sale. The net proceeds from each sale go to the user, minus a 3.5 percent payment processing fee.10 A num- ber of competing sites offer similar services, including Sculpteo, Ponoko and iMaterial- ise.

The materials compatible with 3D printing are extensive and growing. Most library 3D printers use plastic. Currently, the most common plastics used in 3D printing are ac- rylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and pol- ylactic acid (PLA) plastic. Both of these ma- terials lend themselves to the additive The Thingiverse user interface manufacturing process because they heat Modern 3D printers vary widely in price. and re-cool easily, but each has its weak- Commercial printers—those that can be nesses as well. The hard, glossy, petroleum- reliably used for manufacturing and scien- based ABS is highly flammable and prone to tific purposes—like creating a dental model cracking if cooled too quickly.11 The brittle, or a chemical compound—can cost tens, or plant-based PLA is prone to cracking along even hundreds of thousands of dollars (e.g., stress zones and sometimes contains toxic the Matsuura LUMEX Advance-25, which dyes and binders.12 starts at over $800,000 in American mar-

kets). “Desktop” 3D printers—those that ABS, PLA and other plastics can be used to are targeted to the American household— create everything from toy figurines to start as low as $200 (e.g., the Makible A6- prosthetic limbs to handguns. The objects 16 LT). A number of these printers are sold as and structures that can be printed from ma- “kits” of constituent parts that the consum- terials other than plastic are even more var- er must assemble at home. Last year, Rin- ied, but less common. A company in Shang- novated Design launched a Kickstarter cam- hai can print a ten-story house out of quick- paign to bring a $100 desktop 3D printer to dry cement in less than 24 hours;13 the San market. The printer, known as the “Peachy Diego-based company Organovo Holdings, Printer,” was successfully funded in October Inc. is using 3D printers to create a human liver out of human cells;14 and in 2014,

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2013 and is under development as of this network of facilities that offers access to writing.17 metallurgic, mechanical, electrical and pro- totyping machinery and classes, charges Economic Implications members of its D.C.-Arlington location a fee With industrialization, America’s economy of $125 per month or $1,395 per year.24 In fundamentally changed. Before then, the contrast, most libraries offer 3D printing U.S. economy was driven by the output of and other creative makerspace services as a small entrepreneurs and artisans, and ex- library service at no cost beyond charging changes of goods and services generally for the materials used in printing. Libraries took place locally and on a small scale.18 with makerspaces offer lectures and special With the rise of mass production and large- events for aspiring entrepreneurs.25 scale distribution systems, large corpora- tions became the engines of economic Though 3D printing has the potential to growth, and goods began to flow across empower individuals and small businesses, state and national borders.19 By and large, this technology by no means heralds the America transformed from a society of en- demise of big industry. Over the past sever- terprising small producers to one of con- al decades, many large firms have out- sumers subject to the vagaries of corporate sourced their manufacturing to foreign 26 production and global commerce.20 Some countries. 3D printing may motivate these say 3D printing has the potential to once firms to bring many of their manufacturing 27 again place the small producer at the helm activities back to the United States. of the American economy.21 Many industrial-grade 3D printers can al- While 3D printers are not yet technological- ready build goods more cost-effectively 28 ly advanced or affordable enough to allow than can overseas workers. If firms were individuals to cost-effectively print all of the to begin manufacturing more of their goods materials and goods they depend on in day- with 3D printers on American soil, not only to-day life, these devices have become ac- could their production costs drop, but costs cessible enough to spawn a “maker move- related to inventory holdings, shipping and ment,” which encourages people to inde- environmental compliance could also di- 29 pendently build and customize home, office minish. 3D printing also can help firms get and recreational goods.22 Hobbyists across their goods to market more quickly by al- the country use 3D printers to fashion and lowing them to rapidly and cost-effectively tinker with everyday items like key chains, generate prototypes for testing, as well as coffee mugs and watches; entrepreneurs to produce intricate items that standard use 3D printers to build prototypes of goods production machinery cannot efficiently 30 they are trying to bring to market; and generate. start-ups rely on crowd-sourced items from In broad strokes, the economic argument the maker community to compete with for 3D printing is that allowing this technol- large manufacturers.23 ogy to flourish will allow industries of all Libraries are in the vanguard of the maker sizes to accelerate the process for design- movement. Makerspaces outside of librar- ing, producing and launching new prod- 31 ies often require paid monthly or annual ucts. Those who espouse this argument memberships. For example, Techshop, a contend that policymakers should imple-

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ment sensible regimes that safeguard public Thingiverse.38 MakerBot is one of several health (e.g., ensure proper ventilation) and manufacturers that have begun a push to protect rights holders without unduly limit- bring their products to the education com- ing learning, innovation, creativity, and the munity. growth of 3D printing technology.32 Another such manufacturer is the Canadian 3D Printing and Formal Education firm Tinkerine, which recently launched In a number of educational institutions, 3D Tinkerine U, a program aimed at getting 3D printing technology is helping students de- printers and 3D printing curricula into North 39 velop the science, technology, engineering, American schools. Through Tinkerine U, art and math (STEAM) skills they need to schools can purchase discounted Tinkerine compete in the global economy. School, col- printers bundled with printing materials, lege, university and public libraries are lead- lesson plans and a library of educational 3D 40 ing the effort to promote STEAM education models. Dutch manufacturer Leapfrog al- through 3D printing. For example, 3rd grad- so offers schools special discounts and ers at the David C. Barrow Elementary product bundles, as well as two different School in Athens, Georgia, used their li- curricula—one designed for primary school brary’s 3D printer to design and build their and the other for high school—for teaching 41 own jewelry as part of a geologic lesson on students how to use a 3D printer. rocks and minerals.33 At Barrow, the 3D 3D Systems, one of the largest U.S. manu- printer is available to all students and facul- facturers of 3D printers, recently partnered ty and educators are integrating 3D printing with the American Library Association (ALA) into lesson plans as early as 1st grade.34 and the Association of Science and Tech- At the university level, the DeLaMare Sci- nology Centers to establish the MakerLab ence and Engineering Library at the Univer- Club—“…a community of U.S. libraries and sity of Nevada-Reno became the first uni- museums committed to advancing 3D digi- versity library to provide 3D printing and tal literacy and providing their members scanning as a library service to all students and communities with access to 3D printers 42 in 2012.35 Students are using 3D printers to and programs.” Member libraries and mu- create prototypes of everything from robot seums receive a number of benefits from parts and engine blocks to chemical models. 3D Systems, including between two and Because the library serves all students, it four Cube 2 3D printers, access to work- enables collaboration across academic dis- shops, webinars and discounted equipment ciplines, from marketing to chemistry.36 and monthly access to 3DU, a program of instructional 3D printing modules and re- Barrow Elementary obtained its 3D printer sources.43 To apply to become a member of with the help of MakerBot Academy, an ini- MakerLab Club, a library, museum or sci- tiative to put a 3D printer in every public ence and technology center must be able to school in America.37 In addition to offering demonstrate a commitment to “making” printers and materials at discounted rates and digital design.44 3D Systems also recent- to schools, Makerbot Industries also makes ly launched a comprehensive effort to inte- available curriculum-based printable mod- grate 3D printing into American education, els—e.g., a frog dissection kit, a T-Rex skull called Make.Digital.45 and a miniature Pyramid of Giza—through

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Among 3D systems’ current partners are market and develop brand identity with a LevelUp Village (LUV) and For Inspiration critical market segment. Therefore, a school and Recognition of Science and Technology or higher education institution considering (FIRST) Robotics. LUV offers STEAM classes a partnership with a manufacturer should to students in the United States and in a leverage this market benefit to boost the number of schools abroad.46 The company STEAM skills of its students to the fullest reaches students in such countries as India, extent possible. Rwanda, Uganda, Mali, Pakistan, and Peru. When students enroll in a LUV class in the Free Expression Issues U.S., a parallel class is offered in a foreign The growth of the 3D printing industry has LUV school.47 Students in parallel classes raised a number of questions related to in- work together through interactive technol- tellectual freedom and individual liberty. To ogies to build common skills and share date, most of these questions have been common experiences. 3D Systems provides debated in the context of 3D-printed fire- participants in LUV’s Global Inventors in arms. To what extent should the govern- Training class with a Cube 3D printer, design ment limit the ability to print firearms and software and access to an after-school components of firearms? Should an individ- training class.48 ual have to obtain a license for a firearm he or she builds using a 3D printer? What con- FIRST is an international youth organization stitutes a 3D-printed gun? Policymakers that hosts an annual team robotics compe- have recently begun to consider these sorts tition. 3D Systems supports the competition of questions. In 2013, Philadelphia became by making over 400 3D printers available to the first U.S. city to ban the 3D printing of 49 participating teams across America. firearms.52 Also in 2013, U.S. Attorney Gen- eral Eric Holder mentioned 3D printed guns The recent drive by manufacturers to gain in a public statement recommending the traction in schools has captured the atten- extension of the Undetectable Firearms Act, tion of top-level government officials. In a which bans guns with low metal content.53 recent speech at the 2014 RAPID Confer- However in December 2013, a 10-year ex- ence and Exposition in Detroit, U.S. Com- tension of the Act made no explicit mention merce Secretary Penny Pritzker gave a plug of 3D printed firearms.54 to M.LAB.21, another 3D Systems initiative to get 3D printers into schools.50 As part of Despite the high-profile debate surrounding this initiative, 3D Systems and manufactur- 3D-printed guns, the individual liberty im- ing giant SME will work with industry and plications of 3D printing extend far beyond education experts to develop 3D printing questions of firearm regulation. For exam- curricula for schools.51 ple, scientists have already begun to apply The enthusiasm the 3D printing industry has 3D printing to the process of making phar- shown for engaging with the education maceuticals. Lee Cronin, a professor of community is exciting. Still, there can be no chemistry at the University of Glasgow in question that 3D printer manufacturers are Scotland, has been printing chemical com- designing academic curricula and offering pounds with a team of researchers for a 55 targeted education discounts at least in part number of years. He hopes that his efforts because they want to create and grow a will enable individuals to one day print all of the pharmaceuticals they need from their

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desktops.56 The prospect of turning com- terfeit postage, currency or other official puters into chemistry sets is both exciting government materials.57 and unsettling. Placing the power to con- coct drug molecules into the hands of any- One 3D printing commentator wrote an ar- one with a computer, CAD software and a ticle in 3DPI—a news source on the 3D 3D printer could potentially help millions of printing industry—proposing embedding traceable ID tags in or on 3D-printed ob- people around the world gain swift access 58 to the medications they need to live health- jects. The article suggested either placing ier lives. However, it also could result in the tiny, transparent markings on the outside of printing of medications that are untested objects that could be detected with certain and unsafe. Lawmakers and the U.S. Food forms of light, or embedding shapes on the inside of objects that could be read using and Drug Administration will have to find a 59 way to regulate the pharmacological uses of terahertz radiation. Create it REAL, a 3D printers if these uses become more company that develops 3D printing tech- common. nology, has discussed developing software that will halt a print job when it recognizes Another danger of the chemical applica- CAD files of components that could be used tions of 3D printing is that those engaged in to build a regulated weapon.60 the illicit drug trade will begin to use 3D printers to create narcotics. This is likely to The capability of 3D printers to monitor and become more possible as 3D printers be- track their own output highlights an ironic come able to render more complex mole- aspect of modern additive manufacturing cules. technology. On the one hand, this technol- ogy “democratizes” the manufacturing pro- 3D printers also have the potential to ren- cess.61 Individual entrepreneurs and start- der material that, while legal and unregu- ups with access to a 3D printer and CAD lated, may pose challenges in the library software can build essentially anything they setting. Individual libraries may set policies want and can better compete in the mar- that constrain or preclude certain uses of ketplace against larger, highly capitalized 3D printing, especially those that raise safe- firms. On the other hand, by digitizing the ty concerns. The contribution (see pages 8- manufacturing process, the technology fa- 9) from the ALA Office for Intellectual Free- cilitates the ease of tracking, regulating and dom discusses this issue in greater detail. even restraining the production and move- ment of goods. The 3D printing industry is well aware of the challenges of 3D printers. Recently, manu- How should the library community respond facturers of 3D printers and public safety to the concept of embedding tracking and advocates have begun to consider the mer- regulatory mechanisms into 3D printers? In its of embedding tracking and regulatory addition to promoting public safety, these mechanisms into the 3D printing process. mechanisms might help libraries avoid or at Manufacturers of 2D printers, such as Epson least minimize a number of liabilities. How- and Xerox, have long embedded “water- ever, watermarking 3D-printed objects chal- marks” in the form of tiny dots or faint text lenges patron privacy, and employing soft- into their printing processes to ensure that ware in 3D printers that would immediately their printers are not used to produce coun- halt certain print jobs could restrict patron ability to make use of public information.

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3D Printing, Intellectual Freedom procedures that restrict use of a library's and Library Values meeting rooms or other publicly available By Deborah Caldwell-Stone, Deputy Director, facilities based upon arbitrary distinctions ALA Office for Intellectual Freedom among users or user groups, such as reli- The growing movement among libraries to gion, age, income, immigration status, or offer library users opportunities to learn housing status. Courts also have set aside about and interact with new technologies policies and practices that restrict use of a like 3D printing has naturally prompted library's meeting rooms and facilities based questions about the application of the pro- on partisan or doctrinal disapproval of the user’s views or speech, or because of a de- fession's core value of intellectual freedom 63 to such efforts. Existing intellectual freedom sire to avoid controversy. policies adopted by the ALA state that li- braries and librarians should protect and These cases counsel against the adoption of promote intellectual freedom regardless of policies or practices that arbitrarily restrict the format, technology, or means of en- use of the library's 3D printer based on a gagement used to provide learning oppor- user's status or constitutionally protected tunities in the library.62 Thus the intellectual creative expression. Protecting and promot- freedom principles espoused in the Library ing users' rights of access and free expres- Bill of Rights and the ALA Code of Ethics can sion with respect to their use of the library's be said to naturally extend to those tools, 3D printer does not mean the library cannot technologies, and services that enable li- adopt some limitations on the use of the 3D brary users to create content, including 3D printer as long as the limitations are rea- printers. sonable, related to library use, and do not regulate expressive activity. Such limitations A useful analogy can be made between the can include rules intended to promote us- provision of 3D printing technologies and ers' safety; assure equitable access to the libraries' provision of typewriters and word printer; and protect the library from poten- processing computers. In providing access tial legal liability. The library can also bar to the tools needed to create and dissemi- any use of the 3D printer for illegal purpos- nate written expression, libraries and librar- es, including the creation of items that are ians do not place limits on the content of prohibited by local, state or federal law or library users' prose. Similarly, libraries and that violate intellectual property rights. librarians should avoid placing limits on li- brary users' free expression and creativity A written acceptable use policy for the 3D when they use the library's 3D printer to printer is a necessity if the library is to pro- create tools, art, or other material goods. tect users' intellectual freedom while ad- dressing concerns about safety, access, lia- Existing precedent concerning access to bility, and illegal use of the 3D printer. Ef- publicly funded library resources support fective policies include statements of pur- the conclusion that patrons using a publicly pose affirming that the library's intellectual funded library's 3D printer enjoy certain freedom policies apply to 3D printer use; a rights of access and free expression pro- provision requiring that the 3D printer be tected by the First Amendment. For exam- used for lawful purposes only; and a decla- ple, courts have set aside library policies or ration informing users that the library's user behavior and acceptable use policies apply

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to all uses of the 3D printer. Such broadly of any library materials or services, includ- written policy statements provide the li- ing 3D printing. While the user cannot ex- brary with the necessary flexibility to ad- pect complete privacy in regards to the use dress any potential misuse or abuse of the of a 3D printer—she may not be able to use 3D printer while assuring users the freedom the 3D printer without the assistance of a to design and create projects with the new librarian or other library staff member—she technology. should be able to rely on the library's prom- ise that information about her intellectual Adoption of such an acceptable use policy activities in the library will not be shared also can provide a framework for discussion with third parties.66 and decision making when questions of law, policy, or practice arise. In the context of 3D Nonetheless, the present controversy over printing, questions are frequently asked the use of 3D printers to manufacture guns about the use of the library's 3D printer to (and the lesser alarm about sex toys and create potentially controversial objects such drugs) is a harbinger of the kinds of public as guns, sex toys, and illegal drugs. A writ- policy debates librarians may confront as ten policy addressing patrons' use of the increasing numbers of libraries acquire 3D 3D printer will demonstrate that the library printers. Adherence to the profession's core has thoughtfully considered these issues professional values may require librarians and provided its librarians with the tools to advocate for their library users' freedom needed to intervene when users ask to use to engage with emerging technologies like the 3D printer to create items that threaten 3D printers in order to express their creativ- the health and safety of other users or are ity and share that expression with others. otherwise prohibited by law. Such advocacy can begin today by taking a Library policy, however, should not be used positive approach when 3D printers are to bar users from designing and creating added to the library's technology offerings. lawful items simply because they may cause 3D printer policies should be informed by controversy. For example, the use of the the profession's commitment to the kind of library's 3D printer to create and assemble intellectual freedom that fosters learning, a gun could be restricted as a violation of facilitates access, and promotes engage- library behavior policies prohibiting the ment. The policy should identify and high- possession of weapons in the library;64 but light what 3D printers can do as a useful, it is none of the library's business if some- innovative technology that offers opportu- one chooses to use their time with the 3D nities to create and share content. printer to create a sex toy.65 While reasonable rules are necessary to Libraries providing users with the oppor- manage access and address potential mis- tunity to use a 3D printer should be pre- use, fear should not drive policy and proce- pared to protect users' privacy in regard to dure, or create the impression that 3D their use of the library's 3D printer. Existing printing is a dangerous technology. Free library privacy policies, based on state li- access depends on support for the library's brary confidentiality laws and ALA policies mission of facilitating the individual's ability regarding users' privacy and confidentiality, to pursue knowledge without limitation. should apply whenever a patron makes use

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Intellectual Property Issues Deven Desai and Gerard Magliocca— 3D printing provides individuals with the brought digitization to “the economy of ability to cost-effectively build and re-create tangible things” for the first time, we need items at all levels of complexity.67 As a re- to reexamine patent law in much the same sult, it forces us to think about intellectual way we have copyright law over the past property law in an entirely new context. approximately decade-and-a-half.69 Lawmakers and the courts will have to de- cide how, and to what extent, intellectual In the United States, there are two basic property concepts should apply to the 3D kinds of patents—utility and design. A utility printing process. It will likely be a while be- patent may cover a machine, article of fore the answer to this question is clear. manufacture, a composition of matter, or method or process [fn. 35 U.S.C. Section Librarians must continue to encourage their 101]. A design patent covers the ornamen- patrons to use library 3D printing services tal and aesthetic shape of a manufactured to cultivate new skills, develop new innova- item as opposed to its utilitarian function tions and launch new business ventures. In [fn. 35 U.S.C. Section 171]. Both types of communities across the country, library 3D patents may be implicated by 3D printing. printing inspires creative learning and For example, a company might hold a utility brings the ideas of enterprising Americans patent covering a method of printing a pair from conception to fruition. For it to con- of sunglasses and also hold a design patent tinue to do so, those of us in the library on the shape and design of the sunglasses. community must resolve to continue to provide the technology and services our pa- Several different forms of patent infringe- trons need and our values demand, exhibit- ment might result from the 3D printing pro- ing leadership in this emerging technology. cess: Direct Infringement In considering intellectual property con- Direct infringement refers to the unauthor- cepts in the context of 3D printing, our pri- ized manufacture, use, sale, offer of sale or mary goal should be to understand where import to the United States of any patented our rights and responsibilities begin and invention.70 Any individual who prints— end as service providers and users. By arriv- wittingly or unwittingly—an object under ing at such an understanding, we can better patent could be held liable for direct in- identify disinformation about intellectual fringement if he or she utilizes a method or property law and jurisprudence and furnish produces an apparatus or device covered by ourselves with the knowledge we need to a patent claim. shape the regulatory frameworks that de- velop around 3D printing in the coming Three Kinds of Indirect Infringement years. Because a library with a 3D printer typically Patent would not be directly involved in the print- The arrival of digitization to the music, film ing of any item, it likely would not face di- and book industries beginning in the late rect patent infringement liability if an indi- 1990s engendered a great deal of debate on vidual printed a patented object with its the subject of copyright.68 Now that 3D printer. However, libraries must be aware printing has—in the words legal scholars of several possible forms of indirect liability, and take steps to avoid them.

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1. Induced infringement: The process actions to avoid learning of that of encouraging another to infringe. fact.”74 Companies can often give Proof of this sort of infringement is notice of patent rights by marking difficult, as it requires a showing their products, packages or even that the defendant had specific websites with patent numbers [fn. knowledge of the patent in 35 U.S.C. Section 287]. question, as well as the intent to cause another to infringe upon that 3. Vicarious infringement: While patent patent.71 An individual who uploads law does not explicitly mention a CAD file of a patented design to a vicarious infringement, the courts design-sharing website like have defined vicarious patent Shapeways and is on notice of liability through a number of another’s patent rights could be decisions. The law firm Klemchuk 75 held liable for induced infringement. and Kabusta notes:

2. Contributory infringement: The sale, “Courts have found vicarious offer of sale or import to the United liability for direct infringement States of a component of a patented when the infringing acts are machine, combination or committed by an agent of the composition, or of a material or accused infringer or a party apparatus for use in a patented acting pursuant to the accused process [fn. 35 U.S.C. Section 271].72 infringer's direction or control, and where multiple parties combine Thanks to the Supreme Court’s 2011 to perform every step of a decision in Global-Tech Appliances, claimed method and one party Inc. v. SEB S.A., to establish exercises control or direction over contributory infringement, it must the entire process.” be proven—as in cases of induced infringement—that the defendant had prior knowledge of the patent in Trade Secrets and Trade Dress question.73 An individual who prints 3D printing may also infringe upon protec- a part or component of a patented tions of trade secrets in the form of formu- apparatus, for example, such as the las, practices, processes, designs, instru- shell of a patented cell phone ments, patterns or compilations of infor- 76 design, could be held liable for this mation. Obtaining trade secret protection sort of infringement. It should be requires proof that the secret is not widely pointed out that while prior known, that efforts have been made to pre- knowledge of the patent in question vent dissemination of the secret, and that is necessary for proving either type the secret confers a competitive ad- 77 of indirect infringement, the vantage. 3D printing may well see a prolif- doctrine of “willful blindness” holds eration of trade secret claims in the coming that prior knowledge is to be years, as manufacturers look to leverage attributed to a defendant if he or new technologies to find new commercial 78 she (1) “subjectively believe[s] that uses for 3D printers. Trade dress protects there is a high probability that a fact product designs that are inherently distinc- exists,” and (2) “take[s] deliberate

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tive and/or help consumers determine company issued a notice to a site offering to product origin.79 sell a 3D-printed, smartphone charging de- vice shaped like the Iron Throne from the popular HBO hit, Game of Thrones.85

As with patent law, libraries providing 3D printers must be aware of potential copy- right infringement liability under indirect liability theories. Although the Copyright Act does not explicitly mention indirect lia- bility concepts, the courts have recognized theories of induced, contributory or vicari- The Coca-Cola bottle’s unique ornamental ous infringement in the copyright context. features earned it a design patent in 1915. Its distinctive contours and packaging ensures it is As a result, in attempting to avoid second- protected under trade dress. ary liability under this law, persons and or- ganizations must rely on the precedents es-

Copyright tablished by certain legal decisions. Copyright protection attaches automatically These decisions include: to creative works like drawings, writings (including software), sculptures, and musi- 1. The 1984 “Betamax” decision [fn75: 80 cal compositions. Copyright infringements Sony v. Universal City Studios, 464 could result from scanning and printing art- U.S. 417, 220 USPQ 665 (1984)].86 In ists’ sculptures and copying CAD files that this case, the Supreme Court ruled direct 3D printers to render artists’ de- that Sony, a videocassette recorder 81 signs. Infringements also might result (VCR) manufacturer, was not liable 82 from printing certain toys like figurines. for infringement for producing a There is also debate about whether copy- technology that had the potential to right law protects CAD files for useful (not be used for infringing purposes be- 83 artistic) objects. Yet another question is cause the technology was capable of whether copyright law would address 3D substantial noninfringing uses.87 printings of useful items with separable ar- tistic components (e.g., it is likely that the 2. The 2005 “Grokster” decision [Met- unauthorized printing of a coffee cup with ro-Goldwyn-Meyer Studios, Inc. v. an artistic drawing on the front would con- Grokster (04-480) 545 U.S. 913].88 84 stitute copyright infringement). The Supreme Court established a precedent for “inducement” liability Intellectual property attorney Bryan Vogel under the copyright law when it explains that copyright litigation resulting ruled in this case that Grokster, a from 3D printing has mostly focused on the provider of peer-to-peer file sharing Digital Millennium Copyright Act, which has technology, could be held liable for provisions that make it unlawful to circum- the infringing activity of its users.89 vent technological measures used to pro- The court found, “one who distrib- tect copyrighted works [fn. 17 U.S.C. Sec- utes a device with the object of tion 1201]. He cites a recent takedown no- promoting its use to infringe copy- tice issued by HBO as an example. The

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right, as shown by clear expression strom goes on to suggest that whether or or other affirmative steps taken to not a 3D printer of a defective item qualifies foster infringement, is liable for the as a “commercial” seller is likely to depend resulting acts of infringement by upon several things, including: “The rela- third parties.”90 tionship of the supposedly-defective prod- uct to the printer’s business, if he or she 3. The 1996 “Fonovisa” decision [fn76: even has a business; the frequency and vol- Fonovisa Inc. v. Cherry Auction, 76 ume of similar sales; and the existence and F.3d 259, 37 USPQ2d 1590 (9th Cir. nature of any mass marketing.”99 1996)].91 In this case, the 9th Circuit Court addressed the concept of vi- Another possible liable party is the compa- carious liability under the copyright ny that manufactured the 3D printer.100 For law. The court ruled that Cherry the company to be held liable, the printer Auction, an operator of a flea mar- itself—and not just the item in question— ket in California, was vicariously lia- has to be proven to have been defective ble for the sale of pirated CDs by from the time it left the company’s posses- vendors at its market.92 The court sion.101 reasoned that Cherry Auction’s vi- carious liability stemmed from the Yet another candidate for liability is the fact that the infringing merchants programmer who wrote the code for the were acting under Cherry Auction’s product’s design.102 Proving the liability of direction/control, for Cherry Auc- this party is also likely to be difficult. Cur- tion’s direct financial benefit.93 rently, strict liability only applies to “tangi- ble personal property” (from the Third Re- Product Liability statement).103 Programmers will likely claim As 3D printing takes off, a growing number that their designs do not qualify as such.104 of people will gain the ability to create and In Winter v. G.P. Putnam’s Sons, two indi- market complex and potentially dangerous viduals ingested poisonous mushrooms af- products.94 Inevitably, some 3D-printed ter reading faulty information from the En- products that are brought to market will be cyclopedia of Mushrooms.105 After becom- faulty and will result in consumer injuries.95 ing critically ill, they initiated legal action Who, if anyone, can be held liable for these against the publisher, claiming that the en- products, is an open question. cyclopedia was a defective product.106 The court ruled against them, finding that while One possible liable party is the hobby- the information contained in the encyclo- ist/inventor who printed and sold the pedia was defective, the tangible encyclo- item.96 Proving liability for such an individu- pedia itself was not.107 Freeman Engstrom al will likely be difficult. Currently, strict claims that similar rulings have shielded product liability only applies to “commer- video game designers from strict product cial” sellers.97 Legal scholar Nora Freeman liability. She also points out that the courts Engstrom explains, “Occasional or casual are likely to find many programmers to be vendors, such as a child who makes and hobbyists rather than commercial sellers sells tainted lemonade or a housewife who and thus not liable for injuries resulting makes and sells contaminated jam, fall out- from the products they design.108 In addi- side strict liability’s scope.”98 Freeman Eng- tion, she suggests that the courts may re-

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gard programmers as architects—a cohort Jason Griffey, a seasoned library technology of individuals upon which product liability consultant and frequent writer for Ameri- has historically not been imposed.109 can Libraries magazine, recently wrote a comprehensive report on the mechanics However, the library community should un- and market for 3D printers. In the report, he derstand that there may be theories for in- describes some of the technical competen- direct or vicarious liability that injured par- cies library professionals should develop ties may use to target libraries and institu- upon integrating 3D printing into their insti- tions that provide 3D printing technology to tutions. Griffey states:113 members of the public. This may be an issue in particular if the technology is used to “I often tell people that running a 3-D produce a dangerous item such as a 3D printer is like driving a classic car. You printed gun or weapon. It may especially can do it even if you don’t know become an issue if the item’s danger is anything, but it’ll be a whole lot cheaper foreseeable and the library can reasonably if you can change the oil yourself. For a 3-D printer, that might include regular guard against risk associated with such cleaning, bed-leveling, and occasionally items, for example by preventing them swapping out a part if necessary. from being printed, either through formal policy or technological measures. Other skills that are useful but not necessary would include having The Role of the Library someone who is at least aware of the While a 3D printer is not in the budget for types of modeling programs and could most Americans in 2014, library makerspac- troubleshoot basic things like, “That won’t es allow anyone with a library card to 3D print because of X reason.” Libraries print a wide array of objects at little to no might also want to provide their patrons cost. However, the library’s role in leverag- with resources for learning more, so it’s a ing and harnessing this technology cannot good idea to purchase materials about end with the push of the power button. Li- 3-D printing, modeling, and the like in case you have a patron who wants to braries must help their patrons make sense deep-dive into the topic.” of this technology.

Numerous libraries help their patrons build Griffey offers invaluable advice. However, 3D printing competencies. The Cleveland given the many legal questions 3D printing Public Library currently offers classes and gives rise to, libraries need to do more than 110 events for patrons on 3D printing. The provide their patrons with instruction in the South Butler Community Library in Saxon- basics of printer mechanics, maintenance, burg, Pennsylvania requires its patrons to modeling and scanning. Libraries must also take an orientation class before using its 3D help their patrons navigate the complex so- 111 printers. In Washington, D.C., the Digital cial, economic, technological and public pol- Commons at the Martin Luther King, Jr. icy implications of this technology. Thank- Memorial Library offers classes on 3D scan- fully, information scholars are already work- ning, as well as 3D printing classes specifi- ing to prepare libraries to play this role. 112 cally designed for children and teens.

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Tomas A. Lipinski, Dean and Professor at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee To guide the 3D printing behavior of their School of Information Studies, adapted a patrons effectively, librarians must them- library photocopier warning notice to antic- selves understand the basic mechanics and ipate the intellectual property issues that policy implications of 3D printing. Promi- may result from the 3D printing process nent library organizations already offer pro- (see Appendix). Efforts like Dr. Lipinski’s are gramming on 3D printing at conferences the product of a growing feeling among li- and other gatherings of library profession- brary professionals that the library commu- als. It would behoove those who work on nity needs to develop a set of best practices public policy and government affairs within to guide patron print- these organizations to pro- ing behavior. [There is] a growing feeling duce webinars, podcasts, among library professionals that magazine articles and other There is currently little the library community needs to targeted products that ad- to no jurisprudence develop a set of best practices to dress important 3D printing that interprets intellec- guide patron printing policy questions for librar- tual property, intellec- behavior…In developing any ies. Additionally, academic tual freedom or prod- such set of practices, it is in our programs in library and in- uct liability concepts in formation science may want best interest to think chiefly about the context of 3D to consider building additive what is practicable, and printing. Therefore, in manufacturing, product lia- secondarily about what might developing any such bility and patent law instruc- eventually be held by Congress, set of practices, it is in tion into their curricula. our best interest to the state legislatures or the courts think chiefly about to be outside the bounds of the Conclusion what is practicable and law. 3D printing has the potential consistent with the to empower entrepreneurs mission of libraries, and secondarily about and start-ups, help firms of all sizes to bring what might eventually be held by Congress, their products to market more quickly, drive regulatory agencies, the state legislatures a resurgence in small manufacturing and or the courts to be outside the bounds of solve complex engineering and public the law. By the time Congress and the health problems. Libraries are the on-ramp courts began weighing in on digital copy- to this promising technology for many right issues, librarians had already estab- Americans, fostering individual creativity lished their own regimes for applying the and innovation. Library makerspaces are Copyright Act to the digital world. Some of helping aspiring entrepreneurs, innovators these regimes informed subsequent copy- and hobbyists take their ideas from discov- right jurisprudence. Librarians would be ery to reality. wise to establish similar regimes for ad- dressing the liability questions raised by 3D The library community must contribute to printing. This would place the library com- the budding policy debates surrounding the munity in a strong position to guide the di- intellectual freedom, individual liberty, in- rection of the public policy debates that tellectual property and product liability im- take shape around 3D printing in the com- plications of 3D printing. A key question we ing years. will have to answer is: How can we shape

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public policy to ensure that our patrons— and all Americans—derive the greatest pos- sible benefit from the 3D printing services 14 "3D Human Liver Tissue Model." Organovo. n.d. we offer? http://www.organovo.com/tissues-services/3d- human-tissue-models-services-research/tissue- NOTES models/3d-human-liver-tissue-model. 15 "Launch Brings New Technology That Could Change Life in Space." Cable News Network, 21 Sept. 2014. 1 Based in 2013 data from the 2013 Digital Inclusion http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/21/tech/spacex- Survey: Survey Findings and Results. Bertot, John launch/. Carlo, et al., University of Maryland, July 2014. 16 “Makibox 3D Printing.” n.d. http://ipac.umd.edu/sites/default/files/publications/ https://store.makibox.com/. 2013DigitalInclusionNationalReport.pdf. 17 “The Peachy Printer - The First $100 3D Printer & 2 Sade, Vivian. "Library Provides Tools for the Inven- Scanner!” 26 Feb. 2014 tor." Fort Wayne Journal Gazette, 25 May 2014. https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/117421627/t http://www.journalgazette.net/article/20140525/LO he-peachy-printer-the-first-100-3d-printer-and- CAL/305259935/1002/local. sc/posts?page=3. 3 Gonzalez, Sara Russell and Denise Beaubien Ben- 18 Desai, Deven R. Magliocca, Gerard N. "Patents, nett. “Planning and Implementing a 3D Printing Ser- Meet Napster: 3D Printing and the Digitization of vice in an Academic Library.” Issues in Science and Things." Vol. 102, Issue 6. Georgetown Law Journal Technology Librarianship, Fall 2014. (2014): 1691-1720. http://www.istl.org/14-fall/refereed3.html. http://georgetownlawjournal.org/files/2014/08/Des 4 Innovation Studio / 3D Printing, at West De Pere aiMagliocca-Patents.pdf. High School, Wisconsin; see 19 Ibid. https://sites.google.com/a/wdpsd.com/west-de- 20 Ibid. pere-high-school-library/innovating/3d-printing. 21 Ibid. 5 The Institute of Museum and Library Services. 22 Ibid. “Learning Labs in Libraries and Museums: Innovative 23 Ibid. Spaces for Teens.” The Institute of Museum and Li- 24 “Techshop Memberships.” n.d. brary Services. Oct. 2014. https://secure.techshop.ws/memberships.cfm?step http://www.imls.gov/assets/1/AssetManager/Learni =select_offer&offer=58. ngLabsReport.pdf. 25 "FLP - Business". n.d. 6 Ibid. http://libwww.freelibrary.org/business/. 7 Ibid. 26 Desai, Magliocca, “Patents, Meet Napster.” 8 Ponsford, Matthew. "The Night I Invented 3D Print- 27 Ibid. ing" Cable News Network, 14 Feb. 2014. 28 Ibid. http://www.cnn.com/2014/02/13/tech/innovation/t 29 Ibid. he-night-i-invented-3d-printing-chuck-hall/. 30 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 10 “Run your Business with Shapeways 3D Printing” 32 Ibid. Shapeways. n.d. 33 Diaz, Shelley. "School Librarians Score 3-D Printers n.d. http://www.shapeways.com/sell Through MakerBot/DonorsChoose." School Library 11 "Compare 3D Printer PLA and ABS Filament." n.d. Journal, 22 Nov. 2013. http://www.tridprinting.com/Compare-PLA-ABS/. http://www.thedigitalshift.com/2013/11/k- 12 Ibid. 12/school-librarians-score-3-d-printers- 13 Levy, Karyne. "A Chinese Company 3-D Printed 10 makerbotdonorschoose/. Houses In A Day." Business Insider, Inc. Business In- 34 Ibid sider, 14 Apr. 2014. 35 Chin, Yvette M. "U. Nevada Library Offers 3D Print- http://www.businessinsider.com/a-chinese- ing Across the Board." Library Journal, 7 Aug. 2012. company-3d-printed-10-houses-in-a-day-2014-4 http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2012/08/academic- libraries/u-nevada-library-offers-3d-printing-across- the-board/#_ .

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36 Ibid. 53 Moulitch-Hou, Michael. "The Spies in Your 3D 37 “MakerBot Academy.” n.d. Printer.” 3D Printing Industry. 4 Feb. 2014. https://www.makerbot.com/academy. http://3dprintingindustry.com/2014/02/04/spies-3d- 38 “MakerBot Academy Curriculum.” n.d. printer/. http://www.thingiverse.com/Curriculum/overview. 54 Moulitch-Hou, Michael. “Undetectable Firearms 39 Grunewald, Scott J. "Tinkerine U Brings 3DP to Act Passed, Free of 3DP Regulation.” 3D Printing Classrooms.” 3D Printing Industry, 8 July 2014. Industry. 17 Dec. 2014. http://3dprintingindustry.com/2014/07/08/3d- http://3dprintingindustry.com/2013/12/17/undetect printing-curriculum-tinkerine-u-education/. able-firearms-act-passed-free-3dp-regulation/ 40 Ibid. 55 Adams, Tim. "The 'chemputer' That Could Print out 41 Grunewald, Scott J. "New Leapfrog 3D Printer and Any Drug." Guardian News and Media. The Observer, Education Store." 3D Printing Industry, 19 Feb. 2014. 21 May 2014. http://3dprintingindustry.com/2014/02/19/leapfrog http://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/jul/21/c -launches-new-3d-printer-new-3d-printing- hemputer-that-prints-out-drugs. education-store-printer-bundle/. 56 Ibid. 42 “The MakerLab Club.” 3D Systems, n.d. 57 Moulitch-Hou, "The Spies in Your 3D Printer.” http://www.3dsystems.com/education/partnersand 58 Wegner, Andre. "If You Can't Stop It, Trace It - Per- resources/makerlab-club. sonalised Forensics and 3D Printing.” 3D Printing 43 Ibid. Industry. 15 Aug. 2014. 44 Ibid. http://3dprintingindustry.com/2013/08/15/if-you- 45 "3D Systems Introduces MAKE.DIGITAL: Digital cant-stop-it-trace-it-personalised-forensics-and-3d- Literacy Powered by 3D Printing for K-12 Education." printing/. 3D Systems, 1 May 2014. 59 Ibid. http://www.3dsystems.com/press-releases/3d- 60 Moulitch-Hou, "The Spies in Your 3D Printer.” systems-introduces-makedigital-digital-literacy- 61 Engstrom, Nora F. "3D Printing and Product Liabil- powered-3d-printing-k-12-education. ity: Identifying the Obstacles." Vol. 162, No. 35. Penn 46 Taylor, Shane. "Learning Partnerships by 3D Sys- Law Review Online (2013): 35-41. tems & LUV." 3D Printing Industry, 22 May 2014. http://www.pennlawreview.com/online/162-U-Pa-L- http://3dprintingindustry.com/2014/05/22/3d- Rev-Online-35.pdf printing-global-learning-partnerships-by-3d-systems- 62 "Access to Digital Information, Services, and Net- luv/. works, An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights." 47 Ibid. American Library Association. n.d. 48 Ibid. http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill 49 “First Robotics Competition,” n.d. /interpretations/accessdigital http://www.usfirst.org/roboticsprograms/frc. 63 Chmara, Theresa. "Public Libraries and the Public 50 "U.S. Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker Deliv- Forum Doctrine." In Intellectual Freedom Manual, ers Remarks at The Big M Event." U.S. Department of 345-47. Eighth ed. Chicago: ALA Editions, 2010. Commerce, 10 June 2014. 64 McCallister, Laura, and Josh Marshall. "3D Printers http://www.commerce.gov/news/secretary- Can Make Functioning Guns." KCTV5. 26 Oct. 2014. speeches/2014/06/10/us-secretary-commerce- http://www.kctv5.com/story/26638347/3d-printers- penny-pritzker-delivers-remarks-big-m-event. can-make-functioning-guns. 51 "M.Lab 21: Bringing the 21st Century to the Class- 65 Halsell, Lindsey. "3D Printing and Libraries." Amer- room." 3D Systems, 10 June 2014. ican Libraries Magazine. 28 June 2014. http://www.3dsystems.com/blog/2014/06/mlab-21- http://www.americanlibrariesmagazine.org/blog/3d- bringing-21st-century-classroom. printing-and-libraries. 52 Moulitch-Hou, Michael. "Philadelphia Becomes 66 "Privacy, An Interpretation of the Library Bill of First City to Grandstand with Banning of 3D Printing Rights." American Library Association. n.d. Guns.” 3D Printing Industry. 27 Nov. 2013. http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill http://3dprintingindustry.com/2013/11/27/philadel /interpretations/privacy. phia-becomes-first-city-grandstand-banning-3d- printing-guns/.

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67 McNulty, Connor M., Neyla Arnas, and Thomas A. 85 Ibid. Campbell. “Toward the Printed World: Additive 86 "Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright." Digital Law Manufacturing and Implications for National Securi- Online: Indirect Infringement. N.p., n.d. ty.” Defense Horizons. No. 73. September 2012. http://digital-law- http://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/def online.info/lpdi1.0/treatise14.html. ensehorizon/DH-73.pdf. 87 Ibid. “Toward the Printed World” argues that additive 88 Ibid. manufacturing technology severs the link between 89 Ibid. complexity and cost in the production of goods. The 90 Ibid. paper suggests that unlike other forms of manufac- 91 Ibid. turing, this technology allows for the complexity of a 92 Ibid. good to increase without a corresponding increase in 93 Ibid. the costs of production. This argument is made in 94 Engstrom, “3D Printing and Product Liability.” the context of a broader discussion about the na- 95 Ibid. tional security implications of additive manufactur- 96 Ibid. ing. 97 Ibid. 68 Desai, Magliocca, “Patents, Meet Napster.” 98 Ibid. 69 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 70 35 U.S. Code § 271 - Infringement of patent. 100 Ibid. http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/35/271. 101 Ibid. 71 Doherty, Davis. "Downloading Infringement: Pa- 102 Ibid. tent Law as a Roadblock to the 3D Printing Revolu- 103 Restatements of the Law are treatises produced tion." Vol. 26, Issue 1. Harvard Journal of Law and by legal experts and published by the American Legal Technology (2012): 353-73. Institute (ALI) that attempt to clarify the jurispru- 72 Ibid. dence on specific legal subjects. The Third Restate- 73 Ibid. ment addresses product liability. 74 Ibid. 104 Engstrom, “3D Printing and Product Liability.” 75 Klemchuk and Kabusta, LLP. “Induced Infringe- 105 Ibid. ment” PowerPoint presentation for the State Bar of 106 Ibid. Texas. 14-15 Feb. 2013. 107 Ibid. 76 Vogel, Bryan J. "Casting 3D Printing's Coming IP 108 Ibid. Litigation: Usual Suspects and Dark Horses." Bloom- 109 Ibid. berg BNA. 11 Oct. 2013. 110 "3D Printing." Cleveland Public Library. http://www.bna.com/casting-3d-printings-coming- http://www.cpl.org/EventsClasses/3DPrinting.aspx ip-litigation-usual-suspects-and-dark-horses/. 111 “Saxonburg Area Library 3D Printing Policy.” 77 Ibid. South Butler Area Library. 78 Ibid. http://southbutlerlibrary.org/pdf/3D%20Printer%20 79 Ibid. Policy.pdf. 80 Ibid. 112 "Calendar." District of Columbia Public Library. 81 Ibid. http://dclibrary.org/calendar?type%5B%5D=224&ke 82 Ibid. ys=. 83 Ibid. 113 “Griffey, Jason. “3D Printers for Libraries.” ALA 84 Ibid. TechSource. Vol. 50. No. 5. July 2014.

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APPENDIX

Warning Notice for 3D Printers and Related Technologies in Libraries Prepared by Tomas A. Lipinski, Dean and Professor, School of Information Studies, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee, [email protected].

The Notice: Library professionals can eliminate liability from copyright infringement and reduce the impact of liability from patent or trademark infringement and other unlawful conduct that may result from patron use of 3D printing processes by posting the following notice on their 3D printer(s):

“NOTICE WARNING CONCERNING COPYRIGHT AND OTHER LEGAL RESTRICTIONS. The copy- right (Title 17, United States Code), intellectual property (patent law for example under Title 35, United States Code) and other laws of the United States may govern the making of photo- copies or other reproductions of content protected by copyright, patent and other laws. Li- braries and archives furnish unsupervised photocopy or reproducing equipment for the con- venience of and use by patrons. Under 17 U.S.C. § 108(f)(2) the provision of unsupervised photocopy or reproducing equipment for use by patrons does not excuse the person who us- es the reproduction equipment from liability for copyright infringement for any such act, or for any later use of such copy or phonorecord, if it exceeds fair use as provided by section 107 or any other provision of the copyright law, nor does the provision of unsupervised photo- copy or reproducing equipment for use by patrons excuse the person who uses the reproduc- ing equipment from liability for patent, tort (such as products liability) or other laws. This in- stitution reserves the right to refuse to make available or provide access to photocopy or other reproducing equipment if, in its judgment, use of such equipment would involve viola- tion of copyright, patent or other laws.”

Legal Context: Section 108(f)(1) of Title 17 of the United States Code states that “Nothing in this section … shall be construed to impose liability for copyright infringement upon a library or archives or its employees for the unsupervised use of reproducing equipment located on its premises: Provid- ed, That such equipment displays a notice that the making of a copy may be subject to the cop- yright law.” This is an important statutory immunity given to qualifying libraries under section 108. A library and its employees are protected from ‘downstream’ copyright liability due to the infringing conduct of library patrons, vis-à-vis the reproduction of copyrighted material through the misuse of reproducing equipment, and the ‘upstream’ secondary liability that might result from a claim of contributory infringement, for example. According to the authors of the White Paper on intellectual property reform, regarding the section 108(f)(1) provision, “no other pro- vider of equipment enjoys any statutory immunity.” Information Infrastructure Task Force, In- tellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure: The Report of the Working

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Group on Intellectual Property Rights 111, n. 357 (1995). The U.S. Copyright Office does not offer a sample notice that libraries can use. Notices are offered by the U.S. Copyright Office for use in other subsections of section 108 and again under section 109. Use of the above notice, adapted from those notices (37 C.F.R. § 201.14 and 37 C.F.R. § 201.24) can fulfill the obligation of a library under section 108(f)(1). However, there is no parallel immunity provision in the trademark, patent or other laws. This notice is further adapted for use in conjunction with the availability of 3D printing technologies in libraries. The notice signals library and librarian awareness of the legal issues associated with the use of 3D printing technology in libraries, serves to make patrons aware of these issues and informs patrons of their potential for liability. A practical matter, the notice should be placed on all photocopiers or other reproduction equipment in the library that is accessible by patrons that is capable of reproducing copyright- ed, patented, or other content protected by law, not just the photocopier but the computer, printer, scanner, sampler, VCR, 3D printer or any other technology that has a reproducing ca- pacity. The use of a warning notice sends an important message of awareness by the library and its employees. However, section 108(f)(1) does not offer immunity for other acts of infringe- ment unrelated to the use of photocopying or other reproduction equipment, e.g., allowing a public performance of an audio visual work in the library meeting room with the use of the li- brary VCR or DVD player. This would raise an issue of the public performance right of a copy- right holder, not the exclusive reproduction or public distribution rights that section 108 ad- dresses. A generic warning notice, sans the section 108(f)(2) patron liability language, can be used on other photocopiers and reproduction equipment accessible by staff, as the library is not pro- tected under section 108 for their acts of infringement. As employee use of such photocopying or other reproducing equipment located on its premises, would not be “unsupervised” as re- quired by section 108(f)(1), the immunity offered by that subsection would not apply. However, such notice serves a valuable purpose nonetheless in the overall risk management and compli- ance endeavors of the institution. An employee-oriented warning notice can evidence attempts by the library to control employee infringement. While this may have no impact on liability it can impact the assessment of damages should liability be determined. Use of such notices may further evidence a good faith effort on the part of the library and its staff that short of “polic- ing” patron activity the library is informing patrons of the potential risk involved when using reproducing technologies including 3D printers.

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About the Author Charlie Wapner is an information policy analyst for the ALA Office for Information Technology Policy. Charlie works on a broad range of topics that includes copyright, licensing, telecommunications and E-rate, and provides support for the ALA's Policy Revolution! initiative sponsored by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Charlie comes to the American Library Association from the Office of former U.S. Representative Ron Barber (D-AZ) where he was a legislative fellow.

Acknowledgments The author would like to the individuals who contributed to this report:

 Alan S. Inouye, Larra Clark, Marijke Visser and Carrie Russell for their advice and editorial support  Tom Lipinski for his contribution of the appendix, editorial support and legal expertise  Jonathan Band for his copyright expertise  Deborah Caldwell-Stone for her contribution of “Intellectual Freedom and Library Values”  Imran Khaliq for his legal expertise and guidance  Jacob W. Roberts for his editorial support  The ALA 3D Printing Task Force for their ideas and advice

(Updated 1/9/2015) © 2015 American Library Association. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License, available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.

American Library Association Office for Information Technology Policy 1615 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W. First Floor Washington, D.C. 20009 Telephone 202-628-8410 Fax 202-628-8419 www.ala.org/oitp

The Office for Information Technology Policy advocates for public policy that supports and encourages the efforts of libraries to ensure access to electronic information resources as a means of upholding the public’s right to a free and open information society.

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