DOCSLIB.ORG

Spencer, Joel Quintus (1996) the Development of Luminescence Methods to Measure Thermal Exposure in Lithic and Ceramic Materials

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Spencer, Joel Quintus (1996) the Development of Luminescence Methods to Measure Thermal Exposure in Lithic and Ceramic Materials Spencer, Joel Quintus (1996) The development of luminescence methods to measure thermal exposure in lithic and ceramic materials. PhD thesis http://theses.gla.ac.uk/3557/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] The Development of Luminescence Methods to Measure Thermal Exposure in Lithic and Ceramic Materials by Joel Quintus Spencer Submitted to University of Glasgow (Faculty of Science) for the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy September,1996 This researchwas conductedat the Scottish Universities Researchand Reactor Centre, East Kilbride ®J. Q. Spencer,1996 Abstract Thermometric analyses provide extremely useful information about heated archaeological materials and fire-damaged modem structures. A number of non-luminescence thermometry methods have been developed for analysing pottery firing temperatures. However, many of these methods are limited in analysis range and accuracy, or are time consuming, expensive and complex. In addition to these techniques there are a number of thermoluminescence (TL) thermometry methods but they are also limited in analysis range and the majority have been developed for specific thermometry problems. The aim of this study was to investigate the use of thermoluminescence (TL) and photostimulated luminescence (PSL) methods to develop rapid, precise, inexpensive thermometry techniques that were applicable to a wide range of thermal events and materials from archaeological and modem contexts. A basic theoretical treatment of luminescencekinetics in silicate systemswas undertakento develop an understanding of TL glow curve alterations arising from thermal exposure. Kinetic studies showed that a combination of temperature and duration parameters is expectedfor single trap systems.Kinetic theory was developedto produce a new first order multi-trap system which provides a theoretical means of separatingtemperature and time components, which may be applicable to synthetic phosphors. Additionally heat transfer solutions were investigatedto examinethe temperaturedistribution in heatedsolids and TL instrumentation. Isothermal annealingexperiments on IAEA F-1 potassium feldspar showed a highly precise progressive thermal exposuremonitor, whereby the position of the first rise of an annealed TL glow curve is characterisedby a linear increase in temperature and a logarithmic increasein time. First order kinetic simulations and initial rise measurementsdemonstrated a continuous linear distribution of traps in IAEA F-1 feldspar. Using a high temperature TL system (maximum temperature 700°C) the progressive thermometry method was successfully applied to separated feldspar minerals and polymineral samples from archaeological (ceramics, burnt stones and hearthstones) and modem (fire damaged concrete) materials. PSL excitation spectroscopy showed potential thermometric behaviour but for some samplesthe sensitivity of the systemwas too low. Pulsed infra-red PSL showed there may be a limited trap distribution over which a small range of thermal exposureswill operate. Combined TL/PSL measurementsshowed it may be possible to deconvolute temperature and time parameters. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. David Sanderson for his continuing help and guidancethroughout this project. This thesishas also benefited from stimulating discussions and commentsfrom Prof. Roger Scott. A big thank you must also go to membersof the luminescenceand aerial survey group at SURRC (past and present) for their continuing help and good humour, and providing a stimulating working atmosphere: Peter, Lorna, Christine, Robert, Drew, Simon, Andy, Dave, Keith and Jacqui I would also like to thank many other members of staff at SURRC for their help and friendship during my researchin East Kilbride. And now on to the people who kept me sane(just) by topping me up with regular pints of beer: East Kilbride and Glasgow Kt, Juan, Sarah, Brucey-babes,Ian, Gawen, Jackie, Ellieeeee, Susan, Tony, Jane, Jamie, Dave P., Pauline, Marie... Aberdeen Hughsey, Cric & Andy M., Archie, Andy C., Johnny, Stevie, Nick, Helen, Chris, Gill, Cath, Sarah,Stefano, Polly & Neddy, Kathryn & Keith, Lucky Lips, Mengfang... A special thank you to Shark for all the virtual times... Finally a big thank you to my ever expandingfamily for all their love and support: Eric & Norma Matthew, Gaye & Louis Damian & Sarah Ben Onion Edney &Vanessa This research was made possible by receipt of a studentship from the' Science Based Archaeology Committee of the Science and Engineering Research Council, and additional support from my parents. Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 ........................................................................................................... 1.1 Importance history 1 of thermal ................................................................................. 1.2 Introduction luminescence 2 to ................................................................................... 1.2.1 Thermoluminescence(TL) Photostimulated luminescence(PSL) 2 and ........ 1.2.2 Historical 2 perspectives................................................................................ 1.3 Thermoluminescencethermometry 3 .......................................................................... 1.4 Non-luminescence 6 archaeothermometry.................................................................. 1.5 Thesis 8 aims and content ........................................................................................... Chapter 2 Theory 9 .................................................................................................................... 2.1 Introduction 9 ............................................................................................................. 2.2 Analytical the TL 9 modelsof process....................................................................... 2.2.1 Energyband 10 model................................................................................... 2.2.2 Assumptions first kinetics 14 of order ............................................................ 2.2.3 Solutionfor TL 14 peakshape: ...................................................................... 2.2.4 Isothermaldecay: Phosphorescence 16 .......................................................... 2.2.5 Relative for threetrap 17 retention a system.................................................. 2.2.6 Trap filling 19 ................................................................................................. 2.2.7 Continuousdistributions 21 of traps.............................................................. 2.2.8 Second kinetics 21 and generalorder ............................................................. 2.2.9 Summary 22 ................................................................................................... 2.3 Photostimulatedluminescence (PSL) 24 .................................................................... 2.4 Heat transfer thermal 26 and gradients....................................................................... 2.4.1 Generalheat transfer 26 equations................................................................. 2.4.2 Onedimensional steady state solution for a solid boundedby two 27 parallelplanes ............................................................................................ dimensional 28 2.4.3 One transientsolution for a semi-infiniteslab ........................ 2.4.4 Thermalproperties 29 ....................................................................................30 2.4.5 Thermalgradients in archaeologicalstructures and artefacts.................... 2.5 Heat in TL 31 transfer experiments............................................................................ 2.5.1 Static distribution in heater 31 temperature the strip ...................................... Heat between interfaces 34 2.5.2 transfer strip-sample and sample-gas .................. 2.5.3 Summary discussion 41 and ........................................................................... 3 Instrumentation 42 Chapter and measurementmethods .................................................... 3.1 TL 42 measurement.................................................................................................... 3.1.1 TL oven heating and system..................................................................... 42 3.1.2 Detectionand TL recordingof ..................................................................46 3.1.3 Specifications andperformance ................................................................. 49 3.2 Measurementof TL signals 500°C 49 above .............................................................. 3.2.1 Discussion of possible methods for > 500°C TL 50 ....................................... 3.2.1.1 Restricting PMT detection to ultraviolet wavelengths..................................................................... 50 3.2.1.2 Maskingand the light 51 restricting path.............................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Archaeological Assessment Regles, Lusk, Co. Dublin
    Archaeological Assessment Regles, Lusk, Co. Dublin McGLADE 07/08/2019 LICENCES 17E614 & 17R0208 PLANNING N/A archaeology plan H E R I T A G E S O L U T I O N S SITE NAME Regles, Lusk, Co. Dublin CLIENT Dwyer Nolan Developments Ltd., Stonebridge House, Stonebridge Close, Shankill, Co. Dublin. PLANNING Fingal County Council: N/a LICENCE Testing Licence 17E614 Geophysical Survey Licence 17R0208 REPORT AUTHOR Steve McGlade BA MIAI DATE 7th August 2019 ABBREVIATIONS USED DoAH&G Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht NMI National Museum of Ireland NMS National Monuments Service OS Ordnance Survey RMP Record of Monuments and Places NIAH National Inventory of Architectural Heritage LAP Local Area Plan ARCHAEOLOGICAL PLANNING CONSULTANCY ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS CULTURAL HERITAGE STATEMENTS archaeology plan 32 fitzwilliam place dublin 2 tel 01 6761373 mob 087 2497733 [email protected] www.archaeologyplan.com Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1 Report summary Site location Development and planning 2 Archaeological Background 5 Record of Monuments & Place Archaeological investigations NMI Topographical files Protected Structures 3 History and cartography 14 Placename Prehistoric period Early medieval period Medieval period The post­medieval period Folklore 4 Site inspection 25 5 Geophysical survey 27 6 Testing programme 30 Trenches Features Discussion 7 Impact assessment 47 Archaeological potential of the site Development proposals Archaeological Impact Assessment 8 Recommendations 52 References 53 Appendix A RFI relating to F17A/0327 Appendix B Geophysical survey by J. Leigh 17R0208 Section 1 Introduction Report summary areas should be stripped under archaeological supervision prior to excavation. The features Three areas of archaeology were identified should then be hand excavated, recorded, during the testing programme (Areas A-C).
    [Show full text]
  • Module 1, Part C the Chronology of Archaeological Monuments
    Module 1, Part C The Chronology of Archaeological Monuments INTRODUCTION We looked at the subject of monuments and maps in part B, and this follow on section aims to help you recognise what time periods the different monuments date to. As mentioned before, there are a vast number of monuments that can be potentially marked on a map, or recorded in the National Monuments Record, some 417 in total. A full list of these is given at the end of this document, in appendix one. By no means are you expected to know them all, but it is important that you learn to recognise the most common features, and know what period they are likely to date to. When archaeologists talk about periods or eras, they are referring to the way we have divided up the past. In order to ease our understanding of history and prehistory, time is divided up into eras. These sometimes correspond with the introduction of major technical innovations, such as the introduction of metals or farming. Sometimes they refer to the reign of an important leader or monarch, such as the Edwardian period. Occasionally they refer to other events that have a major social impact, as is the case with the Viking period. It is important to remember that the end of one era and the beginning of the next is not always clear-cut. People did not simply set aside their stone tools, declaring the Stone Age over, and switch to metal overnight. There was transition and continuity for a long time, and cultures generally changed gradually.
    [Show full text]
  • Crannogs — These Small Man-Made Islands
    PART I — INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION Islands attract attention.They sharpen people’s perceptions and create a tension in the landscape. Islands as symbols often create wish-images in the mind, sometimes drawing on the regenerative symbolism of water. This book is not about natural islands, nor is it really about crannogs — these small man-made islands. It is about the people who have used and lived on these crannogs over time.The tradition of island-building seems to have fairly deep roots, perhaps even going back to the Mesolithic, but the traces are not unambiguous.While crannogs in most cases have been understood in utilitarian terms as defended settlements and workshops for the wealthier parts of society, or as fishing platforms, this is not the whole story.I am interested in learning more about them than this.There are many other ways to defend property than to build islands, and there are many easier ways to fish. In this book I would like to explore why island-building made sense to people at different times. I also want to consider how the use of islands affects the way people perceive themselves and their landscape, in line with much contemporary interpretative archaeology,and how people have drawn on the landscape to create and maintain long-term social institutions as well as to bring about change. The book covers a long time-period, from the Mesolithic to the present. However, the geographical scope is narrow. It focuses on the region around Lough Gara in the north-west of Ireland and is built on substantial fieldwork in this area.
    [Show full text]
  • Archaeological Heritage Report for Development Site at Kill Hill, Kill County Kildare
    ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE REPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT SITE AT KILL HILL, KILL COUNTY KILDARE On Behalf of J F O C Architects Ltd 11A Greenmount House, Harold’s Cross, Dublin 6W December, 2017 Kill, Co. Kildare __________________ Archaeological Assessment Report Abstract This report contains the results of a revised pre-planning heritage report carried out on behalf of the architectural consultancy; JFOC Architects for a housing development in Kill, County Kildare. The proposed residential development plan was revised following consultation with Kildare County Council and An Bord Pleanala. The development site lies outside the zone of archaeological potential of the historic village of Kill (SMR 19:8) and the Motte and Bailey (SMR 19:56) but close to the zone of archaeological potential of an enclosure site to the south (SMR 19:10). Table of Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 4 2 Planning & Development Background ....................................................................... 6 3 Historical Background ............................................................................................. 10 4 Archaeological Background .................................................................................... 12 5 Site Topography and Development ......................................................................... 18 6 Development Montage ............................................................................................ 20 7
    [Show full text]
  • A Ritualistic Interpretation of Bronze Age Burnt Mounds from an Ethnographic Perspective
    The Post Hole Issue 26 Something for everyone: a ritualistic interpretation of Bronze Age burnt mounds from an ethnographic perspective Alex Loktionov1 1Division of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ Email: [email protected] Burnt mounds are among the most enigmatic archaeological features found across the British Isles. This paper provides an overview of current theories regarding their use, drawing on ethnographic comparisons with societies of varying complexity in North America, the Urals and the Teotihuacán cultural complex. A new approach to research and interpretation in this field is illustrated through a case study of a Bronze Age section of Barningham Moor, Teesdale, Yorkshire, UK, in which a burnt mound is analysed in the context of monuments and landscape features surrounding it. This example is used to support the view that burnt mounds were inherently multi-functional, and had ritual meaning symbolising connections with nature and the spirit world that were in no way less significant than their practical use. Introduction Burnt mounds, also known as Fulacht Fiadh in Ireland, are widely distributed throughout the British Isles. They consist of two low ridges rarely exceeding 1m in height, and separated by a distinctive trough. The overall diameter of the main feature rarely exceeds 9m, with trough volume typically near 1m2 (Barfield and Hodder 1987, 371). Frequently the ridges are so inconspicuous that the entire monument can only be identified by vegetation growing over the underlying rock, which may differ substantially from the surrounding plant cover (Laurie 2003, 244). On excavation, such sites reveal numerous pieces of heat- cracked sandstone within the ridges, with the lithology indicative of repeated contact with water (Quinn and Moore 2007, 8).
    [Show full text]
  • 1. the Prehistoric Archaeology of Clontuskert 02/09/2009 22:46 Page 17
    1. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Clontuskert 02/09/2009 22:46 Page 17 The Prehistoric CHAPTER Archaeology of 1 Clontuskert Although the parish of Clontuskert is known today for its association with the ecclesiastical foundation, recent archaeological discoveries have uncovered evidence of people in this landscape for as long as there has been a population on this island. Given its geographical location alongside one of the great routeways of the West, the river Suck, this is not surprising (Figure 1). However, in order to understand the history of settlement in Clontuskert, it is necessary to look at the wider picture, at the arrival of these first humans to Ireland and the environment they found themselves living in. The First Arrivals The European continent has been inhabited for about 700, 000 years, but the earliest evidence we have for human settlement in Ireland dates to sometime around 7,000 BC (about 9,000 years ago), a period of time known as the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age. Up until the Mesolithic, the country would have been covered (facing page) with ice, although it is thought that some parts of the south of the Looking across country would have been ice-free and may have been receptive to Gorteenaveela human habitation. About 15,000 years ago, the ice sheets covering to Loughaunbrean and Garrylawrence 17 FORD CORREEN NORTH Cloonascragh CLOONASCRAGH RIVER CLOONASCRAGH Gannaveen 1. ThePrehistoricArchaeologyofClontuskert01/09/200920:55Page18 RIVER SUCK BALLINURE RIVER BALLINURE Barrow 5 Barrow Kellysgrove © OrdnanceSurvey
    [Show full text]
  • Eachtra Journal
    Eachtra Journal Issue 10 [ISSN 2009-2237] Archaeological Excavation Report E2414 - Ballinglanna North 1, Co. Cork Burnt Mound, Metalworking Area & Post-Medieval Settlement EACHTRA Archaeological Projects Archaeological Excavation Report Burnt Mound, Metalworking Area & Post-Medieval Settlement Ballinglanna North 1 Co Cork May 2011 Client: Cork County Council Project: N8 Fermoy to Mitchelstown E No: E2414 Excavation Director: John Tierney Written by: Nick Garland, Jacinta Kiely and John Tierney Archaeological Excavation Report Burnt Mound, Metalworking Area & Post-Medieval Settlement Ballinglanna North 1 Co Cork Excavation Director John Tierney Written By Nick Garland, Jacinta Kiely and John Tierney EACHTRA Archaeological Projects CORK GALWAY The Forge, Innishannon, Co. Cork Unit 10, Kilkerrin Park, Liosbain Industrial Estate, Galway tel: 021 4701616 | web: www.eachtra.ie | email: [email protected] tel: 091 763673 | web: www.eachtra.ie | email: [email protected] © 2011 The Forge, Innishannon, Co Cork Set in 12pt Garamond Printed in Ireland Table of Contents Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� v Acknowledgements��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������vi 1 Scope of the project �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 2 Route location���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
    [Show full text]
  • Cork Manual 2 (1998) 0008
    Recorded Monuments Protected under Section 12 of the NaUional Monuments (Amendment) Act, 1994 County Cork Volume 20.S. Sheets 79-end DdchasThe Heritage Service Departmentof The Environment, Heritage and Local Government 1998 RECORD OF MONUMENTSAND PLACES as Established under Section 12 of the National Monuments (Amendment) Act 1994 COUNTY CORK Volume2-: OrdnanceSurvey Sheets 79-end Issued By Ddchas National Monumentsand Historic Properties Service 1998 Establishmentand Exhibition of Recordof Monumentsand Places under Section 12 of the National Monuments (Amendment)Act 1994 Section 12 (1) of the National Monuments(Amendment) Act 1994 states that Commissionersof Public Works in Ireland [now succeededby the Minister for Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands] "shall establish and maintain a record of monumentsand places where they believe there are monumentsand the record shaft be comprised of a list of monumentsand such places and a mapor mapsshowing each monumentand such place in respect of each county in the State." Section 12 (2) of the Act provides for the exhibition in each county of the list. and mapsfor that county in a mannerprescribed by regulations madeby the Minister. The relevant regulations were madeunder Statutory Instrument No. 341 of 1994, entitled National Monuments(Exhibition of Record of Monuments)Regulations, 1994. This manual c.~)ntains the list of monumentsand plac¢~s recorded under Section 12 (1) of the Act for the County of Cork which is exhibited along with the set of maps for the County of Cork showing the recorded
    [Show full text]
  • Meath Manual (1996) 0036
    .H ., ,, ¯ ~i~1~..b~- @ RECORD OF MONUMENTSAND PLACES © as Established under Section 12 of the National Monuments (Amendment) Act 1994 © COUNTY MEATH j- @ @ @ Issued By National Monumentsand Historic Properties Service 1996 Establishment and Exhibition of Recordof Monumentsand Places under Section 12 of the National Monuments (Amendment) Act 1994 Section 12 (1) of the National Monuments(Amendment) Act 1994 states the Commissionersof Public Worksin Ireland "shall establish and maintain a record of monumentsand places where they believe there are monumentsand the record shall be comprised of a list of monumentsand such places and a map or maps showing each monumentand such place in respect of each countyin the State." Section 12 (2) of the Act providesfor the exhibition in each countyof the list and mapsfor that county in a mannerprescribed by regulations madeby the Minister for Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht. The relevant regulations were made under Statutory Instrument No. 341 of 1994, entitled National Monuments(Exhibition of Recordof Monuments)Regulations, 1994. This manualcontains the list of monumentsand places recorded under Section 12 (1) of the Act for the Countyof Meathwhich is exhibited along with the set of mapsfor the County of Meath showingthe recorded monumentsand places. Protection of Monumentsand Places included in the Record Section 12 (3) of the Act provides for the protection of monumentsand places included in the record stating that "When the owner or occupier (not being the Commissioners) of monumentor place which
    [Show full text]
  • Evidence for the Use of Shaft Furnaces in Medieval Iron Production Marion A
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by CUAL Repository (Connacht Ulster Alliance Libraries) Excavations at Farranastack, Co. Kerry: evidence for the use of shaft furnaces in medieval iron production Marion A. Dowd and Neil Fairburn Recent archaeological excavations in Farranastack townland, Co. Kerry, revealed a pit that contained a small but inter - esting collection of industrial residues. Farranastack takes its place among a growing number of sites that have pro - duced evidence for the use of shaft furnaces in the manufacture of iron in medieval Ireland. Until recently it was believed that Irish smiths used only the less effective bowl furnace. INTRODUCTION SITE LOCATION n spring 2003, a Kerry County Council project Farranastack is in north County Kerry, to the north- known as the Listowel Regional Water Supply west of Listowel town and 8.5km from the coast. The IScheme involved opening a pipeline corridor townland lies immediately north of Lisselton village across the southern slopes of Farranastack Hill in north and south-east of Knockanore Mountain. The area of County Kerry. Three distinct areas of archaeological excavation was at an elevation of approximately 130m significance (Fig. 1) were revealed during monitoring, OD, on pasture and on the south-facing, gentle slopes which was carried out by Eachtra Archaeological Proj - of Farranastack Hill. The site was approximately 145m ects under licence to Laurence Dunne (licence no. east of a minor road leading north from Lisselton vil - 02E1660). Excavation of Areas I and II was directed by lage and 50m west of a small stream (Fig.
    [Show full text]
  • Lake Dwellings Part of the Beaker Complex
    Midgley & Sanders (eds.) LakeBackground Dwellings to Beakers is the result of an inspiring session at the yearly conference of European Association of Archaeologists in The Hague in September 2010. The conference brought together after Robert Munro Lake Dwellings after Robert Munro thirteen speakers on the subject Beakers in Transition. Together Dr Robert Munrowe explored (1835-1920) the background was a distinguished to the Bell medical beaker practitioner complex inwho, differ - in his later life,ent became regions, a keendeparting archaeologist. from the His idea particular that migration interests is laynot in the the com - lake-dwelling prehensivesettlements solutionof his native to the Scotland, adoption known of bell as crannogs,Beakers. Thereforeas well as we those then beingasked discovered the participants across Europe. to discuss In 1885 how Robert in their Munro region undertook Beakers a were review of all lacustrianincorporated research in existing in Europe, cultural travelling complexes, widely toas studyone of collections the manners and visit sites.to Theunderstand results of the this processes work formed of innovation the basis thatfor thewere prestigious undoubtedly Lake Dwellings part of the Beaker complex. Rhind Lectures at the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in 1888. These were then publishedIn thisas The book Lake-Dwellings eight of the speakersof Europe have, a landmark contributed publication papers, resulting for after Robert Munro archaeology andin a one diverse that cementedand interesting Munro’s approach archaeological to Beakers. reputation. We can see how scholars in Scandinavia, the Low Countries, Poland, Switzerland, Proceedings from the Munro International Seminar: In 1910 Robert Munro offered the University of Edinburgh a financial gift with France, Morocco even, struggle with the same problems, but have The Lake Dwellings of Europe 22nd and 23rd October 2010, which to funddifferent lectures insolutions Anthropology everywhere.
    [Show full text]
  • History – Higher Level (180 Marks) ______
    S.24 WARNING You must return this paper with your answer book. AN ROINN OIDEACHAIS AGUS EOLAÍOCHTA __________________________ JUNIOR CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION, 2002 ______________________ HISTORY – HIGHER LEVEL (180 MARKS) ______________________ Tuesday, 11th JUNE – AFTERNOON, 2.00 – 4.30 ______________________ CENTRE STAMP EXAMINATION NUMBER PLEASE ENCLOSE THIS PAPER IN YOUR ANSWER BOOK Page 1 of 12 [Turn over HISTORY, HIGHER LEVEL Answer all questions, 1, 2 and 3 in the appropriate spaces on the examination paper. 1. PICTURES (15 marks) Study the pictures A, B1, B2, and C which accompany this paper and then answer the following questions. (a) PICTURE A Picture A shows a reconstruction of a crannóg at Craggaunowen, Co. Clare. (i) Why do you think reconstructions such as the one shown in the picture were made? ........................................................................................................................…………… ..................................................................................................................…………… (1) (ii) Identify two defensive features of the crannóg. ........................................................................................................................…………… ..................................................................................................................…………… (2) (iii) “The walls of the houses on the crannóg were built using a method called wattle and daub.” Explain each of the words, wattle and daub. Wattle:.............................................................................................................………….
    [Show full text]