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Politics and Eschatology: Christian, Muslim and Liberal POLITICS AND ESCHATOLOGY: CHRISTIAN, MUSLIM AND LIBERAL TRADITIONS AND THEIR VISIONS OF HUMANKIND’S FUTURE A Dissertation by ROBERTO V. LOUREIRO Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2010 Major Subject: Political Science Politics and Eschatology: Christian, Muslim and Liberal Traditions and Their Visions of Humankind‘s Future Copyright 2010 Roberto V. Loureiro POLITICS AND ESCHATOLOGY: CHRISTIAN, MUSLIM AND LIBERAL TRADITIONS AND THEIR VISIONS OF HUMANKIND’S FUTURE A Dissertation by ROBERTO V. LOUREIRO Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Cary J. Nederman Committee Members, Diego A. von Vacano Elisabeth H. Ellis Maria Escobar-Lemmon Andrew Kirkendall Head of Department, James Rogers December 2010 Major Subject: Political Science iii ABSTRACT Politics and Eschatology: Christian, Muslim and Liberal Traditions and Their Visions of Humankind‘s Future. (December 2010) Roberto V. Loureiro, B.A. Presbyterian Seminary of the South, Brazil; Th.M. Covenant Theological Seminary; M.A. Covenant Theological Seminary Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Cary J. Nederman Within the context of contemporary politics, Christian, Muslim and Liberal traditions have been, in many instances, at odds with each other regarding how humankind‘s social political future should be ordered. Such a conflicting condition has been aggravated by the global circulation of democratic ideals, which has significantly disseminated Western liberal values and made those ideals an almost universal desirable social commodity. In support of this argument, one can observe the unprecedented and controversial assumption that liberal democracy has become the ultimate form of political governance. It is in the context of these end-times liberal aspirations, whether self desired or imposed through external pressure, that some competing and conflicting elements are introduced into the political landscape of Christian and Muslim groups. By presenting itself as the universal and final solution for humanity‘s future, liberalism iv appears to create uneasiness among religious people who, indeed, see its secular and religious-privatizing tendencies as a secular eschatological competitor. Despite this perceived end-times conflict, there may be hope for a constructive dialogue among these groups. v DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Roberto and Norma. Saudades! vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my dissertation committee for their assistance and help throughout this process. I especially thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Cary Nederman, for his patience, support and guidance during my years under his tutelage. Most of all I thank Dr. Nederman for believing I could conclude this journey successfully. This work is also the product of encouragement and help from many fellow graduate students in the Department of Political Science, who during my years of training at Texas A&M, gave me of their suggestions and friendship. I would like to mention specially, Hassan Bashir, Claudia Avellaneda, Nam Tae Park, Sara Jordan, Jesse Chupp, Phil Gray and Christie Maloyed. They shared some of my joys and sorrows in this process. I also need to mention Lou Ellen Herr, first for her dedication to the students, and also for her willingness to help in solving many of my administrative woes. Finally, I thank my dear wife, Roselis, for her love and support during the process of finishing this work - her encouragement sustained me through some difficult times. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1 II DEFINING ESCHATOLOGY............................................................. 19 Eschatology in Islam ...................................................................... 22 Eschatology in Christianity ............................................................ 25 Eschatology in Secular Thought..................................................... 29 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 37 III POLITICS, ESCHATOLOGY, AND CONSERVATIVE CHRISTIANS IN AMERICA..................... 39 Saint Augustine and the Future City of God ................................. 40 The Puritans and the Kingdom of God in the New World ............. 47 Conservative Christians and the Future of the Chosen Nation....... 62 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 74 viii CHAPTER Page IV POLITICS AND ISLAMIC ESCHATOLOGY ................................... 76 The al-Mahdi: The Awaited Messiah ............................................. 82 The Influence of Mahdism in the Iranian Revolution .................... 93 Mahdism and Contemporary Iranian Leadership: Preparing the Way .......................................................................... 100 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 104 V LIBERALISM AND ESCHATOLOGY: KANT, MILL AND FUKUYAMA ON THE FUTURE OF HUMANKIND....................... 107 Immanuel Kant: The Cure for Universal Evil ................................ 117 John Stuart Mill: Bringing Heaven to Earth ................................... 134 Francis Fukuyama: The Liberal End of History ............................. 146 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 159 VI CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 163 Conservative Christians, Liberalism and the Redefinition of America‘s Future ............................................. 165 Muslims, Liberalism and Eschatological Resistance ..................... 177 Hope in Eschatology....................................................................... 185 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 189 VITA.......................................................................................................................... 216 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In the past few years, it has become increasingly difficult to agree with critical assessments which suggest that the subject of religion has been ignored, downplayed or simply redefined by analysts when it comes to matters of politics (Marshal 1998). The relationship between religion and politics may have been overlooked or even purposefully misconceived for some time, but, since the beginning of the new century, and more specifically from September 2001 onward, many studies have taken into consideration the intersection of and interaction between these two social institutions.1 These recent studies have both a local and global emphases. From a local perspective, some approaches have highlighted the political weight of specific religious groups and congregations for public affairs (Sager 2010). In a study about the political life of religious people in America, for instance, Djupe and Gilbert (2009) examined how local organizations determine the political decisions of their members. These authors‘ overall conclusion is that localized religious agencies are determinant factors in shaping social outlooks which, consequently, exerts decisive influence on their members‘ broader political opinions and behavior (Djupe and Gilbert 2009, 240-252). This dissertation follows the style of the American Political Science Review. 1 Cf. Hershberg and Moore (2002); Esposito (2002); Al-Khattar (2003); Cooper (2004). 2 Conversely, studies have also addressed the interaction between religion and political thought and praxis from a global perspective. Particularly meaningful in these analyses is the growing relevance of Islamism for the Western and Middle Eastern politics (Sheenan 2010). Despite such influence, Robert D. Lee (2010) argues that caution is necessary to avoid exaggeration about the centrality of religion to politics in Middle East countries, for instance. Other issues besides religiosity, Lee notes, also contribute to political changes in those societies. Nevertheless, the author concedes that religious faith is still a key component in the socio-political life of many Muslim groups (Lee 2010, 44). This assertion becomes even more noteworthy regarding these groups‘ encounters with the West. In general, there is a strong sense among Islamic communities that the international system, dominated in great part by Western powers, is deeply skewed against Muslim societies and their religious views and practices (Ayoob 2005). Whether it is accurate, such perception has triggered several conflicts, which some commentators have attempted to characterize as an inevitable clash of civilizations (Huntington 1993; Berman 2003). Esposito (2002), however, believes that there are substantial misconceptions and exaggerations in these confrontational
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