Intelligent Design Should Alternatives to Evolution Theory Be Taught?

Researcher Published by CQ Press, a division of Congressional Quarterly Inc. CQ thecqresearcher.com Intelligent Design Should alternatives to evolution theory be taught?

he Kansas Board of Education is likely to vote in September to replace the state’s newly updated science-teaching standards with a revised version that plays down evolution and rejects the idea that Tscience is a search for “natural” explanations only. The change would open the doors of biology classrooms to supernatural ex- planations of human life and origins, including the increasingly popular concept of “intelligent design” — the idea that life is so complex it could only have been created by an intelligent being. Believers in intelligent design see evidence of a higher School boards and lawmakers in nearly half the states, including power in such complex natural systems as the double helix structure of DNA. Georgia, Pennsylvania and New York, are examining similar pro- posals. Most scientists say intelligent design is just a new, more I N acceptable name for biblical creationism. But intelligent-design THIS REPORT S supporters argue that they only want an equal hearing for alternate THE ISSUES ...... 639 I theories of life’s origins and a chance for students to examine BACKGROUND ...... 646 D what they say are serious gaps in evolutionary science. CHRONOLOGY ...... 647 E CURRENT SITUATION ...... 651 AT ISSUE ...... 653

The CQ Researcher • July 29, 2005 • www.thecqresearcher.com OUTLOOK ...... 655 Volume 15, Number 27 • Pages 637-660 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 658

RECIPIENT OF SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS AWARD FOR THE NEXT STEP ...... 659 EXCELLENCE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SILVER GAVEL AWARD INTELLIGENT DESIGN CQ Researcher

July 29, 2005 THE ISSUES OUTLOOK Volume 15, Number 27

• Is intelligent design a Surviving the Courts MANAGING EDITOR: Thomas J. Colin 639 scientific theory? 655 Intelligent design is expected • Can a person believe in to win future court victories. ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITOR: Kathy Koch evolution and still believe ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Kenneth Jost in God? STAFF WRITERS: Marcia Clemmitt, Peter Katel, • Should public-school sci- SIDEBARS AND GRAPHICS Pamela M. Prah ence classes “teach the con- Anti-Evolution Measures CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Sarah Glazer, troversy” surrounding evolu- 640 Several are being considered. David Hosansky, Patrick Marshall, tion and intelligent design? Tom Price Majority Supports Teaching DESIGN/PRODUCTION EDITOR: Olu B. Davis BACKGROUND 641 All Theories Many Americans say evolution, ASSISTANT EDITOR: Melissa J. Hipolit Modern Science creationism and intelligent de- 646 In the early-19th century, sign all should be taught. scholars developed a new approach to studying nature. The Case for Evolution 642 Biologists cite numerous Voyage to Evolution types of evidence. 648 Charles Darwin shipped A Division of Chronology Congressional Quarterly Inc. out on the H.M.S. Beagle 647 Key events since 1800. at age 22. SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT/GENERAL MANAGER: 648 Phillip Johnson’s Campaign John A. Jenkins Darwin and God Against Darwinism DIRECTOR, LIBRARY PUBLISHING: Kathryn C. Suárez 650 Darwin was torn about The founder of the intelligent- the existence of a Creator. design movement predicts DIRECTOR, EDITORIAL OPERATIONS: Jesus will prevail. Ann Davies Creation on Trial CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC. 651 The first court test of a Intelligent-Design Advocates 652 CHAIRMAN: Paul C. Tash law barring teaching evo- Turn to Math They seek a formula explain- VICE CHAIRMAN: Andrew P. Corty lution came in 1925 in ing complex structures. Tennessee. PRESIDENT AND PUBLISHER: Robert W. Merry

At Issue Copyright © 2005 CQ Press, a division of Congres- 653 Should public schools “teach CURRENT SITUATION the controversy” surrounding sional Quarterly Inc. (CQ). CQ reserves all copyright evolution and intelligent design? and other rights herein, unless previously specified Abandoning Genesis in writing. No part of this publication may be re- 651 In the early 1990s, anti- produced electronically or otherwise, without prior FOR FURTHER RESEARCH written permission. Unauthorized reproduction or evolutionists began to transmission of CQ copyrighted material is a violation play down the biblical of federal law carrying civil fines of up to $100,000. creation story. For More Information 657 Organizations to contact. CQ Researcher (ISSN 1056-2036) is printed on acid- Science Redefined free paper. Published weekly, except March 25, July 654 Bibliography 1, July 8, Aug. 5, Aug. 12, Nov. 25, Dec. 23 and Dec. Many schools require 658 Selected sources used. teaching criticism of 30, by CQ Press, a division of Congressional Quarter- evolution. ly Inc. Annual subscription rates for institutions start 659 The Next Step at $625. For pricing, call 1-800-834-9020, ext. 1906. Additional articles. To purchase a CQ Researcher report in print or elec- Battle in Kansas tronic format (PDF), visit www.cqpress.com or call 654 Citing The CQ Researcher Kansas anti-evolutionists are 659 866-427-7737. A single report is $10. Bulk purchase pursuing a new strategy. Sample bibliography formats. discounts and electronic-rights licensing are also available. Periodicals postage paid at Washington, D.C., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to CQ Researcher, 1255 22nd Cover: Believers in intelligent design see evidence of a higher power in such complex natural St., N.W., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20037. systems as the double helix structure of DNA. (Corbis Images/Steve Allen)

638 The CQ Researcher Intelligent Design BY MARCIA CLEMMITT

versity of California law pro- fessor who launched the in- THE ISSUES telligent-design movement in he word “science” will the early 1990s. 4 (See side- have a new meaning bar, p. 648.) Johnson’s strat- T in Kansas if the state egy worries Michael Ruse, a School Board has its way in professor of philosophy at September. Under a new de- Florida State University. “As finition the board is expect- far as the scientific commu- ed to adopt, the teaching of nity is concerned . . . intelli- science in Kansas classrooms gent design is religion tarted will include supernatural ex- up to look like science to get planations for natural phe- around the U.S. Constitution,” nomena. Ruse said. Intelligent-design Under the new definition, advocates are “being pushed biology teachers will be re- by people with a much more quired to discuss alternatives right-wing agenda.” 5 to Charles Darwin’s theory of Focusing on intelligent de- evolution, such as intelligent sign instead of creationism has design — the idea that hu- enabled evolution opponents mans were purposely de- to turn the effort to ban or signed by a higher intelli- limit evolution teaching into a gence. nationwide battle. While only The changes will be a sig- Kansas has passed legislation nificant victory for John Calvert suggesting that alternatives to — a retired lawyer and evolution be taught, anti-evo-

founder of the Kansas-based Smith Getty Images/Larry W. lution bills are pending or have Intelligent Design Network, John Calvert’s Intelligent Design Network is pushing the been considered in at least 16 which pushed for the new Kansas Board of Education to require teachers to discuss states. (See map, p. 640.) definition. In Calvert’s view, alternatives to Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, such And this year, serious chal- as intelligent design — the idea that life was designed by there is substantial evidence a higher intelligence. Kansas is the only state that has lenges to teaching evolution that living things were actu- passed legislation suggesting that alternatives to evolution in public schools have arisen ally designed by an intelligent be taught, but anti-evolution measures are pending or in such traditionally liberal being, and the “Evidence have been considered in at least 16 states, including states as Michigan, New York, should not be censored,” he Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. told CNN. 1 “I used to call it a glass But most scientists say no such ev- clusion of alternative ideas, such as Bible- wall,” says Larry Scharmann, a profes- idence exists. “In the scientific com- based creationism, which holds that sor of science education at Kansas State munity, evolution is an accepted fact,” God created all the species on Earth University, referring to the invisible wall said Alan Leshner, CEO of the Amer- just as they are. In the past decade, that once separated the Midwest from ican Association for the Advancement however, many evolution opponents the fervent religious lobbying in South- of Science (AAAS), the world’s largest have stopped raising religious issues di- ern states where evolution was driven scientific organization. 2 rectly, arguing instead that there is as out of the biology curriculum. “Now I “Without evolution, the building will much evidence of intelligent design as say, ‘How did it happen here?’ ” fall down. It’s the cornerstone of bi- there is that humans evolved naturally. Although rising religious conser- ology,” said Al Frisby, a biology teacher “Our strategy has been to change vatism helps explain evolution oppo- at Shawnee Mission Northwest High the subject a bit so that we can get nents’ recent success, Americans’ School. 3 intelligent design — which really sense of fair play — which demands Conservative Christians have long tried means the reality of God — before the that alternate ideas also are entitled to to oust evolution from public-school academic world and into the schools,” a hearing — is helping intelligent-design classrooms — or at least require the in- said Phillip E. Johnson, the former Uni- supporters as well. 6

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Many Anti-Evolution Measures Are Being Considered Anti-evolution measures have either been introduced or considered by state and local education boards and groups in at least 25 states in the past two years. Only one state, Kansas, has recent legislation governing the teaching of alternatives to the theory of evolution. Some of the proposed proposals would require that criticisms of evolution be taught along with the evidence in its favor; others would require the teaching of biblical creationism. Other proposals call for disclaimer stickers on textbooks stating that evolution is only a theory or that such disclaimers must be announced before evolution is taught.

State and Local Measures on the Teaching of Evolution (in 2004-2005)

Wash. Mont. N.D. N.H. Minn. Vt. Wis. Maine S.D. Mich. Ore. Idaho N.Y. Wyo. Mass. Iowa Neb. Pa. Ohio R.I. Ill. Ind. Nev. Utah Colo. Conn. Kan. Mo. W.Va. Ky. Va. N.J. Calif. Okla. Ark. Tenn. N.C. Del. Ariz. N.M. S.C. Md. Miss. Ala. Ga. Texas La. D.C.

Alaska Fla.D+

States where anti-evolution bills have been introduced States where anti-evolution legislation has passed States where statewide panels are considering anti-evolution action States that recently required that criticisms of evolution be taught States where criticism of evolution has been dropped from the state science standards Hawaii States with ongoing discussions about taking local anti-evolution action States where local boards require the teaching of alternate theories along with evolution

Source: National Center for Science Education

For example, according to a June But Leshner says intelligent-design pro- dence of many kinds to support their 2005 Harris Poll, 55 percent of Amer- ponents have clouded the issue by call- theory, he points out, but intelligent- icans want schools to teach more than ing their idea a “theory,” thus equating design theorists cannot.” (See sidebar, just evolution. (See polls, p. 641.) And it with the “theory” of evolution. But in p. 642.) at least 70 percent of the people in science, “if there are no data or tests, Moreover, he adds, scientists “are Minnesota, New Mexico and Ohio op- it’s not a theory,” he says. Evolutionary bound by data,” but design support- pose teaching evolution only. 7 scientists can produce confirming evi- ers are “ideologues, and ideologues

640 The CQ Researcher are not bound by the same ground rules.” Majority Supports Teaching All Theories But such arguments don’t faze More than half of Americans believe evolution, creationism and Johnson. “Christianity is a permanent intelligent design all should be taught in public schools. Almost half thing,” he said. “A couple of cen- turies from now, you won’t hear about believe God created humans without any help from evolution, and Charles Darwin except in courses on 40 percent believe humans evolved naturally, but with God’s help. British intellectual history . . . but Jesus Christ will still be a prominent What should children be taught about evolution in public part of the culture . . . . It’s just a schools? matter of what is permanently good and true outlasting the faddish ideas 60% 55% we’re attracted to in our foolish 50 youth.” 8 40 30 23% The situation in Kansas came to a 20 12% head in April, when the Kansas Board 10 4% of Education’s newly elected conser- 0 vative majority heard testimony that Intelligent Evolution Creationism All three teaching criticisms of evolution will design only only only be good for students, even though only eight of 26 members of the Did human beings develop from an earlier species? state’s teaching-standards panel sup- 54% port the changes. Mainstream scien- 60% 50 46% 44% tists and science educators boycotted 40 38% the gathering. 30 “It was a “kangaroo court” where 20 No Yes No Yes pro-evolution views could not get a 10 fair hearing, says Scharmann. 0 March 1994 June 2005 Intelligent-design supporters, how- ever, claim scientists didn’t participate because they cannot effectively re- What contributed to the origin and development of human fute design theory. “I’m waiting for beings? the day when the hearings are not 50% voluntary but involve subpoenas in Nov. 2004 40 45% which evolutionists are deposed at 30 38% length on their views. On that happy 20 day, I can assure you that they won’t 10 13% come off looking well,” says William 0 A. Dembski, a professor of science God created man in Man developed Man developed and theology at Southern Baptist present form naturally, with naturally, but Theological Seminary in Louisville, God’s guidance God had no part Ky., and fellow at the Seattle-based in the process Discovery Institute. 9 Some pro-evolution activists warn Sources: Harris Poll, June 17-21, 2005 (questions 1 and 2); Gallup Poll, Nov. 7-10, that by refusing to take part in such 2004 (question 3). Percentages do not add to 100 because respondents who were debates, the American science com- unsure or didn’t answer are not included. munity is undercutting the country’s science leadership. “The United States The absence of scientists’ input at the Rob Boston, assistant director of com- is “losing the advantage we got after April meeting in Kansas, for instance, munications at Americans United for World War II because of [these] trends” allowed intelligent-design supporters to Separation of Church and State, wor- to weaken science teaching, says lay out their position unchallenged — ries that only a handful of scientists are Scharmann.” 10 and led to unbalanced press reports. taking on the intelligent-design debate.

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 641 INTELLIGENT DESIGN

Making the Case for Evolution

ntelligent-design advocates claim that the scientific evidence species to develop through unique evolutionary paths that do to support Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is thin. not occur elsewhere. I “All the books cite the same examples: the fossil exam- The fact that almost all marsupials are native to Australia ples, the genetic examples and so on,” said Phillip E. Johnson, suggests that the kangaroo and the wombat, different as they the now-retired University of California law professor who are, branched off from the family tree of a single marsupial founded the modern intelligent-design movement. “A relative ancestor — evolutionary developments unique to the island handful of them [are] used over and over.” 1 continent. But biologists say numerous types of evidence support Dar- Intelligent-design theory doesn’t offer as neat an explana- win. In the case of the theory of evolution, “An enormous tion for kangaroos and other marsupials, except to say that an amount of scientific investigation has converted what was ini- intelligent designer could have placed them on one isolated tially a hypothesis into a theory that is no longer questioned in continent only. But there’s also no apparent reason why a de- science,” a National Academy of Science expert panel said. “At signer would have done so. Kangaroos, for example, are graz- the same time, evolution remains an extremely active field of ing animals that thrive in dry places and could be suitable in- research, with an abundance of new discoveries that are con- habitants for other dry lands. tinually increasing our understanding of exactly how the evolu- The fact that all living organisms use the same molecules tion of living organisms actually occurred.” 2 for their genetic codes — DNA and RNA — also supports Darwin theorized in The Origin of Species that species are Darwin’s theory. In fact, Darwin’s theory of a common, dis- born with randomly varying characteristics but because of “nat- tant ancestor actually predicts a common genetic code. On ural selection” species evolve over time because only those the other hand, an intelligent creator could have decided to whose inherited traits work well in their environments survive use the same genetic material for all organisms. But why to reproduce. Darwin also posited that widely different species wouldn’t a designer have used different material for different share a single, common ancestor. species? As with kangaroos, organisms sharing common, ge- Even non-scientists can observe some of the phenomena netic material do not provide evidence for or against intelli- that tend to confirm Darwin’s theory, such as the fact that kan- gent design. garoos, wombats and most of the world’s other marsupials are To test a theory’s validity, researchers ask: How easily can native only to Australia, which because of its isolation enables it be proven false? If a theory is so flexible it can accommodate

“You see the same names over and ual can hold both views, a belief shared going on” about how faith and sci- over again,” he says. by geneticist Francis Collins, an evan- ence should interact, says Miller. 12 The AAAS is keenly aware that weak- gelical Christian who heads the National Even the Roman Catholic Church, ened evolution education affects all sci- Genome Research Institute. “There’s a which in the past has seen no con- entists, says Jim Miller, an AAAS senior common assumption that you cannot tradiction between Christian theology program associate. His office — the both be a rigorous, show-me-the-data and evolution, is jumping into the cur- Dialogue on Science, Ethics and Reli- scientist and a person who believes in rent debate. In July, Cardinal Christoph gion — will publish an online book a personal God,” Collins said. “From Schonborn, archbishop of Vienna and this summer that Miller hopes will serve my perspective, these two areas are en- a leading theologian, poured cold water as “vaccination by education” against tirely compatible.” on the idea that the church accepts the idea that evolution is anti-religious. For instance, he continues, “I take evolutionary science. A close associate “Almost all the points of view on evo- the view that God, in His wisdom, of newly installed Pope Benedict XVI, lution cut across the Christian denom- used evolution as His creative scheme, Schonborn wrote that “scientific theo- inations,” says Miller, an ordained Pres- . . . creating a group of individuals ries that try to explain away the ap- byterian minister. By laying out the full that He can have fellowship with — pearance of design [in nature] as the spectrum of Christian understandings us. Why is evolution not an appro- result of ‘chance and necessity’ are not of the science, “we’re trying to broad- priate way to get to that goal?” 11 scientific at all” but “an abdication of en the playing field.” However, ethical dilemmas created human intelligence.” 13 Since Darwin’s day, science and re- by technological developments like As teachers, scientists, faith com- ligion in Western culture generally have cloning are challenging the tradition- munities and intelligent-design sup- been considered two separate, non- al wall between faith and science, and porters debate the place of evolution overlapping ways of explaining the today nearly all branches of religion in America’s classrooms, here are world. But Miller believes an individ- “have some kind of active reflection some of the questions being asked:

642 The CQ Researcher a huge range of observations, the theory may be true. How- Natural selection [could not] have anticipated that a time ever, it gives scientists little, if anything, to build on as they would come when flight might again be an advantage” to look for natural laws. That’s one of the quarrels scientists have the unlucky bird — “when European sailors came hunting,” with intelligent design as a scientific hypothesis. There seem to Maddox explained. 3 be few constraints on what an intelligent designer could do, Although evolutionary theory provides plausible explana- making it hard to decide what observations, if any, could prove tions for many observations, biologists can’t yet detail step-by- the idea false. step mechanisms through which natural selection or other evo- That’s not the case with Darwin’s hypotheses. For exam- lutionary change occur. But it’s not unusual for an established ple, a great deal of doubt could be thrown on the theory of scientific theory to lack such detail. For example, physicists common descent if new species were found containing ge- have long known precisely what gravity does, but they still netic material other than DNA. Although this has yet to hap- know very little about how it works. pen, the constant discovery of new species makes it possi- Intelligent-design supporters, however, argue that biologists’ ble that the theory of common descent someday could be relatively slim understanding of evolution’s mechanisms is evi- disproved. dence that intelligent design, not evolution, likely accounts for Darwin’s theory also offers plausible explanations for some major changes in life forms, such as creation of a new species. of nature’s odder phenomena, such as the dodo, a flightless “Does natural selection have the fantastic creative power that’s bird once found on the island nation of Mauritius, hunted to assigned to it?” asks Johnson. “There is this huge gap between extinction by European sailors. what natural selection is supposed to be able to do and what “The ancestors of the dodo could fly,” since they popu- it has actually been seen doing, which is practically nothing.” 4 lated “many widely spread islands,” wrote British science his- torian John Maddox. But once dodos were established on 1 Quoted in Stephen Goode, “Johnson Challenges Advocates of Evolution,” islands with few natural predators, “natural selection would Insight,, Oct. 25, 1999. 2 Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy have favored the individuals that gave up flying, saving the Press, 1998; www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/evolution98/. huge metabolic cost the process expends. Flight muscles 3 John Maddox, What Remains to Be Discovered (1998), p. 239. would atrophy, and in due course there would be genetic 4 Jeff Lawrence, “Communique Interview: Phillip E. Johnson,” Communique: variations more permanently disabling the apparatus of flight. A Quarterly Journal, spring 1999; www.arn.org/docs/johnson/commsp99.htm.

Is intelligent design a scientific Critics say that’s the problem with contradictory facts can be used to argue theory? the arguments in The Privileged Plan- both for and against something, the ar- Intelligent-design advocates argue that et, a book about intelligent design by gument is “scientifically useless,” he their ideas constitute a true scientific Iowa State University astronomy pro- writes in a review of the book. 15 enterprise. But most scientists say in- fessor Guillermo Gonzalez and theolo- Proponents of intelligent design telligent design doesn’t meet the tests gian Jay Richards, a Discovery Institute dispute such claims. “Intelligent de- that differentiate science from other in- senior fellow. It cites as evidence for a sign is very open to being falsified,” tellectual activities, such as the collec- designer the fact that Earth supports says Lehigh University biochemist and tion of reliable data. human life despite the fantastically Discovery Institute fellow Michael Behe. Nature follows predictable laws that small probability that the universe would Certain complex structures inside liv- operate the same regardless of who give rise to intelligent life. But, asks ing cells are “irreducibly complex” — tests them, mainstream scientists say. So William Jefferys, an astronomer at the functioning structures so intricate and it’s critical to stick to natural explana- University of Texas at Austin, “What if efficiently made that the probability tions “when playing the game of sci- we had observed that the universe was that they evolved through random vari- ence,” says Kansas State’s Scharmann. actually quite conducive to the exis- ation is so low that they must have Ironically, one thing preventing in- tence of intelligent life?” That scenario been engineered by a designer, he telligent design from qualifying as sci- could also be construed as evidence contends. If a biologist could grow a ence is that it potentially explains too for a designer, one who planned a bacteria colony that eventually devel- much. “A hypothesis that can explain human-friendly universe, he suggests. oped such a structure, “that would all possible observations and data is An elementary rule of reasoning, he blow my idea out of the water.” not testable nor is it scientific,” notes points out, is that “if evidence E sup- “One of the classic ways to argue Douglas Theobald, a biochemist at the ports hypothesis H, then observing that against evolution has been to point to University of Colorado at Boulder. 14 E is false would undermine H.” So, if an exceptionally complex . . . structure

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 643 INTELLIGENT DESIGN

year in the natural world is beyond What Is Intelligent Design? all decent contemplation,” wrote British biologist Richard Dawkins. “During “Intelligent design refers to a scientific research program as the minute that it takes me to com- well as a community of scientists, philosophers and other pose this sentence, thousands of ani- scholars who seek evidence of design in nature. Through mals are being eaten alive, many oth- the study and analysis of a system’s components, a design ers are running for their lives, whimpering with fear. . . . The uni- theorist is able to determine whether various natural verse that we observe has precisely structures are the product of chance, natural law, the properties we should expect if intelligent design, or some combination thereof. In nature, there is, at bottom, no design, no pur- design theorists cite information-rich systems like the pose, no evil, no good, nothing but 22 genetic code, irreducibly complex systems like the bacterial pitiless indifference.” But Keith B. Miller, a professor of flagellum and the fine-tuning of the laws of physics as geology at Kansas State University, says evidence of intelligent design.” scientists like Dawkins “have tried to Source: “Discovery Institute’s Critique of PBS’s ‘Evolution’ ”; use science to promote an atheistic phi-

www.reviewevolution.com; accessed July 26, 2005 European Southern Observatory losophy.” However, such attempts “step clearly outside of the realm of science,” and then to challenge an evolutionist sand years ago that the size of an he writes. The scientific enterprise is no to ‘Evolve this!’ ” writes Kenneth Miller, atom . . . would ever be discovered?” more based on a philosophy that de- a professor of evolutionary biology at asks University of Glasgow chemist nies God than is plumbing or auto me- Brown University. 16 But if such an A.G. Cairns-Smith. “With so many past chanics,” which also avoid supernatur- experiment succeeded, he says, it would scientific puzzles now cleared up, there al explanations, he continues. “Science demonstrate only that a designer wasn’t have to be very clear reasons not to works . . . because it is religiously neu- needed for that one structure, not that presume natural causes.” 20 tral. As a result, scientists representing no designer existed. widely different . . . beliefs can com- Calvert — the retired lawyer, trained Can a person believe in evolution municate.” 23 in geology, who established the Intel- and still believe in God? Many thinkers who accept both faith ligent Design Network — says scien- Intelligent-design advocates insist that and evolution argue that intelligent-de- tists have rigged the rules of the game evolutionary theory and belief in a per- sign proponents are fighting to preserve to exclude intelligent design because sonal God are incompatible, primarily not God so much as an outdated they prefer a materialistic worldview because the physical nature of evolu- human-drawn picture of God. By deny- to the possibility that a designer cre- tionary science makes it atheistic. ing that an active god can coexist with ated life. But confining scientific ex- People of faith who claim that they evolution, design supporters require “that planations to the measurable is actu- accept Darwin’s theory either do not the source of each and every novelty ally anti-scientific, Calvert argues, really accept evolution or do not be- of life was the direct and active in- because in science, “you can’t let the lieve in the God of the Bible, said volvement of an outside designer whose implications of the evidence affect Johnson, the architect of modern in- work violated the very laws of nature your official conclusion.” 17 telligent design. “Theistic evolution” he had fashioned,” writes Brown Uni- “The world contains events, objects — the idea that one can believe in versity’s Miller. Thus, “the world of in- and structures that exhaust the ex- evolution while retaining faith in a telligent design is not the bright and in- planatory resources of undirected nat- personal God — “is the same thing novative world of life that we have ural causes,” said the Southern Baptist as atheistic evolution with a certain come to know through science” but a Theological Seminary’s Dembski. 18 amount of God talk.” Theistic evolu- static world “unable to adapt except at So banning supernatural explanations tionists effectively deny what design the whims of its designer.” 24 “is not an aid to intellectual clarity but supporters hold as their first principle “Theology needs to face the Dar- a wet blanket designed to stifle in- — “that God left us some fingerprints winian account without flinching,” writes quiry.” 19 on the evidence.” 21 Georgetown University theologian But allowing supernatural explana- Some atheistic scientists agree that John Haught. “What if God is not just tions would halt discovery, scientists evolution and religion are incompati- an originator of order but also the dis- say. “Who would have thought a thou- ble. “The total amount of suffering per quieting wellspring of novelty?” Haught

644 The CQ Researcher writes. “Suppose God is less concerned key approach will be more success- ly of speculation don’t belong in the with imposing a plan or design . . . ful. Rather than asking schools to re- classroom, he says: “Even if these are than with providing a ‘vision’ for the quire that intelligent design be taught, fruitful avenues of scientific inquiry, universe that allows it to participate in they ask only that schools “teach the they are so preliminary that it’s not its own creation. controversy” surrounding evolution, appropriate for them to be brought “If God were ‘powerful’ only in arguing that broadening the discus- into the schools. It’s just too early.” the very crude sense of possessing sion would foster critical thought. But if schools completely avoid dis- the capacity to manipulate or design In a current debate in Dover, Pa., for cussion of broader, philosophical ques- things coercively, then the facts of example, many supporters of intelligent tions — and of religious objections to evolution might be theologically prob- design, including the Discovery Institute, evolution that students hear at home lematic,” Haught continues. “But an where Behe, Dembski and Johnson are or in church — it may further alienate infinite love . . . will not manipulate. fellows, have refused to back the local the public from science, others say. . . . God’s creative love constitutes school board’s push to require the Science classes should stick to teach- the world as something . . . distinct teaching of intelligent design as an al- ing what’s been established through from God.” 25 ternative to evolution. 29 the scientific method, particularly since Intelligent-design supporters strong- “I don’t think [intelligent design] most American students’ exposure to ly disagree that theology should be should be taught in the sense of a science is already drastically “watered rethought to accommodate science. “If teacher standing up and telling a class down,” says Robert Wheelersburg, an your question is, ‘Can you reconcile that this is something we know to be associate professor of anthropology at some vague or weak Christianity with true,” says design theorist Behe. “But Pennsylvania’s Elizabethtown College. evolution?’ . . . Of course, if you want I do think that it could be very good That means keeping questions about to badly enough, you can,” Johnson pedagogically to teach it with evolu- creation and human origins out. But once told a reporter. 26 tion and other theories of origins.” this “doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t He’s scornful of people of faith who But most scientists say there is no teach the other origin myths and the- accept scientists’ claim that science fundamental controversy about evolu- ories elsewhere,” says Wheelersburg, alone can determine the facts of na- tion, so there is no need to teach al- a Catholic who says “there’s no ques- ture, while religion is confined to dis- ternatives. tion that things evolved” but who cussions “of morality or the meaning “Teaching critical thinking doesn’t mean doubts that Darwin’s theory can fully of life.” Religious people are free to presenting irrelevant and ill-founded ‘al- account for the origin of humans. “accept dialogue on these terms” if ternatives’ to basic knowledge that we “When you have these dramatically they want to, he wrote, but “don’t let want all students to understand,” wrote opposed views” in society on subjects those religious people think they get Molleen Matsumura, network project di- such as evolution, “but the answer in to make an independent judgment rector at the National Center for Science the classroom is, ‘We can’t talk about about the evidence that supposedly Education. “Students learning basic con- it,’ the kids just give up,” he says. They supports the ‘facts.’ ” 27 cepts about chemistry and physics aren’t may “stay away from science in droves” People who attempt to reconcile taught ‘alternative theories of matter’ such to avoid confronting questions that religious belief with evolutionary sci- as the medieval four elements. they then are discouraged from grap- ence often describe “God as guiding “While students discuss alternative in- pling with, he says. or persuading creation,” Dembski terpretations of evidence . . . (for ex- Wheelersburg wants teenagers to wrote. “But all such talk is empty.” ample, how to interpret the motivation be offered comparative religion or com- The god Haught envisions “always of characters in a novel), we . . . don’t parative literature classes where com- bows to the freedom of creation.” In ‘balance’ valid knowledge with unsup- peting philosophical and religious ideas traditional Christianity, “creation always ported claims or poor evidence (for ex- can be discussed. “The problem is that bows to divine freedom.” 28 ample, teaching students in a European- public high schools have become san- history class ‘evidence that the Holocaust itized,” and few if any offer such Should public-school science never happened’).” 30 courses, he says. 31 classes “teach the controversy” Intelligent design does raise some Others agree that, ideally, the his- surrounding evolution and intelli- “serious questions” of broader inter- tory and philosophy of science should gent design? est, such as whether “complex, spec- be discussed in schools. National ed- Unlike earlier efforts by creation- ified information is a marker of an in- ucation standards recognize the im- ists to confront evolution, intelligent- telligent designer,” the AAAS’s Miller portance of those studies, says Miller. design supporters hope their new low- says. But theories that still consist main- “But with time constraints, it gets lost.”

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Reasonable solutions might include as “Why do I need to study evolu- Natural philosophers had speculated for discussing creation and evolution theo- tion, when the Bible says it isn’t true?” centuries about whether each plant and ries “in a separate course” like “religious Furthermore, many young teachers in animal species had appeared in its cur- perspectives on creation,” or “starting a training are themselves fundamentalist rent form or whether modern varieties science course with a frank acknowl- Christians who have been raised to had evolved from older forms. edgement of differing approaches to cos- reject evolution. The notion that modern organisms mologies, some of which have differ- He recommends against trying to evolved from earlier ones — often ent bases than the scientific method,” draw a strict line between hypotheses popularly credited to Darwin — was said Richard Foltin, legislative director — saying “this is science” and “this is not a new idea in his time. of the American Jewish Committee, at not science” — or insisting that stu- “Organic life beneath the shoreless a 2003 forum on religion in the schools. dents “believe” in evolution. waves/Was born, and nursed in Ocean’s However, design proponents “are not Instead, Scharmann says, “Tell them pearly caves,” wrote Darwin’s grand- going to be satisfied” with such options that you don’t care that theories are father, the botanist, physician and because they want their ideas about the true, just that they work,” and that sci- philosopher Erasmus Darwin, in a poem origin of species to be “identified as sci- entific theories can be arranged along published in 1803. “First forms minute ence,” Foltin noted. 32 a continuum from “stronger to weak- . . . move on the mud . . . These, as The relationship between religion er,” depending on how well they do successive generations bloom,/New and science is “one of the most mo- three main jobs: “Do they solve prob- powers acquire, and larger limbs as- mentous questions in modern histo- lems? Do they predict? Do they explain? sume.” 35 ry,” and “students are unlikely to take The stronger scientific theory is the one While speculation that species science seriously unless they are ed- that can do all three things better.” evolved was not new, the methods of ucated about the difference between “I’ve had very strong Christian stu- scholars who studied nature were un- scientific and religions claims,” wrote dents” who end up acknowledging that dergoing profound change in Darwin’s Charles Haynes, a senior scholar at the intelligent design is weak as a scientif- day, says Ronald Numbers, a histori- First Amendment Center in Arlington, ic theory — even though they may still an of science at the University of Wis- Va., run by Vanderbuilt University and say that they believe it, says Scharmann. consin, Madison. the Freedom Forum. 33 “I ask, ‘What does intelligent design “For centuries, people who studied Nevertheless, “teach the controver- predict?’ They say, ‘I don’t know.’ I say, nature were known as natural philoso- sy” school-board resolutions sponsored ‘I need a cure for AIDS. The theory phers,” not “scientists,” says Numbers. by intelligent-design advocates are says that AIDS is intelligently designed Until the late-18th and early-19th cen- “meaningless — even dangerous” under to be irreducibly complex. Does that turies, most intellectuals didn’t spe- current conditions, Haynes continued. solve the problem?’ They say, ‘No.’ cialize in a single discipline — such “Most science teachers aren’t prepared “Intelligent design is an alternative as theology or physics — but freely to tackle this debate. As a result, we’re explanation,” Scharmann continues, but engaged in cross-disciplinary thinking. likely to get teachers dismissing the students can come to understand “that A thinker interested in botany would ‘other side’ (as if there were only two) it doesn’t do two of the three func- study plants, but unlike for biologists — or, worse, pushing a religious or tions that science needs to do.” today, “one of the purposes of these ideological agenda.” studies was to learn about God.” If “school boards are really serious In the early-19th century, European about fostering ‘critical thinking’ . . . and American scholars were gradually then they must prepare teachers to teach BACKGROUND coming to “a new agreement” about about the debate in ways that are ac- studying nature, creating “science” as curate, fair, informed — and grounded we know it today, says Numbers. The in good science,” Haynes noted. 34 new idea: “Don’t inject supernatural ex- Science teachers can be trained to Modern Science planations.” The new scientists gener- deal effectively with the evolution/in- ally “believed that God made the rules,” telligent-design debate, says Kansas but, in a huge cultural shift, “they want- State University’s Scharmann, who says n the 1830s, when Charles Darwin ed to study the rules themselves” rather he’s been accused of being a “closet I began to think about evolution, ge- than draw conclusions about God from creationist” for expressing this view. ologists already knew that some animals their nature observations or conclusions Scharmann says it’s inevitable that that had lived on Earth had vanished, about nature from their religious faith. teachers will face tough questions, such while different ones had taken their place. Continued on p. 648

646 The CQ Researcher Chronology

arguing they amount to govern- design movement, publishes his 1700s-1800s ment establishment of religion. first anti-evolution book, Darwin Natural philosophy — explor- on Trial. ing nature to find out about 1961 both God and natural laws — The Genesis Flood, an influential 1995 is replaced by modern science. book by American anti-evolutionist Alabama requires warning stickers Henry Morris, seeks to provide a on public-school biology texts cau- 1800 scientific basis for “Young-Earth tioning students to keep an open Englishman William Paley publishes Creationism” — the idea that the mind when reading about evolution. Natural Theology, describing how world literally was created as de- observations of nature indicate that scribed in Genesis, 7,000 years ago. 2000 a good God designed the world. Kansas requires the teaching of criti- 1968 cisms of evolution and then reverses 1859 U.S. Supreme Court strikes down itself, after public outcry and election British biologist Charles Darwin Arkansas’ ban on evolution teach- of a new Board of Education. publishes The Origin of Species, ing (Epperson v. Arkansas). outlining his theory of evolution 2003 by natural selection. 1982 No Child Left Behind Act recom- Federal court in Arkansas strikes mends that students be taught about 1877 down a 1981 state law requiring controversies surrounding evolution. After finding fossils of toothed that evolution and creationism be birds in the Midwest, paleontologist given “balanced treatment” in class- October 2004 Othniel C. Marsh theorizes that rooms (McLean v. Arkansas). Dover, Pa., school board requires birds descended from dinosaurs. high-school biology classes to 1987 teach intelligent design alongside • U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin evolution. Scalia’s dissenting opinion in Edwards v. Aguillard argues that criticisms of 2005 1900s-1950s evolution should be taught in schools. After Dover parents sue the school At least nine state legislatures board, it shifts policy in January and education boards ban or • and requires biology teachers to limit the teaching of evolution. inform students that intelligent design is an alternative to evolutionary 1925 1990s-2000s theory. . . . Kansas Board of Edu- Biology teacher John Scopes is Intelligent design replaces cre- cation hears testimony in April in convicted of violating Tennessee’s ationism as the main focus of support of changing state science law against teaching evolution in anti-evolution activism. standards to include more criticisms schools and fined $100; the convic- of evolution. . . . In June, the tion is overturned on a technicality. 1990 Alaska Board of Education says Federal court in Illinois rules in evolution is a key part of the 1953 Webster v. New Lenox School District state’s science standards, after hav- American geochemist Clair Patterson that the district did not curtail a ing earlier required that alternative uses uranium-lead dating to calcu- teacher’s free-speech rights by pro- theories be taught. . . . American late that the Earth is 4.5 billion hibiting him from teaching creation Association of University Professors years old. science because creationism is a asks local and state officials to re- form of religious advocacy not per- ject requests to weaken evolution • mitted under the Constitution. teaching. . . . Kansas state Board of Education is expected in Sep- 1991 tember to require schools to teach 1960s-1980s University of California, Berkeley, criticisms of evolution and define Federal courts strike down sev- law professor Phillip E. Johnson, “science” to include supernatural as eral state anti-evolution laws, founder of the modern intelligent- well as natural explanations.

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 647 INTELLIGENT DESIGN

Phillip Johnson’s Campaign Against Darwinism

t some point during his 30-year career as a law pro- “The 1959 Centennial [of Charles Darwin’s The Origin of fessor, Phillip E. Johnson found his true passion: mar- Species] proclaimed that a blind, material process of evolution is A shalling his legal skills to destroy the theory of evo- our true Creator,” Johnson wrote. Following on that idea, the lution. U.S. Supreme Court in 1962 decided that “even a very general Johnson founded the modern intelligent-design movement evocation of God was a divisive sectarian practice” and that gov- and has spent the past 15 years working with other intelligent- ernment endorsement of religion “is inherently associated with design advocates at the Seattle-based Discovery Institute to sow religious strife and oppression.” That decision “symbolized a seeds of doubt about evolution among academics, legislators tremendous change in the ruling philosophy in our country.” 4 and the public. Before converting to Christianity at age 38, Johnson was “I wouldn’t be surprised if Darwinism as we know it goes well acquainted with the emptiness of agnosticism, he says. As belly up,” said William A. Dembski, an institute senior fellow a young man, he had adopted the “secular, pragmatic and ra- and professor of theology and science at Southern Baptist The- tional” philosophy that science promotes, “because that’s what ological Seminary. 1 you did if you wanted to be a big deal.” 5 According to Johnson, the key rule for scientists — exam- Born in Aurora, Ill., in 1940, Johnson attended Harvard Uni- ine only natural explanations — makes them agnostics. Be- versity and the University of Chicago Law School. He describes cause of science’s many technological triumphs, its influence himself as a highly gifted but often bored student who drifted into extends throughout society — especially among educated peo- becoming a professor. His one faith: “If you’re a bright person with ple — leading to what he sees as a corrupt, godless, science- the right credentials, you’ll have a happy and meaningful life.” dominated culture and moral emptiness. At Berkeley, he felt repelled by student radicals who protested “Agnosticism is a more effective dismissal of God than athe- the Vietnam War — which he, too, opposed — but he also envied ism,” he said in 1999. “The atheist raises the issue by saying them. “Misguided as they were, they believed in something.” 6 that God does not exist. But the agnostic simply has nothing When his marriage broke up in the 1970s, Johnson even- to say on the subject, so you don’t discuss it.” 2 tually sought answers at a local church. But after converting “Before 1962, America was unified by the concept that to Christianity, he remained puzzled about what had made his people of different races and religious traditions all wor- apparently successful pre-Christian life feel empty. ship their common Creator, the God of the Bible; by 1962, Then he began reading about the theory of evolution, in- that had been reversed,” Johnson told the first intelligent- cluding works by the British biologist Richard Dawkins, who holds design conference, at Biola University, a Christian school that natural selection is a strong argument against the existence in La Mirada, Calif., in 1996. That changed after the 1962 of a personal Creator. “I read these books, and . . . almost im- Supreme Court decision outlawing prayer in public schools, mediately I thought, ‘This is it. This is what it all comes down which Johnson blames on the theory of evolution. 3 to, the understanding of creation.’ ” 7

Continued from p. 646 mish Darwin, and he settled for his not an oval eye, better suited to see Darwin began his studies with one father’s next suggestion — studying underwater. So, just as we correctly foot planted in Bible-based natural for the ministry. “I did not then doubt conclude that a watch was made by philosophy. By 1859, when The Origin the strict and literal truth of every word a watchmaker, in nature, too, “the of Species was published, he was a in the Bible,” he wrote. 37 marks of design are too strong to be fully professional scientist whose theory As a student, Darwin encountered gotten over,” wrote Paley. Species are of how species evolved relied entirely what Georgetown theologian Haught well designed for their functions. “De- on observable science. calls the best pre-Darwinian “expla- sign must have had a designer . . . . As a boy, Darwin was an avid — nation for the ordered and adaptive That person is God.” 39 some say obsessive — nature hobby- features of living organisms . . . di- ist and beetle collector. “I am dying vine ‘intelligent design.’ ” 38 This cen- by inches, from not having anybody turies-old idea was most famously ex- Voyage to Evolution to talk to about insects,” he wrote to pressed by Englishman William Paley his cousin in 1828. 36 in his 1800 book, Natural Theology, ffered a chance to serve as the His father, a physician, hoped that which Darwin admired. O naturalist on a five-year voyage his son would follow him into medi- According to Paley, each species of the H.M.S. Beagle to map coastlines, cine. But surgery performed without has a form that perfectly suits its needs the 22-year-old Darwin — still planning anesthetics was too much for the squea- — for example, a fish has a round, to become a parson — took it.

648 The CQ Researcher Evolutionary science is based on ligious anti-evolutionists. Concentrate on the false assumption that biologists debating this question: “Do you need should seek only natural explana- a Creator to do the creating, or can na- tions, Johnson says. Thus, science ture do it on its own?’ ” 10 can lead only to the conclusion that In the end, he concludes, “Chris- nature proceeds according to ma- tianity is a permanent thing. A cou- terial laws only, without God’s in- ple of centuries from now, you won’t tervention, a conclusion he says is hear about Charles Darwin except in both untrue and dangerous. courses on British intellectual histo- As a result, he says, “Getting the ry. But Jesus Christ will still be a right relationship with God and get- prominent part of the culture. It’s ting to heaven” have become “unim- just a matter of what is permanent- portant” in our time. What has be- ly good and true outlasting the fad- come important “is how we apply dish ideas we’re attracted to in our scientific knowledge to make a foolish youth.” heaven here on Earth. That’s a dream of various kinds of reform 1 Quoted in Tim Stafford, “The Making of a programs, [such as] socialism,” which Revolution,” Christianity Today, Dec. 8, 1997; the conservative Johnson opposes. 8 Brian Gage www.arn.org. Intelligent design “really means the reality 2 Dedicating his life to the anti-evo- Quoted in Stephen Goode, “Johnson Chal- of God,” says former University of California lenges Advocates of Evolution,” Insight, Oct. lution cause energized the formerly aim- law professor Phillip E. Johnson, who 25, 1999; www.arn.org. less lawyer. “I’m like a kid in a candy launched the intelligent-design 3 The case is Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 store,” he said in 1997. “I can’t think of movement in the early 1990s. (1962). 4 anything I would rather be doing.” 9 Phillip E. Johnson, “How to Sink a Battle- ship: A Call to Separate Materialist Philosophy”; www.leaderu.com. The anti-evolution movement had existed for decades be- 5 Quoted in James Kushiner, “Berkeley’s Radical: An Interview With Phillip fore Johnson joined, but he used his legal debating skills to E. Johnson,” Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity, June 2002. unify anti-evolutionists of varying beliefs behind a single strat- 6 Stafford, op. cit. egy. “Get . . . Genesis out of the debate because you do not 7 Ibid. want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy,” he said. 8 Goode, op. cit. 9 “Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard Stafford, op. cit. 10 in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify” re- Kushiner, op. cit.

Darwin’s shipmates marveled at “the of one species — even closely related drawing and classifying thousands of young man who caught 68 species of ones, like kittens from the same litter — specimens before publishing The Origin beetle in a single day and shot 80 differ in apparently random ways. of Species in 1859. He spent eight years species of birds in a morning’s walk,” Through his travels, he saw that dif- classifying barnacles, for example. writes biographer Ronald W. Clark. ferent places, especially islands, often Even then, he only released the “Throughout the voyage he regularly are home to different versions of the nearly 500-page book — which he sent back parcels” containing hun- same animals and plants. In the Gala- considered a bare outline — because dreds of skeletons, bird and animal pagos Islands, 650 miles off the coast another scientist, Alfred Wallace, was skins and other specimens. 40 of Ecuador, for example, tortoises from on the verge of publishing similar ideas. Initially, Darwin was impressed by the different islands varied enough that Set forth amidst the hundreds of ex- Paley’s special-design idea. But his ob- people who knew the area could “at planatory details in The Origin of Species, servations of nature gradually changed once” identify a tortoise’s native isle. 41 Darwin’s theory of natural selection is his thinking. By the time he returned to England essentially this: Species were not creat- Three main observations form the basis in 1836, he was developing his own ed once in final form. They change over of Darwin’s theory of the origin of species. theory about how species originate. But, time as the inheritable variations that occur He noticed that virtually all organisms believing he had no right to propose an naturally but unpredictably in individu- produce many more offspring than sur- answer without intimate knowledge of als make some better able to survive en- vive to reproduce and that individuals nature, he spent more than two decades vironmental conditions to produce young.

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which challenges the belief that “the istence of an intelligent First Cause” Darwin and God diversity of life is the product of some seemed “strong” to Darwin, while “the Grand Design.” 42 presence of much suffering agrees Darwin himself struggled to recon- well with the view that all organic atural selection quickly became cile the idea of an intelligent design- beings have been developed through N part of the conversation of sci- er with the mass death, chance-driven variation and natural selection.” ence, with other researchers contributing variation and brute striving for survival On the other hand, “I cannot . . . evidence for and against it and the au- he saw in nature. be contented to view this wonderful thor repeatedly re- universe . . . and to con- vising the concept. clude that everything is Over the nearly 150 the result of brute force. years since its pub- . . . The more I think, lication, Darwin’s the more bewildered I theory has been become.” 43 woven into the fab- Then and now, many ric of biology. Some have shared that confu- of his proposals have sion. been shown to be Some believers — false, but the main mostly Christians but theory — that nat- also some fundamental- ural selection plays ist Muslims and Jews — a primary role in say that Darwin’s theory species change — contradicts religious scrip- has been confirmed tures so thoroughly that by many pieces of to believe it is equiva- evidence. lent to being an atheist. Although in The “Before the triumph of Origin of the Species Darwinism, atheism was Darwin did not an eccentric position. After specifically discuss that triumph it seemed to the evolution of be the logical implication human beings, in of the . . . scientific un- 1871 he followed up derstanding of reality,” with his second said intelligent-design major book on evo- leader Johnson. One can- lution, The Descent not simultaneously believe of Man, and Selec- in Darwin’s findings and tion in Relation to believe in the Christian Sex. It explored TimeLife Pictures/Getty Images God, according to John- English biologist Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species, published in how natural selec- 1859, grew out of the five years he spent aboard the son. “If Darwinism is true, tion could have led H.M.S. Beagle as a naturalist. Christian metaphysics is to the emergence of fantasy.” 44 humans as a distinct species. He wrote of this often in letters and Some Muslims also condemn evo- “Darwin offended his readers in journals. “I cannot persuade myself that lution as atheistic and immoral. “If some many different ways, but not least for a beneficent God would have de- people commit terrorism using the con- having attributed what he called the signedly created the Ichneumonidae cepts and symbols of Islam, Christian- ‘descent of Man’ to people’s supposed [parasitic insects] with the express in- ity and Judaism . . . you can be sure common ancestor with the great apes,” tention of their feeding within the liv- that those people are not Muslims, Chris- wrote British science historian John ing bodies of caterpillars, or that a cat tians or Jews,” writes a Turkish thinker Maddox. Many people also were of- should play with mice.” who uses the pen name Harun Yahya. fended by the idea that “variations that The argument that the existence “The root of terrorism that plagues our arise by chance” lead to new species, of suffering casts doubt on “the ex- planet is not any of the divine religions

650 The CQ Researcher but is in atheism, and the expression In the first major case, Epperson v. of atheism in our times [is] Darwinism Creation on Trial Arkansas, the U.S. Supreme Court in and materialism.” 45 1968 struck down an Arkansas law that Political, not religious, ideology was y the 20th century, scientists gen- banned teaching “that mankind as- behind the historic ban on evolution B erally accepted natural selection cended or descended from a lower imposed by Josef Stalin when he ruled as a key idea in biology, but many in order of animals.” The court argued the Soviet Union, beginning in the the public had doubts. that the law violated the First Amend- 1930s. He described “survival of the During the “roaring” 1920s, many ment clause that forbids the govern- fittest” as a fascist idea, unsuitable for Americans worried that a new culture ment from establishing a religion. The a socialist nation where, in theory at of permissive behavior — created by Arkansas law unlawfully endorsed a least, all citizens are treated equally. For declining Bible-based morality — was single religion since it banned teach- three decades during and after his dic- getting out of hand. 49 Others, such as ing ideas that conflicted with the Bible’s tatorship, evolution supporters were William Jennings Bryan, a lawyer and creation story, the court ruled. thrown in prison or even executed, and politician involved in the first trial of In 1981, Arkansas enacted a new evolution was not taught or permitted evolution teaching, worried about so- measure requiring public schools to in state science programs. The ban cial theories that some thinkers drew “give balanced treatment to creation- greatly slowed the country’s agricultur- from evolutionary ideas about inherit- science and to evolution-science.” al and medical advancement. 46 ed biological characteristics and the Many in the state’s religious com- But evolution “has been viewed struggle for survival. Some theorists used munity joined science educators in crit- by many orthodox Christians . . . as Darwin to argue for eugenics programs icizing the law. A coalition that quick- a positive contribution to under- to institutionalize and sterilize poor ly sued to block implementation of the standing God’s creative and redemp- people, for example. law included the Arkansas bishops of tive work,” noted Kansas State Uni- During the ’20s, state legislatures in the United Methodist, Episcopal, Catholic versity geologist Miller, an evangelical Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, Oklahoma and African Methodist Episcopal Christian. In Darwin’s time, his chief and Tennessee required that some ver- churches, the American Jewish Congress American defenders included noted sion of the biblical account of human and other clergy. scientists Asa Gray, George Frederick origins — often called “creationism,” or, In 1982 a U.S. District Court struck Wright and James Dana — all com- later, “creation science” — be taught down the statute, ruling in McLean v. mitted evangelical Christians. 47 instead of or alongside evolution. State Arkansas Board of Education that the The idea that random variation dri- education boards in California, Louisiana, “balanced treatment” approach also vi- ves species development “creates ten- North Carolina and Texas passed sim- olates the Establishment Clause. The sion for any theist, including myself, ilar rules. Many other states considered court also declared that creation sci- who believes that God guides the cos- but didn’t pass such measures. ence is not a science and that the the- mos,” says Philip Clayton, a professor The first court test came in 1925, a ory of evolution does not presuppose of philosophy and religion at Califor- few months after Tennessee passed a either the existence or the non-exis- nia’s Claremont School of Theology. law forbidding the teaching of “any the- tence of a creator. Nevertheless, evolution and faith can ory that denies the story of the Divine be reconciled by giving up two things: Creation of man as taught in the Bible, “the idea of an all-controlling god” and and [teaches] instead that man has de- the notion that, since science finds ran- scended from a lower order of animals.” CURRENT dom change to be the basis of evolu- John Scopes, a football coach and sub- tion, random change is “all there is.” stitute biology teacher in Dayton, Tenn. Evolution opponents actually pose — who had volunteered to be the de- SITUATION more risk to religious belief than they fendant in a case to test the law — was do to science, says Brown University found guilty of teaching evolution. He biologist Miller, a Catholic and the co- was fined $100, but the conviction was author of a widely used high-school bi- overturned on a technicality. Abandoning Genesis ology text. “They have based their search Decades later, in the 1960s, science for God on the premise that nature is teachers and civil liberties groups began rom 1968 through the 1980s, the not self-sufficient.” But this argument to challenge anti-evolution laws, and F U.S. Supreme Court and other supports “the existence of God only so a series of court cases around the coun- courts repeatedly declared that anti- long as these assertions are true.” 48 try examined their constitutionality. evolution laws and balanced-treatment

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Intelligent-Design Advocates Turn to Math

ntelligent-design adherents see clear signs of an intelligent since fields such as archaeology, cryptography — the study of force in the creation of Earth’s species. The fact that wings, codes — and criminology already specialize in similar judg- I eyes, blood cells and myriad other body parts carry out their ments: “We demand answers to such questions as, Did she fall functions smoothly is proof, they argue. “Mountains of evidence or was she pushed? Did someone die accidentally or commit are already there,” writes intelligent-design advocate William A. suicide? Entire industries are devoted to drawing the distinc- Dembski, a trained mathematician and professor of science tion between accident and design.” 2 and theology at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, in Such a mathematical formula would give intelligent design Louisville, Ky. 1 “predictive power . . . the sort that can be validated through em- However, for skeptics who wear “materialistic blinders,” pirical observation and/or experimentation” — a critical achievement such evidence is not as compelling as the theory of evolu- if the idea is to convince doubters, wrote a visitor to Dembski’s tion, Dembski says. Web site. A “test to distinguish random (pseudo) from actual To win over doubters — especially scientists — Dembski (functional) DNA sequences (treating them as information streams) and other intelligent-design adherents with technical back- would do the trick,” the writer suggested. grounds point to microscopic aspects of nature that natural-se- Biologists point out, however, that a test that simply sepa- lection theorists may have difficulty explaining. “I’m trying to rated random from non-random objects wouldn’t convince evo- disabuse people of the notion that they should look at large- lution scientists. scale systems” like birds’ wings or human eyes “to see if Dar- According to Darwin’s theory, organisms end up looking as if winian principles work,” says Lehigh University biochemist they were specially designed for their home environments, even Michael Behe. He argues that tiny functioning structures inside though no designing mind was involved. That’s because, according cells have so many well integrated working parts that it’s high- to the theory of natural selection, animals are born with randomly ly improbable they could have evolved through a series of varying characteristics, but only those whose variations work well random changes. in their environments survive to reproduce. To satisfy evolution- But showing something is improbable is not the same as ists, Dembski’s method would have to distinguish between non- showing it is impossible, critics say. Behe likens that argument random organisms produced by environmental pressures and non- to coming upon the Mount Rushmore sculptures of presidents random organisms created by an intelligent designer. and wondering whether they were designed by intelligent be- Dembski admits that the project is difficult. “There is still a ings. “The burden of proof is with those who say that the wind long way [to go to] hammering out [intelligent design] as a full- could have done it.” fledged research program,” he said. 3 Dembski, who like Behe is also a senior fellow at the Discov- ery Institute, in Seattle, wants to develop a mathematical formula 1 www.uncommondescent.com. 2 to differentiate complex patterns created by intelligent design from William A. Dembski, “Science and Design,” First Things, October 1998, pp. 221-27. equally complicated systems that develop randomly. 3 Quoted in Lauri Lebo, “Experts Won’t Back Dover School District,” Daily He argues that finding such a method should be possible, Record [York, Pa.], June 19, 2005. laws ran afoul of the Establishment The Scalia-Rehnquist opinion led gy, launching the modern intelligent- Clause. to a “significant shift” in the approach design movement. Through books, But a dissenting opinion by Supreme taken by anti-evolutionists, beginning speeches and intense networking ac- Court Justice Antonin Scalia and Chief in 1987, according to Boston of tivities, Johnson convinced most Justice William H. Rehnquist in the Americans United for Separation of American anti-evolutionists to play 1987 case of Edwards v. Aguillard Church and State. down the biblical creation story as opened the door for a new legal strat- Rather than continuing to seek class- their key argument and promote the egy by evolution opponents. room time for the biblical creation story, older philosophical idea that nature’s While the court majority reconfirmed anti-evolution activists “began to focus complexity suggests that the world the ban on requirements for “balanced on undermining evolution,” arguing has an intelligent designer. treatment” of evolution and creationism, that “all we want is evidence against With a Seattle think tank — the Scalia and Rehnquist said that Louisiana evolution” to be taught. “That has been Discovery Institute — as their main creationists were “entitled, as a secular where all the action is and continues base, many prominent anti-evolutionists matter, to have whatever scientific evi- to be,” Boston says today. now say they are developing intelligent dence there may be against evolution In the early 1990s, Johnson fur- design as an alternative scientific 50 presented in their schools.” ther revised anti-evolutionists’ strate- Continued on p. 654

652 The CQ Researcher At Issue: Should public schools “teach the controversy” surrounding evolutionYes and intelligent design?

REP. MARK E. SOUDER, R-IND. ALAN I. LESHNER CEO, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE WRITTEN FOR THE CQ RESEARCHER, JULY 2005 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE (AAAS) WRITTEN FOR THE CQ RESEARCHER, JULY 2005 he question of biological origins continues to plague discus- sions about public school science-education policy. But why can’t high-school students just learn the standard scientific cience classrooms are for the teaching of science, and t intelligent design is not science-based. Science involves view and be done with it? Science is science, and that should end the debate. s well-developed methods of inquiry for explaining the Normally it would. But evolution is different. natural world in a systematic, testable fashion. The theory of Charles Darwin’s theory — and its modern variants — assert evolution is based on such rigorous sifting of evidence. that everything we see in the living world is the result of an But advocates of intelligent design, while seeking to cloak unplanned, unguided process of random variation and natural themselves in the language of science, have yet to propose selection. It has, from the very beginning, been something more testable hypotheses that can be subjected to the methods of than just a scientific theory. Darwinism quickly became a near- experimental science. Intelligent design presupposes that an religious conviction for modern agnostics, and since its early intelligent, supernatural agent is responsible for biological days it has been used against people of faith. That history, of structures and processes deemed to be “irreducibly complex.” course, does not disqualify it as science, but it does help ex- But whether such an intelligent designer exists is a matter of plain why many well-educated Americans have not made, and belief or faith, not science. perhaps never will make, their peace with Darwinian theory. In science classrooms, students learn that scientists reject or Still, public doubt alone might not be enough to affect accept theories according to how well they explain the evi- public schoolyes treatment of an overwhelmingly established the- dence rather thanno on what the researchers would like to be- ory. But the Darwinian mechanism as an explanation for lieve. Students learn that a scientific theory, such as evolution macroevolution has long been the subject of cogent and pow- or gravity, is much more than just an educated guess. A theo- erful scientific criticisms. And those criticisms have become ry is accepted only after repeated observation and experiment. more compelling in recent years as new evidence piles up: Discussion of intelligent design may be appropriate in a Recently uncovered fossil beds deepen the mystery of the class devoted to history, philosophy or social studies but not Cambrian explosion, and molecular biology reveals the nanotech- in a biology class. Science teachers should not be asked to nology and digital information inside each lowly cell. teach religious ideas or to balance the scientific theory of evo- Moreover, any historical theory should be taught with prop- lution against an untestable alternative. er modesty and candor. Repeatable experiments involving Many scientists are deeply religious and see scientific inves- microevolution in the lab are one thing, but the vast extrapo- tigation and religious faith as complementary components of a lation of “molecules to man” macroevolution is quite another. well-rounded life. There is a place for discussing the role of Students should understand the huge difference in certainty science and religion in American life, but the science class- between one and the other. room should remain a place for teachers to nurture the spirit There is strong public support for teaching Darwin’s theory of curiosity and inquiry that has marked American science critically. For example, a 2001 Zogby Poll found that 71 percent since the days of Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. of Americans agree that “biology teachers should teach Darwin’s Our children deserve a first-class science education. Efforts to theory of evolution but also the scientific evidence against it.” redefine science by inserting a particular belief into the biology Whatever its philosophical implications, Darwin’s theory curriculum are in direct conflict with science standards recommend- dominates current thinking about origins in modern biology, ed by both the National Academy of Sciences and the AAAS. and so a high-school biology education would not be com- Proponents of intelligent design are doing more than attack plete without learning the theory. evolution. They also are undermining essential methods of sci- But the theory should not be taught as an absolute. Instead, ence by challenging its reliance on observable causes to ex- it should be taught as a synthesis — the current dominant sci- plain the world around us. entific theory explaining the origin of species — but also as a America’s students must be taught to distinguish between true theory subject to significant limitations, failed predictions and science and a system of belief based on faith. At a time when important scientific criticisms. Efforts to exclude from public the United States faces increasing global competition in science schools the scientific debate on this sensitive topic serve only and technology, public school science classrooms should remain free of ideological interference and dedicated to the rigor that to thwartNo the true purpose of education — and science itself. has made American science the envy of the world.

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 653 INTELLIGENT DESIGN

Continued from p. 652 controversy, Ohio in 2004 adopted a dents to understand the full range of theory, giving them the right to have “science model curriculum” requiring scientific views that exist, why such their criticisms of evolutionary biology 10th-graders to be able to “describe topics may generate controversy and discussed in high-school biology class- how scientists continue to investigate how scientific discoveries can pro- es and beyond. and critically analyze aspects of evo- foundly affect society.” Johnson views public acceptance for lutionary theory.” The nationwide in- The language is not legally bind- criticisms of evolution as the leading telligent-design community, led by the ing. However, anti-evolution activists edge of an intellectual “wedge” that Discovery Institute and the Kansas- in several states — including Alaba- eventually will split modern society apart based Intelligent Design Network, ma, Arkansas, Georgia and Missouri, from the materialistic philosophies it joined local conservative groups and as well as local officials in Blount now holds. “The objective is to convince individuals to push for the standards. County, Tenn., and Grantsburg, Wis. people that Darwinism is inherently In 2002, Cobb County, Ga. (Mari- — have recently used it to help make atheistic, thus shifting the debate from etta) approved placing stickers on high- their case. They argued that the fed- creationism vs. evolution to the existence school biology texts that noted they eral government, which is exerting of God vs. the non-existence of God,” contain “material on evolution. Evolu- tighter control over its education fund- he said. “From there, people are intro- tion is a theory, not a fact, regarding ing under NCLB, recommends that stan- duced to the truth of the Bible and then the origin of living things. This mate- dards-based science include criticisms the question of sin and finally introduced rial should be approached with an of evolution. Earlier this year, the Kansas to Jesus.” 51 open mind, studied carefully and crit- House of Representatives passed a non- Efforts to build intelligent design ically considered.” Earlier this year, a binding resolution directing school into a research program that produces judge struck down the requirement, boards in the state to take the Santo- compelling science have not met with and sticker supporters appealed the rum language into account as they de- much success thus far, however. (See ruling. velop curriculum. sidebar, p. 652.) Although books by This year, bills to limit or alter evo- some intelligent-design advocates with lution teaching or require the teach- scientific training have been popular ing of intelligent design or “scientific Battle in Kansas with the public, academic scientists creationism” have been introduced in maintain that intelligent design re- more than a dozen states, according mains a religious and philosophical to the National Center for Science Ed- lso in Kansas in 2005, anti-evo- idea, not a scientific one. ucation (NCSE). Most of the bills were A lutionists are pursuing another “I’m pretty much an outcast in sci- eventually shelved, although a few are new strategy devised by Johnson. ence these days,” says Lehigh Univer- still pending. Around the country, at Rather than focusing on criticisms sity’s Behe, author of the popular 1996 least eight local school districts and of evolution, intelligent-design sup- book Darwin’s Black Box. “People see three state education panels also are porters are attacking what they call my name and spit on the ground.” discussing such proposals this year, ac- “methodological naturalism” — scien- cording to the NCSE. tists agreeing to pursue only natural Historically, the federal govern- explanations when they do science, ment has little influence over Ameri- regardless of their personal beliefs about Science Redefined can schools. However, in explanato- religion and the supernatural. ry language accompanying the federal In Kansas’ teaching standards, that ost education policies in the Unit- No Child Left Behind Act of 2003 means redefining “science” — now de- M ed States are set at the state and (NCLB), Congress gave a boost to fined as a systematic search for natural local levels. state and local advocates who want explanations — as a “systematic method Over the past decade, intelligent- to see criticism of evolution included of continuing investigation.” Removing design proponents have been active in science classes. 52 the word “natural” from the definition around the country, encouraging con- The statement, written by conserv- would open science classrooms to su- servative state and local school boards ative Sen. Rick Santorum, R-Pa., and pernatural explanations. Anti-evolution- — and committees that periodically originally proposed as an amendment ists say that’s necessary not only to per- review science-teaching standards — to the legislation, notes that “where mit discussion of intelligent design but to require teachers to introduce stu- topics are taught that may generate also to begin purging modern science dents to criticisms of evolution. controversy (such as biological evolu- of its current framework, which they For example, after a long-running tion), the curriculum should help stu- say amounts to atheism.

654 The CQ Researcher If Kansas adopts such language, as “Metaphysical naturalism asserts that expected, it will be the second time nature is self-sufficient,” the Discovery the state has done so. A conservative Institute’s Dembski wrote. “Method- OUTLOOK state Board of Education made a sim- ological naturalism asks us for the ilar change in early 2000, but it was sake of science to pretend that na- voted out of office later that year after ture is self-sufficient. But once science Surviving the Courts an uproar over the provision. A con- is taken as the only universally valid servative majority was again elected in form of knowledge within a culture ntelligent-design supporters are likely November 2004, and it immediately . . . methodological and metaphysical I to continue to make inroads into school began to push forward on including naturalism become functionally equiva- classrooms over the next several years. criticisms of evolutionary theory in the lent. What needs to be done, therefore, Intelligent design offers a reassuring biology curriculum and altering pub- is to break the grip of naturalism in vision of the world, says Miller of the lic schools’ definition of science. both guises.” 53 American Association for the Ad- The University vancement of Science, of Wisconsin’ s and satisfies “a desire that Numbers explains people have to have their that the phrase religious convictions con- “methodological firmed by science.” Faith naturalism” was without evidence is “anx- coined in the 1980s iety-producing” for many, by a scientist and he explains. evangelical Christ- Besides placing their ian who wanted to ideas in more classrooms, highlight the dif- anti-evolutionists also have ference between a somewhat improved the natural-expla- chance of winning at nations-only rule least some court cases over that scientists stick the next decade, accord- to in the laborato- ing to some analysts. ry and “metaphys- “If George Bush gets a Discovery Institute ical naturalism” — Lehigh University biochemist Michael Behe, left, and William A. couple more of the kind the philosophical Dembski, a professor of science and theology at Southern Baptist of people he wants on belief that nothing Theological Seminary in Louisville, Ky., are Discovery Institute fellows the Supreme Court, we’re exists except the and prominent intelligent-design advocates and authors. going to see intelligent de- material world. sign [in classrooms] in 10 Many orthodox Christians are pro- However current debates play out, years,” Ruse, of Florida State University, fessional scientists who practice method- longstanding controversies over evo- told ABC-TV’s “Nightline.” 55 ological naturalism while continuing to lution in the United States already Others aren’t sure how far the have faith in a supernatural world, says have greatly weakened evolution Supreme Court will go in reversing its Numbers. “The analogy I use is histo- teaching in some states and towns, long-held pro-evolution stance. “Focusing ry,” he explains. “There are lots of Chris- according to a 2000 study by the on the strengths and weaknesses of evo- tian historians, and they don’t say that Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. It lution could succeed more easily” than God did this or Satan did this. They found that 10 states gave evolution earlier attempts to place evolution alter- don’t say, ‘In the Battle of Bull Run, an- a very prominent place in their science- natives in the schools directly, says Num- gels came down.’ ” teaching standards while another 20 bers. Ultimately, cases may turn on the But intelligent-design proponents states and the District of Columbia question of motivation — whether a line consider methodological naturalism as emphasized evolution but left out of critical questioning that is not specifi- their primary enemy, an especially dan- some major topics, such as human cally religious on the surface may be ex- gerous idea because it is accepted not evolution. The remaining 20 states’ cluded from classrooms because its sup- only by non-believers but also by con- standards gave evolution skimpy treat- porters have religious motivations, he says. servative Christians who practice sci- ment or, in several cases, declined to In his 1987 dissenting opinion on ence, Numbers says. mention it altogether. 54 creationism, Justice Scalia made his

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 655 INTELLIGENT DESIGN

position clear on the motivation issue, mostly at U.S. colleges, and the group 8 Jeff Lawrence, “Interview: Phillip Johnson,” dubbing it a “questionable premise” says it’s gaining momentum, with seven Communique: A Quarterly Journal, spring 1999. that “legislation can be invalidated [on clubs launched in the 2004-2005 9 www.uncommondescent.com. the grounds that it supports a single school year. 57 The Discovery Institute’s 10 For background, see Joan Hennessy, “Teach- religion] on the basis of its motivation Johnson and other institute members ing Math and Science,” The CQ Researcher, alone, without regard to its effects.” form the organization’s board. Sept. 6, 2002, pp. 697-720. 11 Quoted in Religion and Ethics Weekly, But if courts do look to motivation But Clayton at the Claremont School Educational Broadcasting Corporation — Thir- to decide cases, evolution supporters of Theology is optimistic that a theolo- teen WNET New York; www.pbs.org/wnet/re- see reasons for hope. Design advocates gy that accepts modern science ulti- ligionandethics. “target only evolution” as a “fatally flawed” mately will “come back into the main- 12 For background, see Brian Hansen, idea, never mentioning criticisms of other stream of American life,” perhaps in 15 “Cloning Debate,” The CQ Researcher, Oct. concepts like atomic theory or the germ to 20 years. Current anti-evolution fer- 22, 2004, pp. 877-900, and David Masci, theory of disease, says Boston, at Amer- vor is an attempt by some Christians to “Designer Humans,” The CQ Researcher, May icans United for Separation of Church “circle the wagons” against serious chal- 18, 2001, pp. 425-448. and State. “We see that as cutting our lenges that science presents to tradi- 13 Christoph Schonborn, “Finding Design in Na- way,” showing that design supporters’ tional faith. But “we’re in a transition ture,” The New York Times, July 7, 2005, p. A23. 14 sole interest is a creationist view. period,” and increasing dialogue be- Douglas Theobald, “Scientific Proof,” www.Talkorigins.org For their part, many intelligent-de- tween theologians and scientists even- 15 William Jefferys, “Review of ‘The Privileged sign advocates say that their future is tually will produce reconciliation for most Planet,’ ” National Center for Science Education; bright because interest in design is people, he predicts. www.ncseweb.org. growing among students. 16 Kenneth Miller, “Answering the Biochemical “With the Internet it [isn’t] possible Argument From Design,” www.milleran- for professors to command the defer- Notes dlevine.com. ence of students as in times past,” notes 17 Quoted in “Scientist, Lawyer, Debate Intelli- 1 John Calvert, “Intelligent Design Network’s the Discovery Institute’s Dembski. “Pro- gent Design Theory,” Lawrence [Kansas] Jour- John Calvert on Creationism vs. Evolution in fessors are, therefore, no longer the sole nal World, LJWorld.com, Dec. 19, 2004. Schools,” CNN, Feb. 13, 2001. 18 William A. Dembski, “Cosmic Pursuit,” repository of answers for students. . . . 2 Quoted in Peter Dizikes, “A Real Monkey This is all to the good of [intelligent de- March 1, 1998; www.designinference.com. Trial,” Salon.com, May 13, 2005. 19 William A. Dembski, “Naturalism’s Argu- sign], which thrives as [a] subversive in- 3 Quoted in Kate Beem, “Debate on Evolu- ment From Invincible Ignorance: A Response strument . . . for exposing priestcraft tion Hasn’t Disappeared,” Knight-Ridder News- to Howard Jan Till,” 2002. 56 dressed in a scientific lab coat.” papers, May 22, 1999. 20 A.G. Cairns-Smith, Seven Clues to the Origins 4 A case in point, according to de- Quoted in Rob Boston, “Science Test: Pa. of Life: A Scientific Detective Story (1986), p. 6. sign supporters, is the growing Intel- School District’s Intelligent Design Policy Vio- 21 Quoted in James Kushiner, “Berkeley’s Radi- ligent Design and Evolution Aware- lates Church-State Separation, Says Americans cal: An Interview With Phillip E. Johnson,” Touch- ness (IDEA) Center, which helps college United Lawsuit,” Church & State, February 2005. stone: A Journal of Mere Christianity, June 2002. 5 “Science vs. Religion,” ABC News “Nightline,” and high-school students form clubs 22 Richard Dawkins, “God’s Utility Function,” May 9, 2005. Scientific American, November 1995, p. 85. to promote intelligent design. Found- 6 David Masci, “Evangelical Christians,” The 23 ed in 2001, IDEA sprouted from a sin- Keith B. Miller, ed., Perspectives on an CQ Researcher, Sept. 14, 2001, pp. 713-736. Evolving Creation (2003). gle club founded in 1999 at the Uni- 7 Josh Funk, “Kansas Evolution Poll Shows 24 Kenneth Miller, “Finding Darwin’s God,” versity of California at San Diego. Majority Want Change,” The Wichita Eagle, Brown Alumni Magazine, Nov.-Dec. 1999. Currently, there are around 20 clubs, June 27, 2005. 25 John Haught, “Evolution and God’s Hu- mility: How Theology Can Embrace Darwin,” About the Author Commonweal, Jan. 28, 2000. 26 Quoted in Thomas Bethell, “Darwin in the Marcia Clemmitt is a veteran social-policy reporter who re- Dock,” The American Spectator, June 1992. cently joined the CQ Researcher after serving as editor in chief 27 Phillip E. Johnson, “The Unraveling of of Medicine and Health, a Washington-based industry newslet- Scientific Materialism,” First Things, November ter, and staff writer for The Scientist. She has also been a high 1997, pp. 22-25. 28 school math and physics teacher. She holds a liberal arts and Dembski, “Naturalism’s Argument,” op. cit. 29 Lauri Lebo, “Experts Won’t Back Dover sciences degree from St. John’s College, Annapolis, and a School District,” Daily Record (York, Pa.), master’s degree in English from Georgetown University. June 19, 2005. 30 Molleen Matsumura, “Facing Challenges to

656 The CQ Researcher Evolution Education,” National Center for Sci- ence Education; www.ncseweb.org. 31 For background, see Kenneth Jost, “Reli- FOR MORE INFORMATION gion in Schools,” The CQ Researcher, Feb. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1200 New York Ave. 18, 1994, pp. 145-168. 32 N.W., Washington, DC 20005; (202) 326-6440; www.aaas.org/. An international Quoted in “Teaching About Religion in nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing science around the world; publish- Public Schools: Where Do We Go From Here?” es Science magazine. The AAAA’s Web site provides information on science top- The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, ics, such as evolution, that raise religious and ethical questions. May 22, 2003. 33 Charles Haynes, “Stop the Fighting: Use Americans United for Separation of Church and State, 518 C St., N.E., Washing- ‘Creation-Evolution’ Conflict as Teaching Tool,” ton, DC 20002; (202) 466-3234; www.au.org. Citizens’ group that opposes endorse- First Amendment Center, April 14, 2002. ment of a single religion by tax-supported organizations such as public schools. 34 Charles Haynes, “Teach the Controversy,” First Amendment Center, Oct. 27, 2002. Answers in Genesis, P.O. Box 510, Hebron, KY 41048; (859) 727-2222; 35 Ronald W. Clark, The Survival of Charles www.answersingenesis.org. Provides news and resources to promote creationism Darwin (1984). and anti-evolution activism. 36 Ibid., p. 8. 37 Ibid., p. 12. Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences, 2400 Ridge Road, Berkeley, CA 38 Haught, op. cit. 94709-1212; (510) 848-8152; www.ctns.org. Provides information about the poten- 39 Ibid. tial positive interaction between theology and modern science. 40 Clark, op. cit., p. 31. 41 Ibid., p. 40. Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture, 1511 Third Ave., Suite 808, 42 John Maddox, What Remains To Be Dis- Seattle, WA 98101; (206) 292-0401; www.discovery.org. Supports research and covered (1998), p. 236. provides education on intelligent design and the effects of materialistic science 43 F. Darwin, (ed.), The Life and Letters of on culture. Charles Darwin (1888). Vol. 1; quoted in Niall Shanks, God, the Devil, and Darwin: A Institute on Religion in the Age of Science, www.iras.org. Promotes explo- Critique of Intelligent Design Theory (2004). ration and understanding of current scientific topics that raise religious issues. 44 Kushiner, op. cit. 45 Harun Yahya, Evolution Deceit: The Scien- Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center, P.O. Box 17424, San tific Collapse of Darwinism and Its Ideological Diego, CA 92177-7424; (858) 337-3529; www.ideacenter.org. Provides information Background (2001), quoted in Shanks, op. cit. about intelligent design and helps students and others form local clubs to discuss and promote it. 46 Christopher Scott, “Stand by Science,” Edutopia; www.edutopia.org. 47 Keith Miller, op. cit. Intelligent Design Network, P.O. Box 14702, Shawnee Mission, KS 66285-4702; (913) 268-0852; www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org. Provides information about activism 48 Kenneth Miller, op. cit. to promote the teaching of intelligent design and criticism of evolution in schools. 49 For background, see Masci, David, “Evo- lution vs. Creationism,” The CQ Researcher, Kenneth Miller’s Evolution Resources, www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/. The Aug. 22, 1997, pp. 745-768. 50 Web site of the Brown University evolutionary biologist provides information and Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578 (1987). analysis supporting evolutionary theory and criticizing intelligent design. The dissenting opinion is at; www.belcher- foundation.org/edwards_v_aguillard_dissent.htm. 51 National Center for Science Education, 420 40th St., Suite 2, Oakland, CA Quoted in “Church and State,” Americans 94609-2509; (510) 601-7203; www.ncseweb.org. Provides news about anti-evolution United for Separation of Church and State, activities and information for science teachers and others who support the teaching April 1999, www.au.org. of evolution. 52 For background see Barbara Mantel, “No Child Left Behind, The CQ Researcher, May The Talk.Origins Archive, www.talkorigins.org. A Web site offering discussion 27, 2005, pp. 469-492. of evolution and its alternatives from the point of view of scientists who support 53 William Dembski, Intelligent Design: The evolutionary theory. Bridge Between Science and Theology (1999), pp. 119-120. Uncommon Descent, www.uncommondescent.com. The Web site of intelligent- 54 Lawrence S. Lerner, Good Science, Bad Sci- design theorist William A. Dembski. ence: Teaching Evolution in the States, Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, September 2000. Understanding Evolution, http://evolution.berkeley.edu. Provides information 55 “Nightline,” ABC-TV, May 9, 2005. about the teaching of evolution from the point of view of scientists who accept 56 www.uncommondescent.com. evolutionary theory. 57 www.ideacenter.org.

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 657 Bibliography Selected Sources

Books theory of evolution is growing stronger and that open-minded evaluation of evolutionary science can strengthen, rather than Dembski, William A., The Design Revolution: Answering weaken, Christian faith. the Toughest Questions About Intelligent Design, Inter- Varsity Press, 2004. Shanks, Niall, God, the Devil, and Darwin: A Critique of A philosopher and mathematician at Southern Baptist The- Intelligent Design Theory, Oxford University Press, 2004. ological Seminary, who is one of the key theorists of the A philosophy professor at East Tennessee State University traces intelligent-design movement, discusses intelligent design and the history of the contemporary intelligent-design movement and its future as a scientific enterprise and responds to objec- argues that its criticisms of evolution are full of errors. tions raised by critics. Witham, Larry, Where Darwin Meets the Bible, Oxford Johnson, Phillip E., Defeating Darwinism by Opening University Press, 2002. Minds, InterVarsity Press, 1997. A veteran religion writer explains the history and oppos- The founder of the modern intelligent-design movement, a ing viewpoints in the debate between evolutionists and cre- retired University of California at Berkeley law professor, ex- ationists, based on interviews with thinkers from all sides of plains why he believes that evolutionary biology rests on the issue. dogmatic belief rather than objective evidence and suggests ways to combat the spread of evolutionary thinking. Articles

Kurtz, Paul, ed., Science and Religions — Are They Com- Adler, Jerry, “Doubting Darwin,” Newsweek, Feb. 7, patible? Prometheus Books, 2003. 2005, p. 44. Scientists and other scholars discuss how science and re- Controversies have erupted all across the country between ligion vary in their approaches to truth and instances where scientists and the proponents of creationism and intelligent scientific and religious thinking may overlap. design over the teaching of evolution in public schools.

Lindberg, David C., and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., When Powell, Michael, “Doubting Rationalist: Intelligent Design Science and Christianity Meet, University of Chicago Proponent Phillip Johnson, and How He Came To Be,” Press, 2003. The Washington Post, May 15, 2005, p. D1. Professors of the history of science at the University of The author examines the life and ideas of the founder of Wisconsin, Madison, examine 12 periods in history in which the modern intelligent-design movement. scientific ideas and Christian theology have been intertwined, including the debates over evolution. Quammen, David, “Was Darwin Wrong?” National Geo- graphic, November 2004, p. 2. Miller, James, ed., An Evolving Dialogue: Theological and The writer explains Darwin’s main ideas and the various Scientific Perspectives on Evolution, Trinity Press In- kinds of scientific evidence that convince most scientists that ternational, 2001. the theory of natural selection is valid. Prominent biologists and theologians explore the basics of evo- lutionary biology, the historical and philosophical relationship Reports between biology and theology and the possibilities for dialogue between evolutionary science and religious and ethical thought. Lerner, Lawrence S., Good Science, Bad Science: Teach- ing Evolution in the States, The Thomas B. Fordham Miller, Keith B., ed., Perspectives on an Evolving Creation, Foundation, September 2000. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. A professor emeritus at California State University, Long A Kansas State University professor of geology and evangel- Beach, critiques the science standards of all 50 states and ical Christian assembles essays by scientists who argue there is the District of Columbia, ranking them based on their treat- no conflict between evolutionary theory and Christian faith. ment of evolution. An updated version will be published in September 2005. Miller, Kenneth, Finding Darwin’s God: A Scientist’s Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution, National Academy of Sciences, Teaching About Evolution Perennial, 2000. and the Nature of Science, National Academy Press, 1998. A Brown University professor of evolutionary biology, author A panel of scientists who support the teaching of evolution of a widely used high-school biology text and a believing presents a framework for teaching the subject and answers Catholic, Miller argues that the scientific evidence for Darwin’s objections raised by intelligent-design advocates.

658 The CQ Researcher The Next Step: Additional Articles from Current Periodicals

Evolution and Christianity The chairman of the physics department at Case Western Re- serve University argues children should not be taught intelli- Dean, Cornelia, and Laurie Goodstein, “Leading Cardi- gent design because it is a metaphysical speculation that can nal Redefines Church’s View on Evolution,” The New not be corroborated, like evolution, with scientific evidence. York Times, July 9, 2005, p. A1. Cardinal Christoph Schonborn’s Op-Ed article in The New Sheridan, Chris, “Evolution Just the First Issue,” The York Times reiterates the growing chasm between the [Cleveland] Plain Dealer, Jan. 20, 2002, p. H3. Catholic Church’s views regarding evolution and those of Sheridan argues that Ohio’s recent debates over teaching the scientific world. intelligent design in schools has nothing to do with im- proving students’ education but is an effort to bring religion Flam, Faye, “$1 Million For Science to Discover God’s into the classroom. Plan,” The Philadelphia Inquirer, April 6, 2002, p. A1. Investment banker Sir John Templeton hired 15 scientists Slevin, Peter, “Evolution’s Grass-Roots Defender Grows to further investigate whether God created the universe for in Virginia,” The Washington Post, July 20, 2005, p. B1. a purpose, or if the cosmos is a product of an accident. A liberal grass-roots group in Northern Virginia was as- sembled this summer to repudiate the theory of intelligent Nussbaum, Paul, “Evangelicals Divided Over Evolution,” design and ensure that the Fairfax County School Board en- The Philadelphia Inquirer, Mary 30, 2005, p. A1. dorses modern Darwinian theory. Evangelical Christians are split over whether the theory of evolution and a belief in God can coexist. Wilgoren, Jodi, “The Terms of the Debate in Kansas,” The New York Times, May 15, 2005, p. D16. Schonborn, Christoph, “Finding Design in Nature,” The The debate in Kansas about how children should be taught New York Times, July 7, 2005, p. A23. evolution highlights differing definitions of important terms The archbishop of Vienna negates recent claims that the Catholic relating to the discussion. Church finds no problems with the theory of evolution, reaf- firming the church’s view of intelligent design in nature. Intelligent Design

Steinfels, Peter, “Eighty Years After Scopes, A Professor Remsen, Jim, “Tangling Over Intelligent Design; A Biologist Reflects on Unabated Opposition to Evolutionists,” The and A Creationist Went Head to Head in a Debate Recently New York Times, June 18, 2005, p. B5. Over Teaching the Concept in Science Classes,” The In his 2005 book The Evolution-Creation Struggle, Michael Philadelphia Inquirer, May 29, 2005, p. C4. Ruse, a professor of philosophy at Florida State University, Remsen describes the debate over evolution and offers a explains the schism between supporters of evolutionary condensed version of a recent debate between evolutionary thought and opponents. biologist Stacey Ake and creationist Paul G. Humber.

Evolution and the Schools CITING THE CQ RESEARCHER Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography Dao, James, “Ballot Battle Over Evolution Ends in a 7- to-7 Tie,” The New York Times, May 19, 2005, p. A16. include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats The Dover Area School District in Pennsylvania held hotly vary, so please check with your instructor or professor. contested elections because of a controversial policy approved by the school board last fall allowing teachers to introduce stu- MLA STYLE dents to intelligent design, asserting that evolution is not a fact. Jost, Kenneth. “Rethinking the Death Penalty.” The CQ Researcher 16 Nov. 2001: 945-68. Dean, Cornelia, “Opting Out In the Debate On Evolu- tion,” The New York Times, June 21, 2005, p. F1. APA STYLE The Kansas State Board of Education’s decision to hold Jost, K. (2001, November 16). Rethinking the death penalty. hearings about the teaching of evolution caused many sci- entists to decline participation, arguing that for scientists there The CQ Researcher, 11, 945-968. is no controversy. CHICAGO STYLE Krauss, Lawrence, “School Boards Want to ‘Teach the Jost, Kenneth. “Rethinking the Death Penalty.” CQ Researcher, Controversy.’ What Controversy?,” The New York Times, November 16, 2001, 945-968. May 17, 2005, p. F3.

Available online: www.thecqresearcher.com July 29, 2005 659 In-depth Reports on Issues in the News

Are you writing a paper? Need backup for a debate? Want to become an expert on an issue? For 80 years, students have turned to The CQ Researcher? for in-depth reporting on issues in the news. Reports on a full range of political and social issues are now available. Following is a selection of recent reports:

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