ThePARIJournal A quarterly publication of the Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute Volume X, No. 3, Winter 2010

Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals In This Issue: SUSAN MILBRATH Religious Imagery in CARLOS PERAZA LOPE Mayapan’s Murals MIGUEL DELGADO KÚ by Susan Milbrath Murals at Mayapan in Yucatan provide Sala de los Símbolos Solares Carlos Peraza Lope a rich picture of the changing nature of The latest murals at Mayapan are paint- and religious imagery in the Postclassic period. Miguel Delgado Kú Mixteca-Puebla traders from Central ed on the Sala de los Símbolos Solares PAGES 1-10 Mexico or Oaxaca may have introduced (Structure Q.161), an addition to the Castillo that dates to the last decades of • foreign religious cults at the Postclassic Maya capital as early as 1325 or 1350. Mayapan’s occupation (Milbrath and Glyph F of the Relationships with the Mixteca-Puebla Peraza 2003:19, Table 1; Peraza et al. 2001) Supplementary style are evident in Mayapan murals that (Figure 1). The solar disks on Mayapan’s Series: TI’ HU’N, date between 1350 and 1400. Later, Aztec Structure Q.161 can be compared to Mouth of the Book stylistic elements were introduced in archi- Late Postclassic Aztec sculptures and to by tectural sculpture and murals, dating circa Mixteca-Puebla codices and murals at sites Scott A. J. Johnson 1400-1450, probably through itinerant such as Mitla and Santa Rita (Figures 2–3). PAGES 11-19 artists accompanying traders from the The Mayapan solar disks with only four Valley of Mexico. These stylistic changes rays seem simplified when compared to the • also relate to modifications in religious more complex Aztec and Mixteca-Puebla Morley’s Diary: imagery, the main focus of discussion forms, but this is not a significant stylistic April 26–27, 1932 here. Dates for the murals are based on difference because there is considerable Mayapan’s archaeological chronology and variety in Mixteca-Puebla and Aztec PAGE 20 comparisons with murals from other sites solar disks (Miller 1982:Figure 109; Nuttal in Mesoamerica (Milbrath and Peraza 1975:9, 10, 19, 21; Pasztory 1983:Plates 36, Joel Skidmore 2003). 85, 90, 234; Taube 1992:Figure 77).1 More Editor [email protected]

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ISSN 1531-5398 Figure 1. Structure Q.161, one of eight similar scenes with solar disks (photo by Joel Skidmore).

The PARI Journal 10(3):1-10. 1 Milbrath

Figure 2. Solar disk from Structure Q.161 (photo by Joel Skidmore). significant in terms of style is the fact that the Mayapan both murals share a color palate featuring red, blue, forms are rendered with broad color areas, lacking the yellow (ochre), and white (Lopez Luján 2005:17, Figure black lines that form detailed cell partitions in murals 8). The use of Maya Blue in the Templo Mayor murals and codices painted in the Mixteca-Puebla style or its may provide a key to possible connections between the East Coast variant known from sites like Tulum and Aztec area and the Mayapan area, one of the principal Santa Rita (Robertson 1970). sources of Maya Blue. The Aztecs or their Canul trading The Mayapan murals from Q.161 share some stylistic partners may have obtained the blue pigment from the elements with Aztec art. The striding profile figures area of Mayapan as early as 1375 (Milbrath and Peraza 3 facing each other across a sun disk in the murals re- 2003:30). semble the central relief on the Aztec Teocalli (Pasztory Sun disks with solar deities are represented in 2 1983:Plate 127). The costuming, proportions, and pose 1 of the profile figures in Mayapan’s Q.161 mural are like Like Aztec examples of sun disks, the Church Group murals from Mitla represent a solar disk with eight rays, four terminating in those seen in early Aztec art, especially murals from scroll ends, and a multitude of jade and feather symbols (Milbrath Phase II of the Templo Mayor, ca. 1375-1427 (López 1999:Figure 5.6h). The Santa Rita sun disk has primary solar rays Luján 2006:122; Milbrath and Peraza 2003:29). with scroll ends and bands with beads at the ends in between these Mayapan’s Sala de los Símbolos Solares is painted rays (Figure 3). This format resembles the solar disks on Codex Nuttall 9 and 21 (Nuttal 1975:9, 21), but the codex also represents with broad areas of color more closely resembling the solar disks with rays lacking scroll ends (Nuttall 1975:10, 19, 21). Templo Mayor murals, but the paintings lack the thin 2 Compositions with two figures facing each other across a black outlines seen in the Phase II Aztec murals (de la central object are typical of early Aztec sculptures dating prior to Fuente et al. 1999:Colorplates 69 and 145) (Figures 1–2). 1427, according to Emily Umberger (1981:225-226). Nonetheless, The panels in the Q.161 mural include a green border, Leonardo López Luján (2006:104, 114) points out that this conclusion is based on a faulty chronology that places the benches of the Casa a color not seen in the Templo Mayor murals, and the de las Aguilas with its “Toltec” figures as among the earliest Aztec lavish use of Maya Blue in the background is also a reliefs when in fact they are purposefully rendered in an archaic distinguishing feature. Apart from these differences, style to allude to a Toltec heritage.

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Aztec and Mixteca-Puebla art, including the mural at Santa Rita painted in the East Coast International style (Robertson 1970; Taube 1992:140-142, Figures 77– 78) (Figure 3). The diving figures in the center of the Mayapan sun disks have their arms and legs forming a design resembling a swastika (a “pinwheel pose”), comparable to the representation of the Sun God on Codex Nuttall 9 (Nuttall 1975:9), although the codex figure is not represented in a diving pose. A figure in a pinwheel pose on an Aztec sun disk could represent a sacrificed warrior rather than the Sun God (see catalog number 11/8220 in the National Museum of the American Indian; Saville 1924:Figure 41). Because the figure has a dart in his mouth and his heart has been extracted, he could represent a warrior sacrificed to the sun, in keeping with the concept of a deceased warrior serving as a companion to the sun from sunrise to noon in Aztec accounts (Sahagún 1950-82:Book 6:162). On the other hand, Leonardo López Luján (personal communication 2009) interprets this warrior as an image of the deceased Sun God, Tonatiuh. In the Mayapan murals, there were originally eight different figures on the sun disks, each represented in a descending pose (Figure 4).4 The diving figures could be deceased warriors comparable to Aztec images, but the grouping of eight solar disks suggests an Figure 3. Sun Disk from Mural at Santa Rita (Gann 1900:Plate 31). alternate interpretation. The eight sun disks in Q.161 may symbolize eight solar years in the Venus almanac, Milbrath 1999:58-59; Milbrath and Peraza 2003:28). In equivalent to five Venus cycles (5 x 584 = 8 x 365 days; this case, the descending figures would be different avatars of the sun representing different years in the

3 Venus almanac. At least one of these seems to be dead, The Templo Mayor includes Maya Blue made from indigo, a plant grown in tropical regions. Through a heating process, his body pale and covered with what appear to be death indigo was combined at a molecular level with palygorskite clay spots (Figure 2). from northern Yucatán, or alternatively the combination included A connection between the murals and the Venus mixed palygorskite and sepiolite clay from the area of Campeche cycle has been proposed in studies of the alignment of (Lopez Luján et al. 2005). It is not clear whether the Aztecs made Structure Q.161 (Sala de Símbolos Solares). Observing the pigment from imported raw materials or whether they or their trading partners imported Maya Blue as a prepared pigment. There times when the light of the rising sun illuminated the is some evidence of changes in the sources of Maya Blue over time. murals resulted in dates that divide the year into a 2/3 One sculpture tested from the Templo Mayor was originally painted ratio in relation to the summer solstice, and these dates with Maya Blue made with clays comparable to the Campeche have been used to derive numerical coefficients that sources, but was later painted over in a repair that used a Maya link the solar year with the synodic cycle of Venus by Blue made from the type of clay characteristic of northern Yucatán marking the dates that Venus could be seen behind the (Lopez Luján et al. 2005:26, n. 62). A third unknown source of clay used for Maya Blue may be from Oaxaca (Lopez Luján et al. 2005). tower of the Templo Redondo (Q.152) when viewed from It seems likely that the Aztecs began to exploit clay sources near Q.161 (Ruiz Gallut et al. 2001). The Q.161 structure itself Mayapán through trade or some other form of contact because there does not have an orientation to a significant horizon are Mayapán sculptures that seem to be inspired by those from position for Venus, but its north and northwest walls are Central Mexico, and Landa recounts that there was an influx of illuminated by the rising sun on the summer solstice, “Mexicans” shortly before an internal revolt led the city to collapse around 1450 (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:25-26, 30-31). and its south wall is illuminated by the winter solstice 4 Only eight scenes are preserved, and six of these preserve solar sunrise. Observations made from the Templo Redondo, disks, four of which have descending figures that are still visible which clearly functioned as an observatory, indicate that (Figure 4). Although the eight panels are not completely preserved, alignments toward the Castillo and the adjacent Q.161 it is possible that the design represents eight solar deities. There mark important solar dates (Aveni et al. 2004). Venus are also fragmentary murals in the area where the corner of Q.161 alignments were not evident along the same trajectory, meets the eastern staircase of the Castillo. Given the loss of stucco in other parts of the walls, it is likely that there were other subsidiary but an interest in the solar cycle in relation to Venus may scenes, but these areas do not seem large enough to fit in another be evident in the grouping of eight sun disks, one for complete sun disk panel. each year of the Venus almanac.

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Figure 4. Reproduction of murals in Structure Q.161 showing remains of the original eight panels on the the north, northwest, and south walls (Barerra and Peraza 2001:Plates 16–17).

Venus Imagery in the Templo de los Nichos Pintados Venus imagery has only recently been recognized (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:19, 26). The five temples The Venus almanac seems to be important in the Templo represented in the murals may relate to the Venus cycle, de los Nichos Pintados (Temple of the Painted Niches or for there is one temple for each of the five synodic cycles Structure Q.80) excavated by the Carnegie archaeological in the Venus almanac of eight solar years (Milbrath project in the 1950s (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:26-27) 1999:158-159). The five niches forming the entryway (Figure 5). Mural paintings in Q.80 depict reptiles and to the temples were clearly intended for offerings, and temples that reflect Mayapan’s participation in Mixteca- these offerings were probably made in accord with the Puebla traditions (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:26-27; five divisions of the Venus almanac. Barrera and Peraza 2001:443, Plates 5-11). The dentition The five temples represented in the Mayapan mural of the two preserved reptile faces clearly indicates that may relate to five serpent temples known from the central the figures are serpents, most probably symbolizing area of Mayapan (Pugh 2001; Delgado 2004:123-129). Quetzalcoatl. The serpents resemble examples known These buildings are the Castillo (Q.162), the Crematory from Coba (Lombardo 1987:Figure 46; Milbrath and (Q.58), and Structures Q.143, Q.159, and Q.218. Timothy Peraza 2003:27) and those on Mixteca-Puebla pottery Pugh (2001:255) notes that the Castillo, the largest of from Cholula, dated circa 1350 to 1550 (McCafferty these serpent temples, is positioned in the center of a 1996:Figure 16f). cosmic diagram marking five world directions. The The murals depict small areas of blue, black, red, Castillo as the center point may have been the site of white, and yellow outlined in black to form color cells calendar festivals related to the five Venus cycles in the like those seen in Mixteca-Puebla codices (Milbrath eight-year Venus almanac. and Peraza 2003:29). This format is also seen on Mural Mayapan’s Castillo is a copy of the Castillo of 10 of Tulum’s Structure 16, one of the few polychrome Chichen Itza, an earlier structure known to have a murals at the site (Miller 1982:Plate 33). Arthur Miller number of astronomical alignments (Aveni et al. 2004; (1982:70-73, Plates 25-40) notes that Mixteca-Puebla Milbrath 1999:66-68, Figure 3.1b; Milbrath and Peraza stylistic elements in the Tulum paintings in Structures 2003:22, 38). Friar Diego de Landa clearly links Chichen 5 and 16 indicate a date after 1400, but Leticia Staines Itza’s Castillo to the Maya god of the feathered serpent, Cicero (1995:61) suggests these murals date between known as Kukulcan, and he notes that the cult of 1300 and 1450. The Q.80 murals represent the Mixteca- Kukulcan was brought from Chichen Itza to Mayapan Puebla style in an East Coast manifestation known as (Tozzer 1941:20-25). Kukulcan is the Maya counterpart of the International Style (Robertson 1970). They date to the Quetzalcoatl, a culture hero who was transformed into last construction phase of the structure (Phase IV), but the Morning Star according to the Anales de Cuauhtitlán the site chronology suggests that they are not the latest (Milbrath 1999:177). The religious cult of Quetzalcoatl murals at Mayapan (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:Table 1). was introduced in Yucatan in conjunction with trade Although murals in Structure Q.80 have been known for from Central Mexico (Miller 1983:8-9; Ringle et al. 1998). more than 50 years, their relationship to Mixteca-Puebla In the case of Mayapan, the cult seems to make its first

4 Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals

Figure 5. Structure Q.80 with five serpent temples (Barerra and Peraza 2001:Plate 5). appearance in serpent temples that range in date from 1325/1350 to 1400, according to our study of the sequence of architecture at the site (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:Table 1). The four serpents in between the five temples in the Q.80 murals may be intended to represent serpent balustrades like those on the Castillo, and they certainly symbolize a link with the cult of Quetzalcoatl. Although the serpent temples in the Q.80 mural are all similar in form, they are slightly different in detail, suggesting their iconographic variations may be significant (Figure 5). The one on the left has death spots on a white ground comparable to one of the diving figures on Q.161 (Figure 2), possibly also related to an underworld band seen beneath a temple on Codex Nuttall 15 (Figure 6). Another has a step fret like that seen at the base of this temple. These may be symbolic components linked in some way Venus imagery. The five niches in Q.80 have vertical columns of dots, varying in number from six to eight, painted either solid red or blue. This intriguing detail may be a Central Mexican or Mixtec calendar inscription. The variation in numbers could represent the number of days in the disappearance interval for Venus in inferior conjunction (Aveni, personal communication 2007). The Maya bar-dot combination is lacking, but the alternation of red and blue color for the dots in the interior of the niches is similar to the alternation of red and black numbers in Maya codices (Delgado 2009:158). All five temples apparently had symbols for jade or “precious stone” (chalchihuitl) painted on the upper walls (Figure 5). According to Tatiana Proskouriakoff’s 1962 reconstruction of the mural, these symbols were also found on the roof (see Milbrath and Peraza 2003:Figure 23). The Mixteca-Puebla symbol for jade on the five temples can be compared to a similar symbol on a skyband in Structure 16 at Tulum (Mural 3), where an astronomical context is clearly evident (Barrera and Peraza 2001; Milbrath and Peraza 2003:27; Miller 1982:Plate 39). A chalchihuitl symbol is also prominent on the roof of Quetzalcoatl’s temple on Codex Nuttall 15 (Figure 6). A Mixteca-Puebla image of the feathered serpent wraps around the temple in the Codex Nuttall image. Alfonso Caso (1979, I:56) Figure 6. Detail of Codex Nuttall 15 had designated the Codex Nuttall temple as Quetzalcoatl’s Temple of (Nuttall 1975:15).

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Figure 7. Mural from Structure Q.95 showing Quetzalcoatl, the Chicchan Serpent, and a bound crocodile. (The image is oriented to represent the viewpoint from the entry to the chamber, as seen in Figure 9.) Drawing by Barbara Escamilla Ojeda.

Figure 8. Chicchan serpents in Madrid Codex 11-14 (Milbrath 1999:Cover).

6 Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals

(Barrera and Peraza 2001:Figure 31, Pl. 32). The Templo del Pescador mural is rendered with the small color cells outlined in black, like Mixteca-Puebla style murals and Mayapan’s Templo de los Nichos Pintados (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:29) (Figure 5). The Templo del Pescador also has ties to early murals from Tulum, especially the substructure of Tulum’s Castillo (Structure 1), a relatively early mural that depicts a “ring-tailed fish” and a crocodile amid undulating waves similar to those in the Mayapan mural (Barrera and Peraza 2001:443, Figure 33; Miller 1982:Pls. 13, 14). Although this iconographic comparison could suggest that the Mayapan mural is as early as the substructure of Tulum’s Castillo, the dense polychrome cells more closely resemble the style of Mural 10 in Structure 16, tentatively dated between 1300 and 1450 (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:27-28; Staines 1995:61). A number of scholars link the anthropomorphic deity in the Structure Q.95 mural with Quetzalcoatl (Masson and Peraza 2007:82; Stuart 2005:179). Careful study of the costume on the Mayapan figure suggests that chalchihuitl symbols are painted on the loincloth (Delgado 2009:197). This symbol is also found in the context of Venus imagery in Structure Q.80 and in the Codex Nuttall (Nuttall 1975:15, 17). The shell worn by the male figure in Q.95 seems to be an Oliva, suggested by the markings at the ends and the crenellations along the lateral opening. In the Dresden Codex 4a, the same shell is used in a necklace worn by God H, considered to be a manifestation of Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan (Milbrath 1999:Figure 5.4a; Taube 1992:59-60, Figure 27a). A similar shell is devoured by a fish in the lower mural of Tulum Structure 5 (Miller 1982:Pl. 28). This type of shell Figure 9. Mural in Structure Q.95 (photo by Susan Milbrath). also appears with chalchihuitl symbols in the skyband of Mural 3 in Structure 16 at Tulum, suggesting it is a Turquoise in Acatlan, Puebla, but more recently it has celestial symbol in some contexts (Miller 1982:Pl. 39). been identified as the round “wind temple” of the Place Equally intriguing in terms of celestial counterparts of the Red and White Bundle, located in the Mixteca is the fish-snake in Q.95, which is closely related to the Alta of Oaxaca (Byland and Pohl 1994:76-80, Figure 30). Chicchan serpent in the Madrid Codex (Milbrath and In any case, the Codex Nuttall temple houses the sacred Peraza 2003:28) (Figures 7–8). Both display body stripes bundle of the culture hero Nine Wind, indicating a link with paired parallel lines and serpent spots like the with the Venus cult associated with Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl. day sign Chicchan (“celestial snake”). These symbols Quetzalcoatl is a paramount deity in the Venus complex have also been compared to the Mexican symbol for (Milbrath 1999:177-186). chalchihuitl seen in the Templo de los Nichos Pintados (Q.80; Barrera and Peraza 2001:430). The Madrid Codex imagery suggests a link between rain, serpents, and Astronomical Symbolism in the Templo del Pescador Venus imagery (Milbrath 1999:261). Chicchan serpents A Mixteca-Puebla style mural discovered by the INAH are rain serpents associated with the cardinal directions project in Structure Q.95 is known as the Templo del among the Chorti, and they may also be linked with 5 Pescador (Peraza et al. 2001:286-287; Peraza et al. Venus (Milbrath 1999:36). 2003:47-55) (Figures 7, 9). The scene shows a marine The crocodile in the Templo del Pescador has its setting with waves, three triggerfish, and a crocodilian front feet bound by ropes like the crocodiles on the that is probably Morelet’s crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), well known in mangroves along the coast of Yucatan. 5 The Mayapán mural may show the serpent with a fish tail, or The mural also depicts an elaborately dressed male who perhaps a flower, if Karl Taube (2007) is correct in relating it to a apparently has speared two of the fish and the crocodile pattern linking the feathered serpent and flowers.

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the Katun 13 Ahau with a flood, after which his throat was cut when the “word of the katun” came to an end (Edmonson 1982:41). This account and a similar one in the Chilam Balam of Mani both place the flood event in Katun 13 Ahau, the last in the katun cycle, linking the decapitated crocodile to the concept of completion and renewal, when the world was restored and the katun cycle reestablished (Taube 1989:9). Following up on an interpretation of the Mayapan mural published by David Stuart (2005), Gabrielle Vail (2006) suggests that the mural refers to the epic flood associated with a cosmic crocodile. She notes that instead of the Maya image of the great flood alluding to the decapitation of the crocodile, the Mayapan image evokes Central Mexican imagery, with the crocodile speared by Quetzalcoatl. Vail relates the destruction of the earth in the form of a crocodile or caiman to a Venus heliacal rise event, with the Venus god hurling his dart into the water, as seen in the Venus almanac on Codex Borgia 53.

Concluding Remarks Studying the imagery in Mayapan’s murals seems to indicate changes in cosmological themes over time. Of the three murals discussed here, the earliest may be the “flood” scene preserved in the Templo del Pescador mural (Q.95). Here Maya imagery predominates, but the mural also incorporates the paramount Central Mexican Venus god, Quetzalcoatl. The imagery alludes to creation cosmology in relation to the Maya katun cycle, for ceremonies of world renewal are implicit in the cycle of katuns. The intrusive element seems to be Venus symbolism linked with Quetzalcoatl. A similar fusion is seen in the context of Venus imagery in the Maya Dresden Codex (46-50), which depicts three Central Mexican deities among the five Venus gods in the Venus almanac (Milbrath 1999:173-174; Taube 1992). Glyphic texts on page 60 of the Dresden Codex refer to Katun 11 Ahau, the first katun in a cycle of 13 katuns that ends on Katun 13 Ahau (Thompson 1972:78-79). The scene on page 60 represents a Maya Venus god (God L), the same god associated with the heliacal rise of Venus on Figure 10. Paris Codex 6 Katun pages (Villacorta and Villacorta 1976). Dresden 46 in the Venus almanac (Milbrath 1999:173). Painted around the end of the tenth baktun in 1224, the Paris Codex katun pages (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:28) Dresden Codex provides a bridge between the Classic- (Figure 10). A bound crocodile serves as a throne on all period calendar with its emphasis on Ahau dates as of the surviving katun pages of the Paris Codex (Love katun endings and the Postclassic Venus calendar with 1994:18). The bound crocodile in the Q.95 mural relates its focus on Ahau dates as heliacal rise events (Milbrath to both Postclassic katun ceremonies in the codices and 2008). The Q.95 mural represents a similar fusion of possibly also to cosmological events described in the katun imagery associated with katun endings and the books of Chilam Balam. Maya accounts of the flood say Postclassic Venus almanac, suggesting a calendar reform that a cosmic crocodile (Itzam Cab Ain) was decapitated was in progress at Mayapan by around 1350-1400. or dismembered. The Pérez Codex notes that Bolon ti Around this time or shortly thereafter, a fully Ku cut the throat of the crocodile just after the flood developed Mixteca-Puebla Venus cult appears in the (Velásquez 2006:6-8). The Chilam Balam of Tizimin Temple of the Niches (Q.80), which shows a number of says that Itzam Cab Ain (the earth monster) ended features that are comparable to the Codex Nuttall and

8 Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals the East Coast International Style. Feathered serpents Edmonson, Munro S. are flanked by five Venus temples that may represent 1982 The Ancient Future of the Itza: The Book of Chilam Balam the five Venus cycles of the eight-year Venus almanac. of Tizimin. Austin: University of Texas Press. Still later, solar imagery seems increasingly important in relation to the eight-year Venus almanac, as seen in the Gann, Thomas 1900 Mounds in Northern Honduras. In Bureau of American eight solar disks represented in the Sala de los Símbolos Ethnology, Annual Report 19:655-692. Washington, D.C.: Solares (Q.161). These murals were inspired by contact Smithsonian Institution. with the area of Central Mexico and reflect an increasing emphasis on solar imagery that may be part of religious Lombardo de Ruiz, Sonia, ed. reforms introduced around 1400 to 1450 at Mayapan. 1987 La pintura mural maya en Quintana Roo. Quintana Roo: Colección Fuentes, Instituto Nacional de Acknowledgements Antropología e Historía. We would like to thank Gabrielle Vail and Leonardo Lopez Luján, Leonardo López Luján for reading and commenting on earlier 2006 La Casa de las Aguilas: Un ejemplo de la arquitectura drafts of this paper. Thanks also to the entire INAH team religiosa de Tenochtitlan, tomo 1. Mexico City: FCE, at Mayapan, whose work have made this publication Concultura. possible. Lopez Luján, Leonardo, Giacomo Chiari, Alfredo López Austin and Fernando Carrizosa References 2005 Línea y color en Tenochtitlan: Escultura policromada Aveni, Anthony F., Susan Milbrath, and Carlos Peraza y pintura mural en el recinto sagrado de la capital Lope mexica. Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 36:15-45. 2004 Chichen Itza’s Legacy in the Astronomically Oriented Architecture of Mayapan. Res 45:123-143. Love, Bruce 1994 The Paris Codex: Handbook for a Maya Priest. Austin: Barrera Rubio, Alfredo, and Carlos Peraza Lope University of Texas Press. 2001 La pintura mural de Mayapán. In La pintura mural Masson, Marilyn A., and Carlos Peraza Lope prehispánica en México: II, área maya, tomo IV, estudios, 2007 Kukulcan/Quetzalcoatl, Death God, and Creation edited by Leticia Staines Cicero (Beatriz de la Mythology of Burial Shaft Temples at Mayapán. Fuente, project director), pp. 419-446. Mexico City: Mexicon 29(3):77-85. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas. McCafferty, Geoffrey 1996 The Ceramics and Chronology of Cholula, Mexico. Byland, Bruce E., and John M. Pohl Ancient Mesoamerica 7(2):299-324. 1994 In the Realm of Eight Deer: The Archaeology of the Mixtec Codices. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Milbrath, Susan 1999 Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Caso, Alfonso Calendars. Austin: University of Texas Press. 1979 Reyes y reinos de la Mixteca. Mexico City: Fondo de 2008 Cosmology and Mesoamerican Calendar Cycles. Cultura Económica. Paper presented in an electronic symposium at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American de la Fuente, Beatriz, ed. Archaeology, Vancouver, British Columbia. 1999 Precolumbian Painting: Murals of Mesoamerica. Mexico City: Concultura and Jaca. Milbrath, Susan, and Carlos Peraza Lope 2003 Revisiting Mayapán: Mexico’s Last Maya Capital. Ancient Mesoamerica 14(1):1-46. Delgado Kú, Miguel Angel n.d. La pintura mural de Mayapán: Una interpretación Miller, Arthur G. iconográfica. Tesis de licenciatura, Facultad de 1982 On the Edge of the Sea: Mural Painting at Tancah-Tulum, Ciencias Antropológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Quintana Roo, Mexico. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Yucatán, México. Oaks. 1983 Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Delgado Kú, Pedro C. Mesoamerican Highland-Lowland Interaction: Some 2004 Estudio de la arquitectura pública del núcleao Introductory Remarks. In Highland-Lowland Interaction principal de Mayapán, Yucatán. Tesis de licenciatura, in Mesoamerica: Interdisciplinary Approaches, edited Facultad de Ciencias Antropológicas, Universidad by Arthur G. Miller, pp. 1-12. Washington, D.C.: Autónoma de Yucatán. México. Dumbarton Oaks.

9 Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals

Nuttall, Zelia, ed. Sahagún, fray Bernardino de 1975 The Codex Nuttall: A Picture Manuscript from Ancient 1950-82 Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of Mexico, Edited by Zelia Nuttall. With New Introductory Text New Spain. 12 vols and introduction. Translated by by Arthur G. Miller. New York: Dover Publications. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble. Santa Fe, NM: School for American Research. Pasztory, Esther 1983 Aztec Art. New York: Abrams. Saville, Marshall H. 1924 Aztecan Sculpture of the Sun God Tonatiuh. Peraza, Lope, Carlos, Mario Garrido Euán, Pedro Delgado Indian Notes 1(3):154-156. New York: Museum of the Kú, Barbara Escamilla Ojeda, Mirza Lira Chim, and American Indian. César García Ayala 1997 Trabajos de mantenimiento y conservación Staines Cicero, Leticia Arqueología arquitectónica en Mayapán, Yucatán: Informe de la 1995 Los murales mayas del Posclásico. Mexicana 3(16):56-61. temporada 1996. Report submitted to the Consejo de Arqueología del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Stuart, David Historia, Merida. 2005 The Inscriptions from Temple XIX at Palenque. San Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute. Peraza Lope, Carlos, Pedro Delgado Kú, and Bárbara Escamilla Ojeda Taube, Karl A. 2001 Discubrimientos recientes en Mayapán, Yucatán. 1989 Itzam Cab Ain: Caimans, Cosmology and Calendrics Investigadores de la Cultura Maya 9(1):l51-173. in Postclassic Yucatán. Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 26. Washington, D.C.: Center for Maya Peraza Lope, Carlos, Pedro Delgado Kú, and Bárbara Research. Escamilla Ojeda 1992 The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatán. Studies in Pre- 2003 Trabajos de mantenimiento y conservación Columbian Art and Archaeology 32. Washington, arquitectónica en Mayapán, Yucatán: Informe de D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. la cuarta temporada: 1999-2000, Tomo 1. Report 2007 Windows to Another World: Murals of Ancient submitted to the Consejo de Arqueología del Instituto Mesoamerica. Keynote Address presented at the Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Merida. Fourth Annual Tulane Maya Symposium.

Pugh, Timothy Tozzer, Alfred M. 2001 Flood Reptiles, Serpent Temples, and the 1941 Landa’s “Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán”: A Quadripartite Universe: The Imago Mundi of Late Translation. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Postclassic Mayapán. Ancient Mesoamerica 12(2):247- Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 258. 18. Cambridge, MA: The Peabody Museum.

Ringle, William, Tomás Gallereta Negrón, and George Thompson, J. Eric S. Bey 1972 A Commentary on the Dresden Codex. Philadelphia: 1998 The Return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the Spread American Philosophical Society. of a World Religion during the Epiclassic Period. Umberger, Emily Good Ancient Mesoamerica 9(2):183-232. 1981 Aztec Sculptures, Hieroglyphs and History. Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University. Ann Arbor, MI: Robertson, Donald University Microfilms International. 1970 The Tulum Murals: The International Style of the Late Post-Classic. Verhandlungnen des XXXVIII Vail, Gabrielle Internationalen Amerkanistenkongresses 2:77-88. 2006 Creation Mythology in Late Postclassic and Colonial Texts. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Ruiz Gallut, Maria, Jesús Galindo Trejo, and Daniel Flores Society for Ethnohistory, Colonial Williamsburg. Gutiérrez 2001 Mayapán: de regiones obscuras y deidades Velásquez García, Erik luminosas. Práctica astronómica en el Posclásico 2006 The Maya Flood Myth and the Decapitation of the maya. In La pintura mural prehispánica en México: II, Cosmic Caiman. The PARI Journal 7(1):1-10. área maya, tomo III, estudios, edited by Leticia Staines Cicero (Beatriz de la Fuente, project director), pp. 265- Villacorta, J. Antonio, and Carlos A. Villacorta 275. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de 1976 Códices mayas. 2d ed. Guatemala City: Tipografía México, Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas. Nacional.

10 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series: Ti’ Hu’n, Mouthof theBook SCOTT A. J. JOHNSON Tulane University

TI’ TI’ TI’ TI’ TI’

HUN HUN hu HUN HUN

na na na na na

Fx F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Figure 1. Common Glyph F variants (redrawn from Calvin 2004).

Glyph F appears as a regular part of the Supplementary frequently conflated (Figure 2a–b), or Glyph F’s main Series that has long been known to define the role of sign can be entirely suppressed leaving only the TI’ and the Lord of the Night. Although it has been discussed na (Figure 2c). by a number of scholars, there has been no agreed-upon The variable main sign can take at least five forms, reading or interpretation of this glyph block. Many all illustrated in Figure 1. The most common is the HUN interpretations are based on inferred semantic meanings, logogram (T60) shaped like a knotted cord or cloth. This totally divorced from phonetic readings. Others utilize is called the “normal form of Glyph F of Lunar Series” the phonetic values of the signs but the readings do not by Thompson (1962:46) and will be referred to as F1. The make semantic sense. This article will briefly describe next-most-common element is a head-variant with a Glyph F and its variants. A database of dates with Glyph barbel emanating from its mouth, a squarish drop-pupil, F variants is statistically examined for variation over fish- or foliage-like protuberances, and a “shiny” sign time and space. The previous interpretations which are on top; the reading of this must also be HUN from its most often used today are examined critically before context. This will be called F2. A third main-sign variant, a new interpretation based on phonetic readings and F3, is the upended frog head lacking dots across the top logical context is given. (T740), giving the syllable hu; long known to be a Glyph F variant (Thompson 1962:320). The fourth version, F4, Glyph F Background is a jaguar-pelt-bound codex (T609b; compare to the codex of the rabbit scribe on the Princeton Pot), which Glyph F is a regular, yet unexplained, part of the must read HUN. This is not to be confused with the Supplementary Series. Although sometimes omitted, it similar jaguar-pelt-covered diadem or cushion (T609a) is usually present either directly following or conflated differentiated with the po/TZ’AM dimple. A final with Glyph G. The superfix and subfix are constant, variant is a square sign with dots falling from a small while the main sign can vary or even be left out when “T”-shaped element and two spikes coming in from conflated with Glyph G. The superfix (T128) consists of either side (T522), also given as HUN, here referred to three elements in a line, illustrated in Figure 1. The left- as F5. Thompson (1962:126) notes that this sign “occurs most segment is “leaf-like,” often with three diagonal only in [the] Chiapas area, at Tikal, and [in the] Codex dots (Thompson 1960:212). The center element is either Paris.” From the HUN-(na) and hu-n(a) transliterations two or three dots in a vertical line or a wavy, pointed above, a reading of hun can be suggested, discussed at element, much like the ya (T126) central element. The right part also looks like the curved loop of the ya syllabic sign. These elements together are read TI’ (and appear to be a representation of a rare full-figured head variant), known through a substitution with ti- ’i on the La Esperanza ball court marker, meaning “mouth,” “lips,” “opening,” or “edge” (Stuart 1998, personal communication 2009; Stuart et al. 1999:II-38; Zender 2004:212-213). The subfix is a syllabic na (T23) A B C and almost always present. When Glyph F is combined Figure 2. Common Glyph G and F conflations, Lord of the Night into a single block with Glyph G, the main signs are components shaded (redrawn from Calvin 2004).

The PARI Journal 10(3):11-19. 11 Johnson

Glyph F Data Row Proportions by Site F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

COB 3 0 0 0 0 3 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% CPN 2 0 0 1 0 3 67% 0% 0% 33% 0% 100% ITB 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% NAR 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% PAL 4 1 3 0 0 8 50% 13% 38% 0% 0% 100% PNG 9 6 0 0 1 16 56% 38% 0% 0% 6% 100% PUS 3 0 0 0 0 3 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% QRG 0 2 0 0 0 2 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100% TIK 4 0 0 0 0 4 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% TNA 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% UAX 2 0 1 0 0 3 67% 0% 33% 0% 0% 100% YAX 3 1 4 0 0 8 38% 13% 50% 0% 0% 100%

Total 36 10 8 1 1 56 64% 18% 14% 2% 2% 100%

Period F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

EC 12 0 1 0 0 13 92% 0% 8% 0% 0% 100% LC 21 4 7 1 1 34 62% 12% 21% 3% 3% 100%

Total 33 4 8 1 1 46 72% 9% 9% 2% 2% 100%

Glyph G F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

G1 2 3 0 0 0 5 40% 60% 0% 0% 0% 100% G2 0 0 4 0 0 4 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 100% G3 1 0 0 0 0 1 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% G4 4 1 0 0 0 5 80% 20% 0% 0% 0% 100% G5 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% G6 0 1 0 0 0 1 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100% G7 3 1 1 0 1 6 50% 17% 17% 0% 17% 100% G8 6 1 0 0 0 7 86% 14% 0% 0% 0% 100% G9 24 4 2 1 0 31 77% 13% 6% 3% 0% 100%

Total 42 11 7 1 1 62 68% 18% 11% 2% 2% 100%

Conflation F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

Conflated 12 2 2 1 0 17 71% 12% 12% 6% 0% 100% Not Confl. 29 9 5 0 1 44 66% 20% 11% 0% 2% 100%

Total 41 11 7 1 1 61 67% 18% 11% 2% 2% 100%

Table 1. Frequency and row proportions of Glyph F variants and various comparisons (site codes per Graham and Mathews 1999). length below (possibly huun or hu’n, as per Houston et F (labeled according to the divisions in Figure 1), Glyph al. 2004 or Lacadena and Wichmann 2004 respectively). G and F conflation, and the presence or absence ofa syllabic u- Glyph F prefix. Impossible long count and Collected Data calendar round combinations were noted. Complete dates were not needed for all of the analyses, as long The data collected for this study were primarily drawn as Glyphs G and F were legible. In total, 64 inscriptions from the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions were compiled into a small database, shown in Table 1. (Graham 1975-present) and Morley’s (1937) Inscriptions Correspondences between Glyph F variants and site, of Peten, supplemented by various readers and informal chronological period, Glyph G, or likelihood of conflation collections of inscriptions. Each inscription was recorded, were examined. A further correspondence between sites noting the Long Count, Tzolk’in, Haab, Glyph G, Glyph and Glyphs G and F conflation was explored.

12 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series Canter and Pentecost GlyphGlyphGlyphGlyph F GlyphF of GlyphofF Glyph the oftheGlyphF theof FSupplementary Glyph Supplementary ofFtheGlyph SupplementaryFGlyph of the Fof Supplementarytheof theSupplementaryF the F ofSupplementaryF ofSupplementary of theSupplementary the the SupplementarySeries SeriesSupplementary Supplementary Series Series Series Series Series Series Series Series Series

SiteSiteSite Site Site Inscription InscriptionSite Inscription Site Inscription Inscription Inscription Inscription Day Day Day No. No. No. Day Ba. Ba. Day No. DayBa. No. Day No. Ba. Ka. Ka. No. Ba. Ba. Ka. Ba. Ka. Tu. Tu. Ka. Ka. Tu. Ka. Tu. Wi. Wi. Tu. Tu. Wi. Tu. Wi. Ki. Ki. Wi. Wi. Ki. Wi. Ki. Tzolkin Tzolkin Ki. Ki. Tzolkin Ki. Tzolkin Haab Haab Tzolkin Tzolkin Haab Tzolkin Haab Haab Haab Haab G G G G F F G G F G F Confl Confl F F Confl F Confl Confl +u Confl +u +u Confl +u +u +u +u Site Site InscriptionSite Site Inscription Inscription Inscription Inscription Day Day DayNo. Number No. Ba. Day Day Ba. No. No. Baktun Ka. Ba. Ba. Ka. Tu. K’atun Ka. Ka. Tu. Tuun Wi. Tu. Tu. Wi. Winal Ki. Wi. Wi. Ki. K’in Tzolkin Tzolkin Ki. Ki. Tzolkin Haab Tzolkin Haab Tzolkin Haab Haab Haab G G G F F G G Confl F Confl F F Confl +u Confl +u Confl +u +u +u CNCCNCCNC CNC CNC CNC CNC STL STLCNC STL CNC 18 STL18CNC CNC STL 18 STL 18 STL 18STL 18 18STL STL181368000 STL 1368000 136800018 18 181368000 1368000 1368000 91368000 9 1368000 9 1368000 91368000 13680009 10 109 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 910 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 1 0 Ajaw 1 Ajaw0 1 0 Ajaw 801 8 1KayabAjaw Kayab1 8Ajaw AjawKayab 8 1 Kayab 18Ajaw 1 AjawKayab 8Ajaw 8 Kayab 8 Kayab Kayab 88 Kayab 8 Kayab 9 Kayab9 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 COBCOBCOB COB COB COB COB STL STLCOB STL COB 1 STL1COB COB STL 1 STL 1 STL 1STL 1 1STL STL1275480 STL275480 2754801 1 1275480 275480 275480 1275480 1 275480 1 2754801 275480 275480 1 18 181 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 118 5 18 5 18 5 185 18 18 5 4 5 4 5 54 4 5 54 5 0 4 0 4 40 0 4 40 14 1 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 1 0 Ajaw 1 Ajaw0 1 0 Ajaw 1301 13 1Ajaw 1Mak 13Ajaw Mak Ajaw 13Mak 1 113Ajaw 1Mak Ajaw 13 Ajaw Mak 13 13 Mak Mak Mak 13 13 13Mak 8 8 Mak Mak 8 8 8 1 8 1 8 8 1 1 8 8 1 8 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl COBCOBCOB COB COB COB COB STL STLCOB STL COB 20 STL20COB COB STL 20 STL 20 STL 20STL 20 20STL STL201422000 STL 1422000 142200020 20 201422000 1422000 1422000 91422000 9 1422000 9 1422000 91422000 14220009 17 179 9 17 9 17 9 17 9 10917 10 17 1710 10 17 1710 17 10 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 120 12 0 0Ajaw 12 Ajaw0 12Ajaw 0 12 Ajaw 0 8012 Ajaw 8 12Pax Pax 12Ajaw8 AjawPax 8Ajaw 12 Pax 128 12 AjawPax 8 Ajaw 8AjawPax 8 Pax Pax 8 8 Pax 8 Pax9 Pax9 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 COBCOBCOB COB COB COB COB STL STLCOB STL COB 6 STL6COB COB STL 6 STL 6 STL 6STL 6 6STL STL61364400 STL1364400 13644006 6 61364400 1364400 1364400 91364400 9 1364400 9 1364400 91364400 13644009 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 109 10 9 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 910 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 2 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 2 0 Ajaw 2 Ajaw0 2 0 Ajaw 1302 13 2Ajaw 2Pohp 13Ajaw Pohp Ajaw 13Pohp 2 213 Ajaw 2Pohp Ajaw 13 Ajaw Pohp 13 13 Pohp Pohp Pohp 13 13 13Pohp 9 9Pohp Pohp 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 CPNCPNCPN CPN CPN CPN CPN STL STLCPN STL CPN6 STL6CPN CPN STL 6 STL 6 STL 6STL 6 6STL STL6 STL 6 6 6 8 8 8 X8 8 12 128 8 12 8 12 8 12 8 108 12 10 12 12 10 10 12 1210 12 10 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 8*0 8* 8* 8* 8* 188* 188* 8*Sotz’* 18 Sotz’* 18Sotz’*8*8* 18 8*Sotz’* 18 Sotz’* 18 18 Sotz’* Sotz’* Sotz’* 18 18 18Sotz’* 9 9Sotz’* Sotz’* 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 CPNCPNCPN CPN CPN CPN CPN STL STLCPN STL CPN63 STL 63CPN CPN STL 63 STL 63 STL 63STL 63 63STL STL631296000 STL 1296000 129600063 63 631296000 1296000 1296000 91296000 9 1296000 9 1296000 91296000 12960009 09 0 9 90 0 9 90 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 8 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 8 0 Ajaw 8 Ajaw0 8 0 Ajaw 1308 13 8Ajaw 8Keh 13Ajaw Keh Ajaw 13Keh 8 813Ajaw 8Keh Ajaw 13 Ajaw Keh 13 13 Keh Keh Keh 13 13 13Keh 9 9 Keh Keh 9 9 9 1 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 1 9 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl CPNCPNCPN CPN CPN CPN CPN STL STLCPN STL CPND STL DCPN CPN STL D STL D STL DSTL D DSTL STLD1405800 STL1405800 1405800D D D1405800 1405800 1405800 91405800 9 1405800 9 1405800 91405800 14058009 15 159 9 15 9 15 9 15 9 915 5 15 5 15 5 155 15 15 5 0 5 0 5 50 0 5 50 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 10 0 0Ajaw 10 Ajaw0 10Ajaw 0 10 Ajaw 0 8010 Ajaw 8 10Ch’en Ch’en 10Ajaw8 AjawCh’en 8Ajaw 10 Ch’en 108 10 AjawCh’en 8 Ajaw 8AjawCh’en 8 Ch’en Ch’en 8 8 Ch’en 8 Ch’en 9 Ch’en 9 9 9 9 4 9 4 9 9 4 4 9 9 4 9 Confl 4 Confl 4 4 Confl Confl 4 4 Confl 4 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl DPLDPLDPL DPL DPL DPL DPL STL STLDPL STL DPL8 STL8DPL DPL STL 8 STL 8 STL 8STL 8 8STL STL81384871 STL1384871 13848718 8 81384871 1384871 1384871 91384871 9 1384871 9 1384871 91384871 13848719 12 129 9 12 9 12 9 12 9 912 6 12 6 12 6 126 12 12 6 15 15 6 6 15 6 15 6 15 6 116 15 11 15 1511 11 15 1511 15 13*11 13* 11 11 13* 13*11 11 13*11 * 13* * 13* 13* * * 13* 13** 13* * * * * * * 4 4 4 4 4 141 4 4 1 14 414 1 1 1 1 1 1 CAYCAYCAY CAY CAY CAY CAY CAY CAYCAY CAY X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 242 4 4 2 24 424 2 2 2 2 2 2 HoustonHoustonHoustonHoustonHouston Houston Houston PNL PNLHouston PNL Houston PNLHouston Houston PNL PNL PNL PNL PNL PNL1319004 PNL1319004 1319004 1319004 1319004 1319004 91319004 9 1319004 9 1319004 91319004 13190049 39 3 9 93 3 9 93 9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 163 16 3 3 16 3 16 3 16 3 316 4 16 4 16 4 164 16 16 4 3 3 4K’an 4K’an 3 4 K’an 3 K’an4 3 4 K’an 243 2 3MakK’an Mak 32K’an K’an Mak 2 3 Mak 32K’an 3 K’an Mak2K’an 2Mak 2 Mak Mak 22 Mak 2 Mak9 Mak9 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 ITBITBITB ITB ITB ITB ITB STL STLITB STL ITB2 STL2ITB ITB STL 2 STL 2 STL 2STL 2 2STL STL21407600 STL1407600 14076002 2 21407600 1407600 1407600 91407600 9 1407600 9 1407600 91407600 14076009 15 159 9 15 9 15 9 15 9 10915 10 15 1510 10 15 1510 15 10 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 3 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 3 0 Ajaw 3 Ajaw0 3 0 Ajaw 30 3 3Mol Ajaw Mol 3 Ajaw AjawMol 3 3 Mol 3Ajaw 3 AjawMol 3Ajaw 3Mol 3 Mol Mol 3 3 Mol 3 Mol 9 Mol 9 9 9 9 1 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 1 9 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl ITBITBITB ITB ITB ITB ITB STL STLITB STL ITB5 STL5ITB ITB STL 5 STL 5 STL 5STL 5 5STL STL51404000 STL1404000 14040005 5 51404000 1404000 1404000 91404000 9 1404000 9 1404000 91404000 14040009 15 159 9 15 9 15 9 15 9 915 0 15 0 15 0 150 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 4 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 4 0 Ajaw 4 Ajaw0 4 0 Ajaw 1304 13 4Ajaw Yax 4 13Ajaw Yax Ajaw 13Yax 4 413Ajaw Yax 4 Ajaw 13 AjawYax 13 13Yax Yax Yax 13 13 13Yax 9 Yax 9 Yax 9 9 9 1 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 1 9 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl IXKIXKIXK IXK IXK IXK IXK STL STLIXK STL IXK2 STL2IXK IXK STL 2 STL 2 STL 2STL 2 2STL STL21421653 STL1421653 14216532 2 21421653 1421653 1421653 91421653 9 1421653 9 1421653 91421653 14216539 17 179 9 17 9 17 9 17 9 917 9 17 9 17 9 179 17 17 9 0 9 0 9 90 0 9 90 139 13 0 0 13 0 13 0 13 0 3013 3 13Ben Ben 133 Ben 3 13 Ben 133 13 Ben 63 6 3 K’ayabBen K’ayab3 6Ben BenK’ayab 6 3 K’ayab 36Ben 3 BenK’ayab 6 Ben 6K’ayab 6 K’ayab K’ayab 6 6 K’ayab 6 K’ayab4 K’ayab 4 4 4 4 141 4 4 1 14 414 1 1 1 1 1 1 NCTNCTNCT NCT NCT NCT NCT STL STL NCT STL NCT8 STL8NCT NCT STL 8 STL 8 STL 8STL 8 8STL STL81411200 STL1411200 14112008 8 81411200 1411200 1411200 91411200 9 1411200 9 1411200 91411200 14112009 16 169 9 16 9 16 9 16 9 916 0 16 0 16 0 160 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 7 0Ajaw* 0Ajaw* 7 0 Ajaw* 7 Ajaw*0 7 0 Ajaw* 1307 13 7Ajaw* 7Tzek* 13Ajaw* Tzek* Ajaw* 13Tzek* 7 713Ajaw* 7Tzek* Ajaw* 13 Ajaw*Tzek* 13 13Tzek* Tzek* Tzek* 13 13 13Tzek* 8 Tzek* 8 Tzek* 8 8 8 1 8 1 8 8 1 1 8 8 1 8 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl NARNARNAR NAR NAR NAR NAR STL STLNAR STL NAR13 STL13NAR NAR STL 13 STL 13 STL 13STL 13 13STL STL131422000 STL 1422000 142200013 13 131422000 1422000 1422000 91422000 9 1422000 9 1422000 91422000 14220009 17 179 9 17 9 17 9 17 9 10917 10 17 1710 10 17 1710 17 10 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 120 12 0 0Ajaw 12 Ajaw0 12Ajaw 0 12 Ajaw 0 8012 Ajaw 8 12Pax Pax 12Ajaw8 AjawPax 8Ajaw 12 Pax 128 12 AjawPax 8 Ajaw 8AjawPax 8 Pax Pax 8 8 Pax 8 Pax9 Pax9 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 NARNARNAR NAR NAR NAR NAR STL STLNAR STL NAR18 STL18NAR NAR STL 18 STL 18 STL 18STL 18 18STL STL181402200 STL 1402200 140220018 18 181402200 1402200 1402200 91402200 9 1402200 9 1402200 91402200 14022009 14 149 9 14 9 14 9 14 9 15914 15 14 1415 15 14 1415 14 15 0 15 0 15 0 150 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110 11 0 0Ajaw 11 Ajaw 0 11Ajaw 0 11 Ajaw 0 18011 Ajaw 18 11 Ajaw 11Sak18 SakAjaw 18AjawSak 11 1118 11SakAjaw 18 Ajaw Sak 18Ajaw 18 Sak Sak Sak 18 18 18Sak 9 9Sak Sak 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 PAPALPAL PAL PAL PA L PA HRS HRSPAL LHRS L PA HSE HRS PA HSE PA LHRS HSE L LHRS C HSE HRS C HRS HSE C HSE HRSC HSE HRS 1357100 HSEHRSC 1357100 C 1357100 HSEC HSE C 1357100HSE 1357100 C 1357100 C 9 1357100C 9 1357100 9 1357100 9 1357100 13571009 89 8 9 98 8 9 98 9 9 8 9 8 89 9 8 89 138 13 9 9 13 9 13 9 13 9 9 13 0 13 0 13 0 130 13 13 0 8 8 0 Ajaw 0Ajaw 8 0 Ajaw 8 Ajaw0 8 0 Ajaw 130 8 13 8Ajaw 8Pohp 13Ajaw Pohp Ajaw 13Pohp 8 813 Ajaw 8Pohp Ajaw 13 Ajaw Pohp 13 13 Pohp Pohp Pohp 13 13 13 Pohp 8 8Pohp Pohp 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 PALPALPAL PAL PAL PAL PAL Olvidado OlvidadoPAL Olvidado PAL OlvidadoPAL PAL Olvidado Olvidado Olvidado Olvidado Olvidado Olvidado 1373150Olvidado 1373150 1373150 1373150 1373150 1373150 9 1373150 9 1373150 9 1373150 9 1373150 13731509 10 109 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 149 10 14 10 10 14 14 10 1014 10 14 5 14 5 14 5 145 14 14 5 10 10 5 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 35 10 3 10Ok Ok 10 3 Ok 3 10 Ok 103 10 Ok 3 3 3 3Pohp Ok Pohp 3 3Ok OkPohp 3 3 Pohp 3Ok 3 OkPohp 3Ok 3Pohp 3 Pohp Pohp 3 3 Pohp 3 Pohp 2 Pohp 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 Confl 3 Confl 3 3 Confl Confl 3 3 Confl 3 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl PALPALPAL PAL PAL PAL PAL PLC PLCPAL PLC PALTBL PLCPAL TBL PAL PLC TBL PLC TBL PLC PLCTBL TBL PLC TBL PLC 1372300TBLPLC 1372300 1372300TBL TBL 1372300TBL 1372300 1372300 9 1372300 9 1372300 9 1372300 9 1372300 13723009 10 109 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 119 10 11 10 1011 11 10 1011 10 1711 17 11 11 17 171111 17 11 17 0 17 0 17 0 170 17 17 011 11 0 0Ajaw 11 Ajaw 0 11Ajaw 0 11 Ajaw 0 8011 Ajaw 8 11Mak Mak Ajaw11 8 AjawMak 8Ajaw 11 Mak 11 8 11 Ajaw Mak 8 Ajaw 8AjawMak 8 Mak Mak 8 8 Mak 8 Mak 7 Mak 7 7 7 7 1 7 1 7 7 1 1 7 7 1 7 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl PALPALPAL PAL PAL PAL PAL TPL TPLPAL TPL PALCRS TPLCRSPAL PAL TPLCRS TPL CRS TPL CRSTPL CRS CRSTPL TPLCRS 1804760TPL 1804760 1804760CRS CRS CRS 1804760 1804760 12 1804760 12 1804760 1804760 12 12 1804760 180476012 1804760 10 12 10 12 12 10 10 12 1210 12 13 10 13 10 10 13 13 10 1013 10 13 4 13 4 13 4 134 13 13 4 0 4 0 4 40 0 4 40 84 8 0 Ajaw* 0Ajaw* 8 0 Ajaw* 8 Ajaw*0 8 0 Ajaw* 180 8 18 8Ajaw* 8Sek* 18Ajaw* Sek* Ajaw* 18Sek* 8 818Ajaw* 8Sek* Ajaw* 18 Ajaw* Sek* 18 18 Sek* Sek* Sek* 18 18 18 Sek* 8 8 Sek* Sek* 8 8 8 1 8 1 8 8 1 1 8 8 1 8 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl PALPALPAL PAL PAL PAL PAL TPL TPLPAL TPL PALCRS TPLCRSPAL PAL TPLCRS TPL In. CRS In. TPL CRS TPLIn. CRS In.CRSTPL TPLCRS 1373528In. TPL 1373528 In. 1373528CRSIn. CRS In.CRS 1373528 1373528In. 1373528In. In. 9 1373528 9 1373528 9 1373528 9 1373528 13735289 10 109 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 159 10 15 10 10 15 15 10 1015 10 15 6 15 6 15 6 156 15 15 6 8 6 8 6 68 8 6 68 46 4 8 Lamat 8Lamat 4 8 Lamat 4 Lamat8 4 8 Lamat 168 4 16 4Lamat 4Pohp 16Lamat Pohp Lamat 16 Pohp 4 416 Lamat 4Pohp Lamat 16 Lamat Pohp 16 16 Pohp Pohp Pohp 16 16 16 Pohp 2 2 Pohp Pohp 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 Confl 3 Confl 3 3 Confl Confl 3 3 Confl 3 Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl Confl PALPALPAL PAL PAL PAL PAL TPL TPLPAL TPL PALSUN TPLSUNPAL PAL TPLSUN TPL SUN TPL SUNTPL SUN SUNTPL TPLSUN 275466TPL 275466 275466SUN SUN SUN 275466 275466 275466 1 275466 1 275466 1 2754661 275466 275466 1 18 181 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 1 18 5 18 5 18 5 185 18 18 5 3 5 3 5 53 3 5 53 5 6 3 6 3 36 6 3 36 133 13 6 6 Kimi 13 Kimi6 13Kimi 6 13 Kimi 6 196 13 19Kimi 13 13Keh 19Kimi Keh Kimi 19KimiKeh 13 1319 13Keh Kimi 19 KimiKeh 19Kimi 19 Keh Keh Keh 19 19 19 Keh 3 3 Keh Keh 3 3 3 1 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 3 Confl 1 Confl 1 1 Confl Confl 1 1 Confl 1 Confl Confl Confl 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0 0 0 0 0 Ajaw Ajaw0 0 Ajaw 0 Ajaw 0 Ajaw 0 0 Ajaw Ajaw Ajaw Ajaw Ajaw Ajaw 9 9 9 9 9 292 9 9 2 29 929 2 2 2 2 2 2 +u +u +u+u +u +u+u+u +u+u+u PUSPUSPUS PUS PUS PUS PUS STL STLPUS STL PUSO STLOPUS PUS STL O STL O STL OSTL O OSTL STLO1346400 STL1346400 1346400O O O1346400 1346400 1346400 91346400 9 1346400 9 1346400 91346400 13464009 79 7 9 97 7 9 97 9 0 7 0 7 70 0 7 70 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 7 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 7 0 Ajaw 7 Ajaw0 7 0 Ajaw 307 3 7K’ank’inAjaw K’ank’in7 3Ajaw AjawK’ank’in 3 7 K’ank’in 73Ajaw 7 AjawK’ank’in 3Ajaw 3 K’ank’in 3K’ank’in K’ank’in 3 3K’ank’in 3 K’ank’in 9K’ank’in 9 9 9 9 1 91 9 9 1 1 9 91 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 PUSPUSPUS PUS PUS PUS PUS STL STLPUS STL PUSP STLPPUS PUS STL P STL P STL PSTL P PSTL STLP1346400 STL1346400 1346400P P P1346400 1346400 1346400 91346400 9 1346400 9 1346400 91346400 13464009 79 7 9 97 7 9 97 9 0 7 0 7 70 0 7 70 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 7 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 7 0 Ajaw 7 Ajaw0 7 0 Ajaw 307 3 7K’ank’inAjaw K’ank’in7 3Ajaw AjawK’ank’in 3 7 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STL181267200 STL 1267200 126720018 18 181267200 1267200 1267200 81267200 8 1267200 8 1267200 81267200 12672008 16 168 8 16 8 16 8 16 8 816 0 16 0 16 0 160 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 3 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 3 0 Ajaw 3 Ajaw0 3 0 Ajaw 803 8 3K’ank’inAjaw K’ank’in3 8Ajaw AjawK’ank’in 8 3 K’ank’in 38Ajaw 3 AjawK’ank’in 8Ajaw 8 K’ank’in 8K’ank’in K’ank’in 8 8K’ank’in 8 K’ank’in 9K’ank’in 9 9 9 9 1 91 9 9 1 1 9 91 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 UAXUAXUAX UAX UAX UAX UAX STL STLUAX STL UAX22 STL22UAX UAX STL 22 STL 22 STL 22STL 22 22STL STL221321200 STL 1321200 132120022 22 221321200 1321200 1321200 91321200 9 1321200 9 1321200 91321200 13212009 39 3 9 93 3 9 93 109 10 3 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 310 0 10 0 10 0 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 0Ajaw 0Ajaw 1 0 Ajaw 1 Ajaw0 1 0 Ajaw 801 8 1MakAjaw Mak1 8Ajaw AjawMak 8 1 Mak 18Ajaw 1 AjawMak 8Ajaw 8Mak 8 Mak Mak 88 Mak 8 Mak9 Mak9 9 9 9 393 9 9 3 39 939 3 3 3 3 3 3 YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX Berlin BerlinYAX Berlin YAX BerlinYAX LTLYAX LTLBerlin LTLBerlin Berlin LTLBerlin LTL Berlin LTL Berlin 1406421LTLBerlin 1406421LTL 1406421 LTL 1406421 LTL LTL 1406421 1406421 9 1406421 9 1406421 9 1406421 9 1406421 14064219 15 159 9 15 9 15 9 15 9 9 15 6 15 6 15 6 156 15 15 6 13 13 6 6 13 6 13 6 13 6 6 13 1 13 1 13 1 131 13 13 1 7 7 1 Imix 1Imix 7 1 Imix 7 Imix 1 7 1 Imix 191 7 19 7Imix 7Sip 19Imix Sip Imix 19Sip 7 719 Imix 7Sip Imix 19 Imix Sip 19 19 Sip Sip Sip 19 19 19 Sip9 9Sip Sip 9 9 9 393 9 9 3 39 939 3 3 3 3 3 3 YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX LTL LTLYAX LTL YAX 21 LTL21YAX YAX LTL21 LTL 21 LTL 21LTL 21 21LTL 21LTL1302884 LTL 1302884 130288421 21 21 1302884 1302884 1302884 91302884 9 1302884 9 1302884 91302884 13028849 09 0 9 90 0 9 90 199 19 0 0 19 0 19 0 19 0 019 2 19 2 19 2 192 19 19 2 4 2 4 2 24 4 2 24 2 2 4K’an 4K’an 2 4 K’an 2 K’an4 2 4 K’an 24 2 2Yax K’an Yax 2K’an K’an Yax 2 2 Yax 2K’an 2 Yax K’an 2K’an 2Yax 2 Yax Yax 2 2 Yax 2 Yax 8 Yax 8 8 8 8 1 8 1 8 8 1 1 8 8 1 8 confl 1 confl 1 1 confl confl 1 1 confl 1 confl confl confl confl confl confl YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX LTL LTLYAX LTL YAX 26 LTL26YAX YAX LTL26 LTL 26 LTL 26LTL 26 26LTL 26LTL LTL 26 26 26 9 9 9 X9 9 14 149 9 14 9 14 9 14 9 9 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 1313 13 13 13 Yaxkin 13 Yaxkin 13Yaxkin 13 Yaxkin 13 Yaxkin 13 13Yaxkin Yaxkin Yaxkin1313 13 Yaxkin Yaxkin Yaxkin 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX LTL LTLYAX LTL YAX 29 LTL29YAX YAX LTL29 LTL 29 LTL 29LTL 29 29LTL 29LTL1395970 LTL 1395970 139597029 29 29 1395970 1395970 1395970 91395970 9 1395970 9 1395970 91395970 13959709 13 139 9 13 9 13 9 13 9 17913 17 13 1317 17 13 1317 13 1217 12 17 1712 12 17 1712 17 1012 10 12 1210 10 12 1210 12 810 8 10Ox Ox 108 Ox 8 10 Ox 108 10 Ox 138 13 8Ox Yax8 13Ox Yax Ox 13Yax 8 813 OxYax 8 Ox 13 OxYax 13 13Yax Yax Yax 13 13 13Yax 7 Yax7 Yax 7 7 7 373 7 7 3 37 737 3 3 3 3 3 3 +u +u +u+u +u +u+u+u +u+u+u YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX LTL LTLYAX LTL YAX 48 LTL48YAX YAX LTL48 LTL 48 LTL 48LTL 48 48LTL 48LTL1328936 LTL 1328936 132893648 48 48 1328936 1328936 1328936 91328936 9 1328936 9 1328936 91328936 13289369 49 4 9 94 4 9 94 119 11 4 4 11 4 11 4 11 4 411 8 11 8 11 8 11811 11 8 16 16 8 8 16 8 16 8 16 8 28 16 2 16Kib Kib 16 2 Kib 2 16 Kib 162 16 Kib 19 2 19 2Kib 2Pax 19Kib Pax Kib 19Pax 2 219 Kib 2Pax Kib 19 Kib Pax 19 19 Pax Pax Pax 19 19 19 Pax 5 5Pax Pax 5 5 5 151 5 5 1 15 515 1 1 1 1 1 1 YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX STL STLYAX STL YAX 11 STL11YAX YAX STL 11 STL 11 STL 11STL 11 11STL STL111411560 STL 1411560 141156011 11 11 1411560 1411560 1411560 91411560 9 1411560 9 1411560 91411560 14115609 16 169 9 16 9 16 9 16 9 916 1 16 1 16 1 161 16 16 1 0 1 0 1 10 0 1 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110 11 0 0Ajaw 11 Ajaw 0 11Ajaw 0 11 Ajaw 0 8011 Ajaw 8 11Sek SekAjaw 118 AjawSek 8Ajaw 11 Sek 118 11 Ajaw Sek 8 Ajaw 8AjawSek 8 Sek Sek 8 8 Sek 8 Sek9 Sek9 9 9 9 191 9 9 1 19 919 1 1 1 1 1 1 YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX STL STLYAX STL YAX 6 STL6YAX YAX STL 6 STL 6 STL 6STL 6 6STL STL61184613 STL1184613 11846136 6 61184613 1184613 1184613 81184613 8 1184613 8 1184613 81184613 11846138 48 4 8 84 4 8 84 108 10 4 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 104 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1310 13 10 1013 13 10 1013 10 513 5 13Ben Ben 135 Ben 5 13 Ben 135 13 Ben 115 11 5 Ben Ch’en5 11Ben Ch’en Ben 11 Ch’en 5 511 BenCh’en 5 Ben 11 BenCh’en 11 11Ch’en Ch’en Ch’en 11 11 11 Ch’en6 Ch’en6 Ch’en 6 6 6 262 6 6 2 26 626 2 2 2 2 2 2 +u +u +u+u +u +u+u+u +u+u+u YAXYAXYAX YAX YAX YAX YAX STR STRYAX STR YAX 44 STRYAX 44 YAX STR 44 STR 44 STR STR44 44 STR 44 STR1385561 44STR1385561 138556144 44 138556144 1385561 1385561 91385561 9 1385561 9 1385561 91385561 13855619 12 129 9 12 9 12 9 12 9 912 8 12 8 12 8 128 12 12 8 14 14 8 8 14 8 14 8 14 8 814 1 14 1 14 1 141 14 14 1 12 12 1 1 Imix12 Imix1 12Imix 1 12 Imix1 4112 4Imix 12Pohp Pohp 124Imix ImixPohp 4Imix 12 Pohp124 12 ImixPohp 4 Imix 4ImixPohp 4 Pohp Pohp 4 4 Pohp 4 Pohp2 Pohp2 2 2 2 323 2 2 3 32 232 3 3 3 3 3 3

Table 2. Collected Data (STL = stela, PNL = panel, LTL = lintel, HRS = hiero. stair, MNT = monument; TBL = tablet; FRG = fragment; site codes per Graham and Mathews 1999). 14 1313131313131313 131313 13 Johnson

Results and Analysis G9 and F1 are the most common variants, comprising 50 Glyph F varies independently across all sites in this and 68 percent of the sample respectively. When shown study. As seen in Table 2, F1 appears at each site in the proportionally, in Figure 3, it is clear that F1 appears database. This is illustrated in Figure 3, showing there frequently with most Lords of the Night. A larger sample were no sites which show a preference for one particular of non-G9 inscriptions is needed, but there is only a variant of Glyph F (excepting Quirigua, which only had small chance that this outcome is due to the vagaries of a small sample size of two). A greater sample size would sampling, and there is only a moderate divergence from χ2 increase the robustness of this test. In this sample there the expected values ( = 57.51; df = 32; p < .01; Cramer’s is a slight chance this outcome was due to the vagaries V = .48). of sampling, and there is only a moderate divergence Similarly, F1 appears to be the most commonly from the expected values (χ2 = 57.35; df = 44; p < .09; conflated variant, but this again was a result ofits Cramer’s V = .51, where 0 is no deviation and 1 is overall popularity. Although F1 is present in 71 percent complete deviation from expected values). of the conflations (n=12 of 17), it is present in 66 percent Glyph F variants appear to increase in number of the non-conflated (n=29 of 44) examples as well. This over time. Although dates ranged from the Old Era can be seen graphically in Figure 3, showing that any (12.10.0.0.0) through 9.17.0.0.0.0, as seen in Table 1, they Glyph F variant is as likely to be conflated as its overall were all likely written in the ninth baktun. F1 is the likelihood of being used at all. Unfortunately, a larger most popular variant throughout the Classic, but after sample is needed, as there is a large enough chance that 9.10.0.0.0 (the Late Classic), a wider variety of Glyph this outcome is due to the vagaries of sampling, but the 2 F variants are used. F1 is used in 92.3 percent of Early results were close to the expected values (χ = 3.84; df = Classic inscriptions (before 9.10.0.0.0; n=12 of 13) but 4; p < .5; Cramer’s V = .24). only 64.7 percent in the Late Classic (after 9.10.0.0.0; Preliminary results suggest Palenque, Quirigua, and n=21 of 34). There is moderate chance these results were Copan had a higher proportion of conflation of Glyphs due to the vagaries of sampling, and results were not as G and F. This is significant in that these three sites are divergent as they might seem in Figure 3 (χ2 = 4.46; df = well known for their artistic flair. On average, only 30 4; p < .4; Cramer’s V = .31). percent of inscriptions at any site are conflated, but Although it appears glyphs G9 and F1 are strongly Palenque, Quirigua, and Copan each had significantly correlated, analysis showed there was no particular higher percentages of conflation: 78, 67, and 50 percent, relationship between any Lord of the Night and Glyph F respectively. Even with a small sample size, there is variant. The raw data show a large number of G9/F1 co- a very low chance that these results are due to the occurrences (38 percent), but this is due to the fact that vagaries of sampling, and there is a moderate to large

Glyph F by: Site Period: Lord of the Night Conflation 10 25 20 30 F1 F2 20 F3 F4 15 F5 10 15 10

5 TNA UAX CPN PNG Confl YAX COB NAR QRG PUS TIK PAL ITB Not

0 0 0 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 0 EAR LAT 100% CLA CLA 100%

50% 50%

0% 0% Figure 3. Graphs of observed frequencies and proportions of Glyph F variants.

14 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series

G F Day Number 2 Day Cycle 3 Day Cycle 4 Day Cycle 5 Day Cycle 6 Day Cycle 7 Day Cycle 8 Day Cycle 9 Day Cycle 3 3 1 1 275466.00 275466.00 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 33 31 31 113 1 275466.00 31 275466.00 275466.00 275466.0013 275466.00 1 275466.00 275466.001 0 275466.000 0 0 275466.00 0 0 0 0 02 0 2 2 20 0 21 0 21 1 12 0 10 2 10 0 01 2 02 1 02 2 20 1 2 0 2 2 2 0 23 2 3 3 32 2 3 23 3 2 3 3 8 8 1 1 275480.00 275480.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 8 8 8 8 88 81 81 118 1 275480.00 81 275480.00 275480.00 275480.0018 275480.00 1 275480.00 275480.001 0 275480.000 0 0 275480.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 02 0 2 2 20 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 20 2 0 0 02 2 08 2 08 8 80 2 8 08 8 0 8 8 9 9 1 1 1044000.00 1044000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1044000.00 91 1044000.00 1044000.00 1044000.0019 1044000.001 1044000.00 1044000.001 0 1044000.000 0 0 1044000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1267200.00 1267200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1267200.00 91 1267200.00 1267200.00 1267200.0019 1267200.001 1267200.00 1267200.001 0 1267200.000 0 0 1267200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 4 4 40 0 40 0 4 0 04 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1296000.00 1296000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1296000.00 91 1296000.00 1296000.00 1296000.0019 1296000.001 1296000.00 1296000.001 0 1296000.000 0 0 1296000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1299600.00 1299600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1299600.00 91 1299600.00 1299600.00 1299600.0019 1299600.001 1299600.00 1299600.001 0 1299600.000 0 0 1299600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 1 10 0 10 0 1 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1299600.00 1299600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1299600.00 91 1299600.00 1299600.00 1299600.0019 1299600.001 1299600.00 1299600.001 0 1299600.000 0 0 1299600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 1 10 0 10 0 1 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 1 1 1302884.00 1302884.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 4 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 8 8 8 8 88 81 81 118 1 1302884.00 81 1302884.00 1302884.00 1302884.0018 1302884.001 1302884.00 1302884.001 0 1302884.000 0 0 1302884.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 04 2 04 4 40 2 42 0 42 2 24 0 2 4 2 2 2 4 24 2 4 4 42 2 48 2 48 8 84 2 8 48 8 4 8 8 7* 7* 1 1 1315982.00 1315982.00 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 2 2 7*7* 7*7* 7*1 7*1 117* 1 1315982.00 7*1 1315982.00 1315982.00 1315982.0017* 1315982.001 1315982.00 1315982.001 0 1315982.000 0 0 1315982.00 02 02 2 20 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 23 2 3 3 32 2 36 2 36 6 63 2 62 3 62 2 26 3 2 62 2 6 2 2 9 9 1 1 1319004.00 1319004.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 1 1 4 4 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1319004.00 91 1319004.00 1319004.00 1319004.0019 1319004.001 1319004.00 1319004.001 0 1319004.000 0 0 1319004.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 4 4 40 0 40 0 4 0 04 0 01 4 01 1 10 4 14 0 14 4 41 0 40 1 40 0 04 1 0 40 0 4 0 0 8 8 1 1 1324692.00 1324692.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 5 5 4 4 0 0 8 8 88 81 81 118 1 1324692.00 81 1324692.00 1324692.00 1324692.0018 1324692.001 1324692.00 1324692.001 0 1324692.000 0 0 1324692.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 2 2 20 0 20 0 2 0 02 0 05 2 05 5 50 2 54 0 54 4 45 0 40 5 40 0 04 5 0 40 0 4 0 0 1 1 1 1 1327969.00 1327969.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 1 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 11 1 1327969.00 1 1327969.00 1327969.00 1327969.0011 1327969.001 1327969.00 1327969.001 1 1327969.001 1 1 1327969.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 1 4 4 41 1 41 1 4 1 14 1 16 4 16 6 61 4 61 1 6 1 16 1 1 6 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 1 1 1328936.00 1328936.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5 55 51 51 115 1 1328936.00 51 1328936.00 1328936.00 1328936.0015 1328936.001 1328936.00 1328936.001 0 1328936.000 0 0 1328936.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 01 2 01 1 10 2 12 0 12 2 21 0 20 1 20 0 02 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 05 0 5 5 50 0 5 05 5 0 5 5 9 9 1 1 1346400.00 1346400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1346400.00 91 1346400.00 1346400.00 1346400.0019 1346400.001 1346400.00 1346400.001 0 1346400.000 0 0 1346400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1346400.00 1346400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1346400.00 91 1346400.00 1346400.00 1346400.0019 1346400.001 1346400.00 1346400.001 0 1346400.000 0 0 1346400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1364400.00 1364400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1364400.00 91 1364400.00 1364400.00 1364400.0019 1364400.001 1364400.00 1364400.001 0 1364400.000 0 0 1364400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 2 2 20 0 20 0 2 0 02 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1368000.00 1368000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1368000.00 91 1368000.00 1368000.00 1368000.0019 1368000.001 1368000.00 1368000.001 0 1368000.000 0 0 1368000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 4 4 40 0 40 0 4 0 04 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1370269.00 1370269.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 1 1 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 11 1 1370269.00 1 1370269.00 1370269.00 1370269.0011 1370269.001 1370269.00 1370269.001 1 1370269.001 1 1 1370269.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 1 4 4 41 1 41 1 4 1 14 1 15 4 15 5 51 4 5 1 5 5 5 1 51 5 1 1 15 5 1 51 1 5 1 1 7 7 1 1 1372300.00 1372300.00 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 4 6 6 4 4 7 7 7 7 77 71 71 117 1 1372300.00 71 1372300.00 1372300.00 1372300.0017 1372300.001 1372300.00 1372300.001 0 1372300.000 0 0 1372300.00 01 01 1 10 10 0 1 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 04 0 4 4 40 0 46 0 46 6 64 0 64 4 6 4 46 4 47 6 47 7 74 6 7 47 7 4 7 7 9 9 1 1 1373400.00 1373400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1373400.00 91 1373400.00 1373400.00 1373400.0019 1373400.001 1373400.00 1373400.001 0 1373400.000 00 1373400.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 1 1 1377401.00 1377401.00 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 5 5 4 4 1 1 5 5 5 5 55 51 51 115 1 1377401.00 51 1377401.00 1377401.00 1377401.0015 1377401.001 1377401.00 1377401.001 1 1377401.001 1 1 1377401.00 12 12 2 21 21 1 2 1 12 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 15 1 5 5 51 1 54 1 54 4 45 1 41 5 41 1 14 5 15 4 15 5 51 4 5 15 5 1 5 5 7 7 1 1 1383136.00 1383136.00 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 4 4 6 6 0 0 7 7 7 7 77 71 71 117 1 1383136.00 71 1383136.00 1383136.00 1383136.0017 1383136.001 1383136.00 1383136.001 0 1383136.000 0 0 1383136.00 01 01 1 10 10 0 1 0 01 0 01 1 0 1 10 1 14 0 14 4 41 0 46 1 46 6 64 1 60 4 60 0 06 4 07 6 07 7 70 6 7 07 7 0 7 7 4 4 1 1 1396800.00 1396800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 4 4 44 41 41 114 1 1396800.00 41 1396800.00 1396800.00 1396800.0014 1396800.001 1396800.00 1396800.001 0 1396800.000 0 0 1396800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1396800.00 1396800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1396800.00 91 1396800.00 1396800.00 1396800.0019 1396800.001 1396800.00 1396800.001 0 1396800.000 0 0 1396800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1398600.00 1398600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1398600.00 91 1398600.00 1398600.00 1398600.0019 1398600.001 1398600.00 1398600.001 0 1398600.000 0 0 1398600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1402200.00 1402200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1402200.00 91 1402200.00 1402200.00 1402200.0019 1402200.001 1402200.00 1402200.001 0 1402200.000 0 0 1402200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 2 2 20 0 20 0 2 0 02 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 1 1 1403572.00 1403572.00 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 41 41 114 1 1403572.00 41 1403572.00 1403572.00 1403572.0014 1403572.001 1403572.00 1403572.001 0 1403572.000 0 0 1403572.00 01 01 1 10 10 0 1 0 01 0 02 1 02 2 20 1 24 0 24 4 42 0 42 2 4 2 24 2 24 4 2 4 42 4 4 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 9 9 1 1 1404000.00 1404000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1404000.00 91 1404000.00 1404000.00 1404000.0019 1404000.001 1404000.00 1404000.001 0 1404000.000 0 0 1404000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 0 3 3 30 0 30 0 3 0 03 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1407600.00 1407600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1407600.00 91 1407600.00 1407600.00 1407600.0019 1407600.001 1407600.00 1407600.001 0 1407600.000 0 0 1407600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 05 0 5 5 50 0 50 0 5 0 05 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1407600.00 1407600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1407600.00 91 1407600.00 1407600.00 1407600.0019 1407600.001 1407600.00 1407600.001 0 1407600.000 0 0 1407600.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 05 0 5 5 50 0 50 0 5 0 05 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 1 1 1408940.00 1408940.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 1 4 4 8 8 8 8 88 81 81 118 1 1408940.00 81 1408940.00 1408940.00 1408940.0018 1408940.001 1408940.00 1408940.001 0 1408940.000 0 0 1408940.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 02 0 2 2 20 0 21 0 21 1 12 0 14 2 14 4 41 2 48 1 48 8 84 1 8 48 8 4 8 8 8 8 1 1 1411200.00 1411200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 88 81 81 118 1 1411200.00 81 1411200.00 1411200.00 1411200.0018 1411200.001 1411200.00 1411200.001 0 1411200.000 0 0 1411200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1411560.00 1411560.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1411560.00 91 1411560.00 1411560.00 1411560.0019 1411560.001 1411560.00 1411560.001 0 1411560.000 0 0 1411560.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 0 3 3 30 0 30 0 3 0 03 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 1 1 1421653.00 1421653.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 5 5 4 4 4 4 44 41 41 114 1 1421653.00 41 1421653.00 1421653.00 1421653.0014 1421653.001 1421653.00 1421653.001 1 1421653.001 1 1 1421653.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1 3 3 31 1 31 1 3 1 13 1 12 3 12 2 21 3 25 1 25 5 52 1 54 2 54 4 45 2 4 54 4 5 4 4 9 9 1 1 1422000.00 1422000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1422000.00 91 1422000.00 1422000.00 1422000.0019 1422000.001 1422000.00 1422000.001 0 1422000.000 0 0 1422000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 1 1 1422000.00 1422000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 91 91 119 1 1422000.00 91 1422000.00 1422000.00 1422000.0019 1422000.001 1422000.00 1422000.001 0 1422000.000 0 0 1422000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 1 1 1804760.00 1804760.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 6 6 0 0 8 8 8 8 88 81 81 118 1 1804760.00 81 1804760.00 1804760.00 1804760.0018 1804760.001 1804760.00 1804760.001 0 1804760.000 0 0 1804760.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 02 0 2 2 20 0 26 0 26 6 62 0 60 2 60 0 06 2 08 6 08 8 80 6 8 08 8 0 8 8 8 8 2 2 824021.00 824021.00 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 5 5 2 2 5 5 8 8 8 8 88 82 82 228 2 824021.00 82 824021.00 824021.00 824021.0028 824021.00 2 824021.00 824021.002 1 824021.001 1 1 824021.00 12 12 2 21 21 1 2 1 12 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 15 1 5 5 51 1 52 1 52 2 25 1 25 5 2 5 52 5 58 2 58 8 85 2 8 58 8 5 8 8 6 6 2 2 1184613.00 1184613.00 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 6 6 6 6 66 62 62 226 2 1184613.00 62 1184613.00 1184613.00 1184613.0026 1184613.002 1184613.00 1184613.002 1 1184613.001 1 1 1184613.00 10 10 0 01 01 1 0 1 10 1 13 0 13 3 31 0 3 1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 35 3 5 5 53 3 56 3 56 6 65 3 6 56 6 5 6 6 7 7 2 2 1379662.00 1379662.00 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 6 6 7 7 7 7 77 72 72 227 2 1379662.00 72 1379662.00 1379662.00 1379662.0027 1379662.002 1379662.00 1379662.002 0 1379662.000 0 0 1379662.00 01 01 1 10 12 0 12 2 21 0 2 1 2 2 2 1 24 2 4 4 42 2 4 2 4 4 4 2 46 4 6 6 64 4 67 4 67 7 76 4 7 67 7 6 7 7 9 9 2 2 1404000.00 1404000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 92 92 229 2 1404000.00 92 1404000.00 1404000.00 1404000.0029 1404000.002 1404000.00 1404000.002 0 1404000.000 0 0 1404000.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 0 3 3 30 0 30 0 3 0 03 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1408141.00 1408141.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 5 5 1 1 1 1 11 12 12 221 2 1408141.00 12 1408141.00 1408141.00 1408141.0021 1408141.002 1408141.00 1408141.002 1 1408141.001 1 1 1408141.00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 1 0 0 01 1 05 1 05 5 50 1 51 0 51 1 15 0 1 51 1 5 1 1 9 9 2 2 1414800.00 1414800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 92 92 229 2 1414800.00 92 1414800.00 1414800.00 1414800.0029 1414800.002 1414800.00 1414800.002 0 1414800.000 0 0 1414800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 2 2 20 0 20 0 2 0 02 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1800622.00 1800622.00 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 4 5 5 6 6 1 1 1 1 11 12 12 221 2 1800622.00 12 1800622.00 1800622.00 1800622.0021 1800622.002 1800622.00 1800622.002 0 1800622.000 0 0 1800622.00 01 01 1 10 12 0 12 2 21 0 2 1 2 2 2 1 24 2 4 4 42 2 45 2 45 5 54 2 56 4 56 6 65 4 61 5 61 1 16 5 1 61 1 6 1 1 9 9 3 3 1321200.00 1321200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 93 93 339 3 1321200.00 93 1321200.00 1321200.00 1321200.0039 1321200.003 1321200.00 1321200.003 0 1321200.000 0 0 1321200.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 6 6 60 0 60 0 6 0 06 0 0 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 3 1373150.00 1373150.00 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 6 6 2 2 2 2 22 23 23 332 3 1373150.00 23 1373150.00 1373150.00 1373150.0032 1373150.003 1373150.00 1373150.003 0 1373150.000 0 0 1373150.00 02 02 2 20 2 0 2 2 2 0 20 2 0 0 02 2 02 2 0 2 20 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 26 2 6 6 62 2 62 2 6 2 26 2 2 62 2 6 2 2 2 2 3 3 1373528.00 1373528.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 22 23 23 332 3 1373528.00 23 1373528.00 1373528.00 1373528.0032 1373528.003 1373528.00 1373528.003 0 1373528.000 0 0 1373528.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 03 2 03 3 30 2 32 0 32 2 23 0 2 3 2 2 2 3 20 2 0 0 02 2 02 2 0 2 20 2 2 02 2 0 2 2 2 2 3 3 1373528.00 1373528.00 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 22 23 23 332 3 1373528.00 23 1373528.00 1373528.00 1373528.0032 1373528.003 1373528.00 1373528.003 0 1373528.000 0 0 1373528.00 02 02 2 20 20 0 2 0 02 0 03 2 03 3 30 2 32 0 32 2 23 0 2 3 2 2 2 3 20 2 0 0 02 2 02 2 0 2 20 2 2 02 2 0 2 2 2 2 3 3 1385561.00 1385561.00 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 5 5 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 22 23 23 332 3 1385561.00 23 1385561.00 1385561.00 1385561.0032 1385561.003 1385561.00 1385561.003 1 1385561.001 1 1 1385561.00 12 12 2 21 21 1 2 1 12 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 15 1 5 5 51 1 52 1 52 2 25 1 21 5 21 1 12 5 12 2 1 2 21 2 2 12 2 1 2 2 7 7 3 3 1395970.00 1395970.00 0 0 1 1 2 2 0 0 4 4 2 2 2 2 7 7 7 7 77 73 73 337 3 1395970.00 73 1395970.00 1395970.00 1395970.0037 1395970.003 1395970.00 1395970.003 0 1395970.000 0 0 1395970.00 01 01 1 10 12 0 12 2 21 0 20 1 20 0 02 1 04 2 04 4 40 2 42 0 42 2 24 0 2 4 2 2 2 4 27 2 7 7 72 2 7 27 7 2 7 7 9 9 3 3 1406421.00 1406421.00 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 5 5 0 0 9 9 99 93 93 339 3 1406421.00 93 1406421.00 1406421.00 1406421.0039 1406421.003 1406421.00 1406421.003 1 1406421.001 1 1 1406421.00 10 10 0 01 01 1 0 1 10 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 13 1 3 3 31 1 32 1 32 2 23 1 25 3 25 5 52 3 50 2 50 0 05 2 0 50 0 5 0 0 9 9 4 4 1405800.00 1405800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 9 9 99 94 94 449 4 1405800.00 94 1405800.00 1405800.00 1405800.0049 1405800.004 1405800.00 1405800.004 0 1405800.000 0 0 1405800.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 4 4 40 0 40 0 4 0 04 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 5 5 1383136.00 1383136.00 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 4 4 6 6 0 0 7 7 7 7 77 75 75 557 5 1383136.00 75 1383136.00 1383136.00 1383136.0057 1383136.005 1383136.00 1383136.005 0 1383136.000 0 0 1383136.00 01 01 1 10 10 0 1 0 01 0 01 1 0 1 10 1 14 0 14 4 41 0 46 1 46 6 64 1 60 4 60 0 06 4 07 6 07 7 70 6 7 07 7 0 7 7 Table 3. Correlation of Glyphs G and F, Day Numbers, and cycles of 2-9 days; the numbers indicate the day-number’s position in a cycle of the number of days at the head of the column.

differentiation between the expected and observed associated Glyph G, and day number (long count date percentages (χ2 = 25.34; df = 11; p < .01; Cramer’s V = converted to decimal system). In each of the nine columns .64). to the right, the day number has been divided by the The final analysis shows empirically that Glyph F number of days in each cycle (from two to nine), and variants are not part of a repeating cycle. Table 3 shows the remainder is displayed. If a cycle of Glyph F existed, each Glyph F with a complete long count date, with its the numbers in the corresponding cycle-length would

15 Johnson

TI’ it seems likely that there was no need to agree on the HUN Glyph F variant in a long count. This further suggests that there was no underlying cycle or reason for the HUN na choice of Glyph F variant used in an inscription beyond na scribal preference.

Implications of Analysis Copan Stela 1 Dos Pilas Stela 8 Although no predictive patterns were found, there are a number of observations that can be made about Glyph F from these collected and analyzed data. First, TI’? Glyph F variants occur independent of the Long Count, HUN Supplementary Series, and location. It does appear, though, that a greater variety of Glyph F variants were used after 9.10.0.0.0. The variants can be said to be G9 completely interchangeable; just as the scribe has a choice between writing ba-la-m(a), BALAM, or BALAM-(ma) to give the word bahlam. This suggests that the variation is purely orthographic, not a variable denoting a position Copan Stela D in any cycle or count. Of course, this observation is not Figure 4. Atypical Glyph F variants new, but this paper statistically demonstrates the free (redrawn from Schele and Miller 1983:Figure 32). variation of Glyph F. Second, the fact that Glyph F is a constant part of the appear contiguously in that column. Glyph G’s cycle is calendar formula suggests it has a static reading for all born out by this, as the numbers in the “nine-day cycle” of its occurrences. The full reading of Glyph F appears column match those in the Glyph G column. There is to be TI’ HUN-(na) or TI’ hu-n(a), giving ti’ huun/hu’n. no cycle of Glyph F variants (less than nine days) even There is no single agreed-upon gloss for this phrase in if there were more or less than the five variants I have the topical literature. defined. If there were less, and a cycle existed, a number The term ti’ is attested as “mouth” in Ch’ol, Chontal, of Glyph F variants would share an identical remainder. and Ch’orti’ (Aulie and Aulie 1978; Hull 2005; Keller If there were more, a variant’s section would have more and Luciano 1997; K’ulb’il Yol Twitz Paxil 2001; Pérez than one remainder, but the all of those remainders González and de la Cruz 1998; Schumann 1973), as well would be within that variant. This is not the case, and as Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Tojolab’al, Q’anjob’al, Aketeko, and there appears to be no cycle. Yucatec (Zender 2004:Table 4, citing Barrera Vásquez et Another aspect of examination is whether or not al. 1980:91, Bricker et al. 1998:68, Furbee-Losee 1976:397, the same day can be represented by different Glyph F Laughlin 1975:337, Lenkersdorf 1981:351, and Slocum et variants. Of the seven pairs of recurring dates in my al. 1999:122). These entries seem to confirm the suggested sample, five evince the same Glyph F variant, while two gloss of “mouth” and “lips.” The other meanings of show different variants. One pair of mismatched Glyph “opening” and “edge” are semantically related to mouth Fs comes from Piedras Negras. Stelae 1 and 3 have the and recorded in Ch’ol, Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Tojolab’al, and same date (9.12.2.0.16) but give F1 and F5 respectively. Yucatec (Zender 2004:Table 4, citing Barrera Vásquez et Another mismatch comes from two different sites. al. 1980:91, Bricker et al. 1998:68, Furbee-Losee 1976:397, Itzimte’s Stela 5 shows F1 for the same day (9.15.0.0.0) Laughlin 1975:337, Lenkersdorf 1981:351, and Slocum that Piedras Negras’ Stela 11 gives F2. Of the five pairs et al. 1999:122). The lexeme ti’ is also recorded as “to of monuments which share a date and Glyph F variant, speak” in Tzotzil and Yucatec, as well as “language” in all are inscribed with F1, by far the most popular Ch’orti’ (Zender 2004:Table 5, citing Heath de Zapata manifestation. Three of the matching pairs are from the 1980:183-184, Laughlin 1975:337, and Wisdom 1950:672; same sites. Tikal Stelae 1 and 31, Pusilha Stelae P and O, see also Houston 2009). It is from this reading that the and Piedras Negras Stelae 3 and 1 share dates and the similar title ti’ sak huun/hu’n is glossed as “speaker of F1 variant. Coba Stela 20 also matches Naranjo Stela 13 the white headband.” in date (9.17.10.0.0) and F Glyph (F1). Another pair of Clearly huun or hu’n is suggested by the hu-n(a) or matching dates and Glyph F variants are Stela 2 at Itzimte HUN-(na) reading of each variant. Glossed as “book,” and Piedras Negras Stela 10—interesting in that these “paper,” “headdress,” or “bundle” it is likely that only two sites are also an example of mismatched F-variants one meaning is expressed in this formulaic context. HUN described above. It should be noted, although it comes may be semantically related to, or an underspelling of, as no surprise, Glyph G was correct and matched for huunal/hu’nal that is, “headdress.” This is thought to be all of these examples. Although this is a small sample, the headband with which rulers are bound (Jackson and

16 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series

Stuart 2001:222). The traditional “headdress” reading is Gn is the Lord of the Night” but notes this is not a mirrored in the royal title sak huun/hu’n, or “white crown” direct translation (Thompson 1962:212). He does make (Schele et al. 1990:4; Zender 2004:215). I have found no the important observation linking the “jaguar bundle” examples of a complete HUN-na-la or hu-na-la spelling. (T609b) and the “knotted element” (T60) in Glyph There are, however, three examples (Quirigua Stela K, F, showing the rarer form is not a local variant but Copan Stela I, and Dos Pilas Stela 8) which one might dispersed across the Maya area (Thompson 1962:212). interpret as TI’-HUN-NAL (T128:60:1000a), giving ti’ Linda Schele (1983:90) suggested the meaning “in hu’nal, or “headdress;” illustrated in Figure 4. Although office” or “in power,” but her literal reading was patan, the T1000a glyph in these examples might represent an meaning “cargo” or “burden,” discussed above. David aspect of the Maize God (nal is glossed as “corn” but is Stuart (2005:196) has recently suggested the reading “is not currently an accepted reading for this glyph), it more (at) the margin(?),” drawing on evidence such as Yucatec likely represents the syllable na, an allograph of the u chi’ hú’un, “margin of the book” (Zender 2004:217-218, usual T23 subfix of Glyph F. The lack of a clear huunal/ citing Barrera Vásquez et al. 1980:91, Heath de Zapata hu’nal example leads me to believe that “headdress” is 1980:183) and Colonial Tzotzil ti’il hun, “book margin” not meant in Glyph F. Furthermore, although it could be (Laughlin 1988:1:313). But it is unclear exactly how this argued that a bark paper headdress might be referred to is to be meaningfully connected with Glyph G. as huun/hu’n because of the material, this must be more All of the suggested readings are somewhat firmly demonstrated through iconography before it can problematic. Either the phrase does not make semantic be applied to an isolated HUN reading, especially one sense in relation to the Lord of the Night, or it is not which is represented with the T609b/codex variant. a close reading of the glyphs. There is a semantic In another interpretation, Schele (1983:79, 90) relationship between “mouth” and “book,” though, suggests the central element is a sacred bundle or especially in a society of limited literacy. Books may jaguar throne pillow, which is carried by the Lord of the have been read aloud and religious texts chanted. For Night as his patan, or “burden.” Although patan would instance, the similar phrase ti’ sak huun/hu’n is glossed be complemented by the final -na syllable, the central as “speaker of the white crown” (Schele et al. 1990:4; element can now be read as HUN or hu. As Schele Zender 2004:215), but in this case ti’ huun/hu’n might be (1983:80) herself mentions, at the time of her writing, read instead as “speaker of the book,” or more literally, the syllabic sign we now read as hu (T740) was not yet “mouth of the book.” understood. This reading of ti’ huun/hu’n, as “speaker of the In contrast to these views, I would suggest the book,” makes semantic sense in relation with Glyph G, reading of “book” is more likely, particularly in the which is the “Lord of the Night” patron deity of that presence of the T609b, F4 variant. This is a clear depiction particular day. Glyph G and F might then be read Gx ti’ of a jaguar-pelt-bound codex (the horizontal lines are huun/hu’n, or “Gx [is the] speaker of the book.” Although pages of the codex, the jaguar pelt is the cover), not a “speaker” might be a liberal translation, the association cushion or bundle, as others have suggested (Schele of speech and mouth are clear. A similar connection 1983:79, 90; Thompson 1962:212). Furthermore, the between “mouth” and speech is described above, where word huun/hu’n/hun or some cognate thereof (usually ti’ is attested as the verb “to speak” and “language.” A jun) is glossed as “paper” in Ch’ol and Ch’orti’ and even reading of “Gx [is the] mouth of the book” or “Gx [is “book” in Chontal (Aulie and de Aulie 1978; Hull 2005; the] mouthpiece of the book” does not seem a stretch K’ulb’il Yol Twitz Paxil 2001; Keller and Luciano 1997; of the data. If the particular Lord of the Night is the Pérez González and de la Cruz 1998; Schumann 1973). patron for a day, it is not unlikely that he has a shamanic One possible problem with this argument, however, is duty, which would involve the use of divinatory books. that the “codex” variant does not appear until late in The interpretation of HUN alone as “paper” is equally my examples. If the meaning of “book” were meant, the possible, but with the presence of “mouth” and the F4 variant might be expected to be the most commonly T609b variant, the gloss of “book” makes more semantic occurring variant early on. However, T609b is not sense. attested in any context before the Late Classic, mitigating Glyph F occasionally appears with an u- prefix, this problematic point. indicating possession or the third-person singular The complete phrase has a number of suggested ergative pronoun. Out of my 64 examples, five are readings. The possible glosses described above preceded by a possessive prefix, u-: Piedras Negras suggest mouth/lips/opening/edge combined with Lintel 3 (u-TI’-HUN-(na), F2), Stela 3 (u-TI’-HUN- book/headdress/bundle. In Thompson’s (1962) Maya (na), F1), and Stela 9 (u-TI’-HUN-(na), F2), as well as Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction, he devotes less than Yaxchilan Lintel 29 (u-TI’-hu-n(a), F3) and Stela 6 (u-TI’- one page to describing this glyph. He suggests that it HUN-(na), F2). Furthermore, Copan’s Stela D has a full- stands to “explain or amplify the function of Glyph G” figure G9 carrying a large T609b codex on his back with and that together they should be interpreted as “God a tumpline, drawn in Figure 4. This suggests again that

17 Johnson

Glyph F is intimately associated with the current Lord from modern Greater Tzeltalan languages. of the Night. Interestingly, Mathews and Biro (2006, but see also Zender 2004:214) state that the possessed form Conclusion of ti’ sak hu’n is u ti’ hu’nil; the -il is a common possessive suffix (Houston et al. 2001). This is not seen on any of Although it has been generally accepted that Glyph F in the Supplementary Series was a freely-varying, even the five possessed Glyph F examples above, but ratheru optional component, this paper demonstrates this fact ti’ huun/hu’n. Although I do not wish to dwell on the sak statistically. There is no correlation between any Glyph hu’n title, it may be that the term “book” is meant here F variant and a specific site, its Glyph G counterpart, or too; a book might need a speaker, but a crown might tendency to conflation. It is likely, though, that Copan, not. What is needed is a clear iconographic depiction of Quirigua, and Palenque had a greater penchant for somebody with the ti’ sak huun/hu’n title either with a conflating Glyphs F and G than other sites, although book, or wearing a distinctive headdress. a larger sample size is needed. Therefore, it can be Furthermore, as pointed out by Jackson and Stuart concluded that Glyph F is a formulaic part of the (2001:219), a possessed title between two nouns links Supplementary Series. them in a direct way. When Glyph F is preceded by u-, it Although there have been many suggested readings suggests that the Lord of the Night is directly linked to for Glyph F and its relationship with Glyph G, they the oral recitation of the book. This might suggest that have been either divorced from glyphic readings or the Lord of the Night is the reader of the book containing semantically unclear. I suggest that Glyph F describes the lunar series calculations or other divinatory material; the Lord of the Night as responsible for reading a the Lord of the Night is the day keeper for that entire divinatory codex. Glyphs G and F, reading Gx TI’- day and night. Gx uti’ huun/hu’n might be translated as HUN-na or Gx ti’ huun/hu’n may be translated as “X “Gx, [it is] his speaking of the book.” Lord of the Night is the mouth/speaker of the book,” Another topic, on which these findings bear is the which possibly contains Lunar Series, astronomical, or use of the knotted HUN glyph in the aj k’uhun title divinatory information. Finally, the continuous use of discussed in depth by Jackson and Stuart (2001). They the “knotted element” through the entire ninth baktun discount Lacadena’s (1993, cited in Jackson and Stuart supports the argument for Jackson and Stuart’s (2001) aj 2001:221-222) reading of a-k’u-HUN-na as ak’hun, or k’uhun reading. “he who gives/bears paper” because the God C head does not have the value of k’u in any other context Aknowledgments but rather K’UH or K’UHUL only. They also shy away from Houston and Grube’s (cited in Jackson and Stuart I would like to thank Markus Eberl for his notes on this 2001:221-223) reading of AJ-K’UHUL-HUN-(na), or aj article and useful discussions about this topic. I would k’uhul hu’n, glossed as “he of the holy books/headbands/ also like to thank Marc Zender and David Stuart for paper” for a number of reasons. First, “books” and the their correspondence regarding the ti’ reading and other implied scribal aspects thereof are considered to be too topics. All errors and missteps are my own. narrow of a reading because of the variable meaning of HUN (or HU’N in the authors’ orthography). Second, the References Cited fact that “the appearance of HU’N or -HU’N-na in the Aulie, H. Wilbur and Evelyn W. de Aulie God C title is quite rare and generally late in date, falling 1978 Diccionario Ch’ol-Español Español-Ch’ol. Instituto in the last century of the Classic period” (Jackson and Lingüístico de Verano, Mexico City. Stuart 2001:223; Zender 2004:215). In the data compiled Barrera Váquez, Alfredo, Juan Ramón Bastarrachea Manzano, for this paper, it can be clearly seen that T60/HUN was William Brito Sansores, Refugio Vermont Salas, David by far the most popular Glyph F variant from 9.0.0.0.0 Dzul Góngora, and Domingo Dzul Poot (ca. 435 AD) through the end of the Classic (the last date 1980 Diccionario Maya Cordemex. Ediciones Cordemex, Merida. in this database is 9.17.0.0.0, ca. 771 AD). Furthermore, in his discussion of the ti’ sakhuun/hu’n title, which contains Calvin, Inga another HUN element (T522), Zender (2004:212) states 2004 Maya Hieroglyphics Study Guide. Electronic document, www.famsi.org/mayawriting/calvin/glyph_guide.pdf, that this title’s morphology is “highly standardized and accessed Febuary 9, 2009. formally conservative,” that is, largely unchanging over time in contrast to the “relatively chaotic spellings of the Furbee-Losee, Louanna ajk’uhuun[/aj k’uhun]” title over time. Therefore, if the 1976 The Correct Language: Tojolabal; A Grammar with title were meant to be aj k’uhul hu’n, it is likely that the Ethnographic Notes. Garland Publishing, New York. HUN element would have appeared more frequently Graham, Ian and earlier. Jackson and Stuart (2001:224-226) gloss 1975-Present Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions. 9 vols. their reading of aj k’uhun as “one who keeps/guards/ Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography, worships/venerates” on the back of similar meanings Harvard University, Cambridge.

18 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series

Graham, Ian, and Peter Mathews Morley, Sylvanus Griswold 1999 Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions, Volume 6, 1937 The Inscriptions of Peten. 5 vols. Carnegie Institution of Part 3: Tonina. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Washington, Washington, D.C. Ethnography, Harvard University, Cambridge. Pérez González, Benjamín and Santiago de la Cruz Heath de Zapata, Dorothy Andrews 1998 Diccionario Chontal: Chontal-Español Español-Chontal. 1980 Vocabulario de Mayathan. Merida. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City. Houston, Stephen D. 2009 Maya Multilinguals? Maya Decipherment: decipherment. Schele, Linda wordpress.com/2009/01/19/maya-multilinguals/. 1990 “End of” Expressions at Copán and Palenque. Copán Notes 69. University of Texas, Austin. Houston, Stephen, John Robertson, and David Stuart 2001 Quality and Quantity in Glyphic Nouns and Adjectives. Schele, Linda, Peter Mathews, and Floyd Lounsbury Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 47. Center for 1990 Untying the Headband. Texas Notes on Precolumbian Art, Maya Research, Washington, D.C. Writing, and Culture 4. Department of Art and Art History, University of Texas, Austin. Houston, Stephen, David Stuart, and John Robertson 2004 Disharmony in Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: Linguistic Schele, Linda and Jeffrey H. Miller Change and Continuity in Classic Society. In The Linguistics 1983 The Mirror, the Rabbit, and the Bundle: “Accession” of Maya Writing, edited by Søren Wichmann, pp. 83-99. Expressions from the Classic Maya Inscriptions. Studies in University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology 25. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington D.C. Hull, Kerry 2005 An Abbreviated Dictionary of Ch’orti’ Maya. Electronic Schumann G., Otto document, www.famsi.org/reports/03031/03031.pdf, 1973 La Lengua Chol, de Tila (Chiapas). Universidad Nacional accessed Febuary 9, 2009. Autónoma de México, Mexico City.

Jackson, Sarah and David Stuart Slocum, Marianna C., Florencia L. Gerdel, and Manuel Cruz 2001 The Aj K’uhun Title: Deciphering a Classic Maya Term of Aguilar Rank. Ancient Mesoamerica 12:217-228. 1999 Diccionario Tzeltal de Bachajón, Chiapas. Summer Institute of Linguistics, Mexico City. Keller, Kathryn C., and Placido Luciano G. 1997 Diccionario Chontal de Tabasco. Summer Institute of Stuart, David Linguistics, Tucson. 1998 The Decipherment of T128. Unpublished manuscript. 2005 The Inscriptions from Temple XIX at Palenque: A Commentary. K’ulb’il Yol Twitz Paxil (Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala) Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco. 2001 Ojronerob’ Ch’orti’: Vocabulario Ch’orti’. Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala, Guatemala City. Stuart, David, Stephen D. Houston, and John Robertson 1999 Recovering the Past: Classic Mayan Language and Classic Lacadena, Alfonso and Soren Wichmann Maya Gods. In Notebook for the XXIIIrd Maya Hieroglyphic 2004 On the Representation of the Glottal Stop in Maya Writing. Forum at Texas, pp. II:1–96. University of Texas Maya In The Linguistics of Maya Writing, edited by S. Wichmann, Workshop Foundation, Austin. pp. 100-164. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Thompson, J. Eric S. Lacadena, Alfonso 1960 Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction. University of 1996 A New Proposal for the Transcription of the A-k’u-na/A- Oklahoma Press, Norman. k’u-HUN-na Title. Mayab 10:46– 49. 1962 A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Laughlin, Robert M. 1975 The Great Tzotzil Dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacantim. Wisdom, Charles Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 1950 Materials on the Chorti Languages. Microfilm Collection of 1988 The Great Tzotzil Dictionary of Santo Domingo Zinacantán. Manuscripts on Middle American Cultural Anthropology 3 vols. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 31. 28. University of Chicago. Washington, D.C. Zender, Marc Uwe Lenkersdorf, Carlos 2004 A Study of Classic Maya Priesthood. Ph.D. dissertation, 1981 B’omak’umal tojol ab’al-kastiya: Diccionario tojolabal-espanol. University of Calgary. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. 2 vols. Editorial Nuestro Tiempo, Mexico City.

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19 by building up blankets, three of them, on the chicle under us. We bid goodbye to Don Manuel, to Carlos, the Belizano, and climbed aboard. The chauffeurs were tinkering with a part to replace part of the steering apparatus if it broke, which seemed a not remote contingency in the light of recent experience, and everything was at last ready to start. We pulled out of Rio Desempeño at 8:40, only 40 minutes after the boys said they would be ready, almost a record in our experience. It was hot and at first we did not use the single blanket Frances reserved to go over us. Undressing consisted in removing one’s shoes. In spite of the constant jarring and jolts we caught

Neg. No. 10313, Courtesy of the Museum of New Mexico. naps here and there and so the night advanced. Before midnight we caught up with the carts of chicle which had left El Rio at six and after fooling along behind them Morley's Diary,1932 for a considerable time the road widened at a despecho or alternative road to avoid a mud-hole where we Editor’s note passed them. These carts are hauled by six mules each and make fairly good time, themselves. A leading archaeologist of his time, Sylvanus Griswold Morley was an Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, We only bogged down once in the long akalche the foremost organization excavating archaeological sites in between Tumbo and El Rio, which had given us such Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras in the early part of the trouble coming in, and this caused only a slight loss of twentieth century. This diary continues his account of the time. And so bumping along, lurching along, and jolting Carnegie Institution’s expedition to Calakmul begun on April along Tuesday passed into Wednesday. 3, 1932. Morley’s professional companions were his wife Frances, Karl Rupert, John Bolles, and Gustav Stromsvic. April 27 - Wednesday Sleeping was only fitful as the bumps were continuous April 26 - Tuesday (cont.) though irregular and I was not sorry to reach Tanché Chicle-blocks which had been loaded on to these three sometime after midnight. We had a rather longish stop carts were removed and our own baggage divided into here while the truck was watered, oiled, and gasolined. I 3 parts loaded on in place. suspect the chauffeurs had a little coffee too as we heard We were to go on ahead mounted taking with us on laughing and chattering in a lighted hut nearby in spite our saddles, sleeping accoutrements, so that we could of the graveyardness of the hour. rest comfortably at Tanché until the carts caught up. Don We got under way again and I think I must have Manuel said if we left at six we should be a Tanché by slept more. I do not remember passing through the midnight, and from there we might be able – or might Maya village of Paso Hol. If the dogs barked they did not – to catch the greatly to be desired truck. not awaken me. Two of our boys at Calakmul, Lino and Happily these plans, which would have involved a Rafael Paat come from this village. long and tiring night ride for us never materialized, for Just beyond, i.e. this side now we crossed quite a just at six, the long awaited truck was heard snorting in hill, indeed a fair range, known locally as “El Cerro de the distance. It was our old friend “The San Juan” which la Paloma Blanca”, “The Hill of the White Pigeon”. This had brought us out and at the moment the only one of I do remember rumbling down, though afterward I fell Francisco Buenfil’s three trucks that would run. asleep again. I arranged with Don Manuel and the chauffeur When I awoke dawn was coloring the east and we that we would start back in it at once, i.e. after supper. were dashing along at a smart clip, perhaps 15 or even Frances ordered a third meal from the nice Señora who 18 miles an hour! We were in the flats just outside of La had given us breakfast and luncheon and as soon as the Gloria. truck was unloaded – corn was being brought in for the And here we nearly had trouble with the truck. The mules – a layer of chicle was stored on the bottom and boys had forgotten to fill the extra water tin at the last then our baggage went aboard. place where water was to be had and in consequence we Again Gustav superintended loading, lashing boxes, were blowing off steam at a great rate, the engine had kayaks, etc. down. Again sleeping space was reserved lost half of its pulling power and indeed was beginning for us at the front – Frances, myself, Karl, John and to pound. But La Gloria was actually round the next Gustav – then Tarsisio and Arturo and lastly Demetrio corner and an ayudante was sent ahead with the ever with his Simonita. Frances achieved almost a mattress faithful gasoline tin to get some water.

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