1 Concepts,Ideas and Terms

Thename Bharatvarsha Bharatvarsha wasgiventothewhole According to the scriptural description of the Brahmand, the entire Earth is called Bharatvarsha but particularly, the area of the continent that lies South of the countryafterthenameof is called Bharatvarsha. It is also called Aryavarta. The inhabitants of ancienttribe calledthe AryavartaarecalledasreferredintheRigVeda. Bharata andthepeople Thus, the words Bharatiya or Aryans were both used for the inhabitants of Bharatvarsha or Aryavarta. Persians used to call Hindu for the Sindhu river and werecalled thus, Hindustan came into being. The English called the river Sindhu, Indus and thus Bharatasantati.Our theEnglishnameforHindustanbecame India. ancientpoets, Sabha and Samiti philosophers A very striking feature of the Rigvedic polity was the institution of two political units known as the Sabha and the Samiti. The Sabha was a body of elders and was and writers viewedthe attended by persons of noble truth — and rich patrons. Judicial matters countryasan were decided by the Sabha and it was as important as the Samiti. The Samiti was an ordinary assembly of the tribe and its members were called Visha. The king integral unit.They attended the Samiti and the most important work of the Samiti was to elect the spoke oftheland king. Justice was based on and the king was the head of the judicial set up. The village head, Gramin led the villagers in time of war and attended the stretchingfromthe meetingsofthe Sabha and Samiti. Himalayasto thesea,as Varnasrama theproperdomainofa The word means colour and suggests the origin of the four classes, singleuniversal monarch. priest (), warrior (), peasant () and serf (Sudra) in the development of the old tribal class structure, through contact with people of differentcomplexionandalienculture. Asrama or Stage of life The life of an individual was divided into four stages : (Brahmacharya); on his investiture with the sacred thread and leading a celibate

1 4 UGC NET Tutor History

and austere life as a student at the home of his teacher, Doctrineof next having mastered the , he returned to his The doctrine, according to which actions have parental home and was married, becoming a householder consequences, that manifest themselves in present and (), when, well advanced in middle age, he left future lives. Jaina doctrine holds that jivas (souls) his home and went away to the forest to become a hermit transmigrate due to Karma, but its ideas of (); by meditation and penance, he freed his transmigration and karma are unique. Karma is soul from material things, until, atlast a very old man he understood as consisting of material particles floating left his hermitage and became a homeless wanderer about in space. Karmic matter is of different kinds – some (Sanyasin) withallhisearthlytiesbroken. havedirectlynegativeeffectson jiva andothersdonot. A special group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with dharma (righteous conduct) are collectively known as Dandaniti/ Dharmashastras. It recognises three sources of dharma: Dandaniti, the administration of force, or rajaniti; the Shruti (the Vedas), (the Smriti texts) and conduct of kings, was a severely practical science and the Sadachara (good custom and practices of the learned texts curiously dismiss the more philosophical aspect of people). A person’s dharma depends on gender, age, the state and the conduct of governmental affairs. The marital status, varna and . The four varnas are earliest and most important text book specifically devoted Brahmana,Kshatriya, Vaishya andSudra. to state-craft is the Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which is The first three are referred to in the Brahmanical tradition attributed to Kautilya, the famous Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. as Dvija (twice-born) as they alone have the right to the sacred—thread ceremony, which is considered similar to a Saptanga second birth. The ashrama system went through several stages of development and ultimately divided the life of a (Literally Meaning the Seven-Limbed State) dvija male into four stages: brahmacharya, grihasta, The Arthashastra is the first Indian text to define a state. vanaprastha and sanyasa. Its concept of saptanga rajya considers the state as consisting of seven inter-related and inter-locking Purusharthas constitutional limbs or elements (angas) Swami (the lord), Amatya (the ministers), Janapada (the territory and In , purushartha (that, which is sought by man) the people), (the fortified capital), Kosha (the refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. There are treasury), Danda (justice of force) and Mitra (ally). The generally considered to be four such purusharthas namely : idea of saptanga rajya was accepted with minor Dharma, , and . modifications in many Dharmashastra texts, the Samskaras andthe . The Dharmashastras describe the samskaras (literally Dharmavijaya preparation or arrangement) as rituals marking important (LiterallyMeaningLawfulConquest) stages of life such as (), Vivaha Dharmavijaya did not involve the absorbtion of the (marriage)and Antyeshti (funeraryrites). conquered kingdom, but merely its reduction to vassal status. Though, many later kings, such as Samudragupta According to the texts, there were some 40 ceremonies ignored the sacred law and incorporated conquered (samskara), which covered the whole life of a man from his kingdoms into their empires, custom was against this conception to his death; some of these were of great practice. importance and were performed by all respectable membersoftheAryanCommunity. Stupa/Chaitya The term chaitya means a sacred space, but is more specifically used to refer to Buddhist shrines. Many of the In Hinduism, yajna is a ritual of sacrifice derived from the early Buddhist cave shrines contained a stupa as the object of veneration and large independent stupas soon practice in Vedic times. Yajna is a ritual of sacrificing and came to form an integral part of Buddhist monastries. The sublimating the hawana samagri (herbal preparations) in stupa represented many things in Buddhist tradition. It thefireaccompaniedbythechantingofVedicmantras. stood for the axis mundi (the centre of the universe), it

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symbolised the parinibbana (the passing away of the MemorialStones Buddha) of the Buddha, it was a repository of relics of the The erection of memorials to honour the dead is an Buddha and it was also a place of veneration, worship and ancient and worldwide phenomenon. The memorials pilgrimageformonksandlaity. took different forms in different countries and times. In Nagara/Dravida/Vesara , the act of erecting memorials gets its firm foot in the megalithic culture. The gradual transformation • Nagara Style The Northern style of temple of the megalithic cult into the hero cult is reflected in architecture, marked among other things, by a Sangam literature. The rituals for erecting hero-stones curvilinear shikhar (tower). (Nadu kal) are also mentioned in Tamil grammatical • Dravida The Southern style of temple architecture, works. Specimens of hero-stones are available only from marked among other things, by a pyramidal shikhara 6thCEonwards. (tower). • Vesara A style of temple architecture, which has a Agraharas blend of elements associated with the Nagara and Agraharas is the name given to the quarter of a Dravida styles,alsoreferredtoas Karnata-Dravida. heterogenous village or to any village inhabited by . These were gifted to the Brahmanas by the Bodhisatva/Tirthankara king. Agraharas were also known as Chaturvedi-mangalams (Bodhisatva orFutureBuddha) in ancient times. Agraharas at times blossomed into The most direct implication of Mahayana ideas at the centres of traditional education and are well described in level of popular practice was the worship of Buddha and the ancient literary works and in the inscriptions of the Bodhisatvas in the form of images in shrines. The older various kings. Sometimes two or more agraharas were had considered the veneration of stupas and joined together to create a larger one, which was then relicsmeritorious,butnotessential. renamed. Mahayana attached great importance to devotion to the Khilafat Movement Buddha and Bodhisatvas. Tirthankara is another word for The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924), was a pan-Islamic jina and means ford-builder i.e., one, who builds fords, that political protest campaign launched by Muslims, in help people across the ocean of suffering. The word Jaina British India, to influence the British Government, to means follower of jina, which means victor, a person, who protect the Ottoman Empire during the aftermath of First has attained infinite knowledge and teaches others how to World War. This was an attempt by the Indian Muslim attain moksha, i.e., liberationfromthecycleofrebirth. Community to unite together in support of the Turkish Kara/Vishti empire, ruled by the Khalifa, which was attacked by European powers. The Muslims considered the Khalifa as Kara has been interpreted as regular revenue, periodical the custodian of Islam. The Khilafat Movement was tax or oppressive tax like vishti or forced labour, organised by the Ali Brothers, (Mohammad Ali and prevalentduringpost-Guptaperiod. Shaukat Ali against the injustices) done to Turkey (which Stridhana had fought against the British) after the First World War. There was a category of property–stridhana, over which Sulh-i-kul the smritikaras conceded, that a women did have rights. Sulh-i-kul literally means peace with all in Persian. The term Stridhana means women’s property, but referred specifically is associated with the Mughal emperor, Akbar the Great, to certain special kinds of moveable property given to a who integrated many into high positions in his woman on various occasions during her lifetime. These empire and removed many of the civil disabilities, to included presents (jewellery, clothes, household articles which Hindus had been subject in his empire. He also etc) given by her parents, at the time of marriage and by encouraged and participated in debates between her relatives on other occasions. The Dharmashastra authorities of various religious traditions and started his agreed, that stridhana was passed on from mother to own synchretic religiouscult. daughter.

3 6 UGC NET Tutor History

Sulh-i-kul was to become his method of judging, what was inheritance to the next generation. The Iqta system was legally right or wrong within his empire and was created. established in AD 9th century, to relieve the state Akbar understood that, he was trying to build political treasury, when insufficient tax revenue and little booty institutions for predominantly non-Muslim society. He from campaigns made it difficult for the government to wanted all his subjects to be judged equally before the payarmysalaries. law. Jizyah Maharashtra-Dharma Under Islamic law, jizyah is a per capita tax levied on a Maharashtra-dharma is a subject of absorbing interest. In section of an Islamic state’s, non-Muslim citizen, who the history of the Marathas, it has great significance since, meet certain criteria. The tax was to be levied on it was this concept, soul-stirring and dynamic, that gave able-bodied adult males of military age and affording moral sanction to the establishment of swarajya as well as power. From the point of view of the Muslim rulers, to its expansion into an empire, firing them with a jizyah was a material proof of the non-Muslims religious zeal in their political mission. At the same time, acceptanceofsubjectiontothestateanditslaws. it is highly controversial as it admits of no generally In return, non-Muslim citizens were permitted to practice acceptedinterpretation. their faith, to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy, to Turkan-i-Chahalgani be entitled to the Muslim states’s protection from outside aggression and to be exempted from military services and Qutb-ud-din was succeeded by Iltutmish of the Slave the zaqat taxes. The word jizyah is derived from the root dynasty (AD 1206-AD 1290), who made Delhi his word, that refers to ‘part’ hence taken from a part of the capital. His reign is marked by his efforts in securing his wealthofthenon-Muslimcitizen. throne from rivals, attacks by Chengiz Khan and the Mongol hovdes. Iltutmish organised his government and Madad-i-Maash made several reforms. First, he organised the ruling elite While the jagirdars were given revenue assignments in lieu or nobility, which is known as Turkan-i-chahalgani or of cash salary, there was another category, which was chalisa, means forty. It was an organisation of a group of given revenue grants for their subsistence. This was the fortyloyalnobles. class of religious men, who were patronised by the state. Baluta These grants were known as suyurghal or Madad-I-Maash (aid for subsistence). A department, Sadr-us-sudur looked The servants in the 18th century Maharashtrian village after these grants. If the aid was given in cash, it was categorised as twelve baluta servants served and were knownas wazifa. maintained by the village as a territorial whole. The Bara Balutedar system is a servant-system in Maharashtra’s Amaram villages, which occurs in some castes, who used to work The Nayakar and Ayagar systems were the backbones of for farmers in their surroundings. The balutedars, whose the Vijayanagara administration. Under the Nayakar services are still in demand are carpenters (sutar), the system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of barber (nhavi), idol-dresser (gurav), the water-carrier (koli), land called ‘amaram’. These chiefs called nayaks, had the shoe maker (chambhar), the watchman (mahar), the revenue and administrative rights on their lands. They blacksmith (lohar), the washerman (parit), the potter were required to maintain elephants, horses and soldiers (kumbhar)andtherope-maker (mang). in certain numbers, which were included in the royal Iqta armyduringwars. Iqta was an Islamic practice of tax-farming, that became Alvars/ common during the Buyid dynasty. Iqta was a form of The Alvars (those immersed in God) were Tamil administrative grant and its nature varied according to poet-saints of ancient India, who lived between the timeandplace. AD 6th and 9th centuries, espoused emotional devotion or The Iqta holders generally did not technically own the to - in their songs of longing, lands, but only assumed the right to the revenue of the ecstasy and service. The Nayanars were Shaivite land. Many Iqta holders did not hold their Iqtas for life, devotional poets of Tamil Nadu, active between the 5th and at least in most cases, they were not subject of and10thcentury.

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Nayanars were from varied backgrounds, ranging from Polygars kings and soldiers to untouchables. The foremost The Polygars were the offshoots of the Nayankara system Nayanars are: , , and prevalent in the Vijayanagara administration. They were . Together with the 12 Vaishnava Alvars, the quite similar to the Rajputs of and were given Nayanars are sometimes accounted as South India’s land in exchange for military service, when called upon. 75 apostles of bhakti because of their importance in the However, their influence and power increased beyond the riseofHindu . traditional lines and they often acted as sovereigns even Sreni to the extent of extracting taxes from people, but the company’sgovernmentsoughttocontrolthem. Sreni was an association of traders, merchants and artisans. Generally, a separate sreni existed for a Jagir particular group of persons engaged in the same vocation Jagir (ja-means place, gir-means keeping/holding) was a piece oractivity. Srenis arelike guilds. of land held by the mansabdar, which was granted by the Chauth Sultan, in recognition of his loyal service to the crown. A (FromtheSanskrit,MeaningOne-Fourth) jagir was technically a feudal life estate, as the grant lawfully reverted back to the monarch on death. The Chauth or Chauthai was an annual tax or tribute imposed jagirdar would typically reside at the capital, to serve as a from early 18th century by the Maratha empire in India. minister appearing twice a day before the monarch. The It was normally levied at 25% on revenue or produce, jagir system, during the Mughal empire was considered as hence, the name. The right to assess and collect this tax an institution, that was mainly used to reserve the surplus was asserted first by Shivaji in the later 17th century. The from the class of peasants and was also used to distribute Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the theincomeresourcesamongthedominatingclasses. Chauth. It is a tribute paid to the king. Chauth was levied on the promise, that the Marathas will not raid the areas, Dastur whichpaysthem Chauth. The Mughal Government supplied dastur-ul-amal or codes Hundi (BillsofExchange) of customary practice, explaining the mode of payment of land revenue at the tehsil. Taxes were levied and expenses The Indian name for Bills of Exchange is a Hundi. It is a paid in accordance with the dastur-ul-amal. After his written note given by one person to another, instructing a accession, Jahangir passed 12 orders (dastur-ul-amal) and third person to pay, whoever presents it to them, a sum of according to the 10th order hospitals were to be built in money. Bills of exchange appear to have been in use in all big cities and physicians were to be appointed and India from at least the 16th century. As a safety expenditure for this purpose were to be made from the precaution, the bills were only written in an elaborate Khalisa establishment(royaltreasury). script, which only bankers knew, how to read and write. Mansab Sarraf (Rank) Mansabdar was the generic term for military-type grading A community engaged in monetary transactions and of all imperial officials of the Mughal empire. The whose reference began to appear from the Sultanate mansabdars governed the empire and commanded its period.However,bythe Mughal period. armies in the emperor’s name. Though, they were usually Itdevelopedthreedistinctfunctions aristocrats, they did not form a feudal aristocracy, for 1. As money changers, the role of the Sarraf was, that he neither the officers nor the estates, that supported them was considered an expert in judging the metallic purity were hereditary. Mansab means rank and hence, of coins as well as their weight. He also determined the mansabdar means rank-holder, were of 3 classes : 7000- currentexchangerateofspecificcoins. 3000—Amir-i-azam, the greater nobles, 2500-500-Amir, noble; 400-20, mansabdar office holder. During the reign 2. As bankers, they received deposits and gave loans on of Akbar, the size of mansabs increased. Mansabdars were interest. given control over an area of land, a jagir, whose revenue 3. As traders, they dealt in gold, silver and jewellery. wastobeusedformaintainingtroops. Besides,theyalsoissued hundis orbillsofexchange.

5 8 UGC NET Tutor History

Deshmukh Shahna-i-Mandi Deshmukh (a patriot) was a historical title given to a Ala-ud-din Khalji’s measures did not remain confined to person, who was granted a territory of land in certain rural economy, but extended to the urban market as well. regions. In Marathi, desh means a country and mookh He is credited for issuing a set of 7 regulations, which means mouth, hence deshmukh means a spokesman of a came to be known as market control measures. He fixed district. It was the title given to a person, who was granted the prices of all commodities from grain to cloth, slaves, a territory of land in certain regions of India, specifically cattle etc. A controller of market, Shahna-i-mandi, Barid Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The granted (intelligence officers) and Minhiyan (secret spies) were territory was usually referred to as the deshmukhi and the appointed. The grain merchants were placed under the deshmukh was in effect the ruler of the territory, as he was Shahna-i-mandi and sureties were taken from him. All grain entitled to the collected taxes. It was also his duty to carriers (the caravan) of the kingdom were brought into a maintain the basic services of the territory, such as police single corporation (yak wujud), under the charge of and judicial duties. It was typically a hereditary system. Shahna-i-mandi. Nadu Jangama Nadu was the locality consisting of several settlements in Jangama are the Shaivite order of wandering religious early medieval South India. It was a more important unit mendicants. They are the priests or of the Shaivite, than the village. The term nadu also referred to the sect of the Lingayats. The word Jangam is derived from the assembly of the locality. Nadus were usually named after emblem (linga) of Lord . They migrated from one of the villages and varied a great deal in size Karnataka in order to propagate the Shaivite cult as to act indicating, that they were not artificial administrative as priests for those, who do not avail the services of divisions created by the state. Clusters of villages similar Brahmanasforperformingreligiousrites. to the nadu existed in the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. Membersof nadu assemblywereknownasthe Nattar. Dyarchy Pargana It is a system of Double-Government introduced by the Government of India Act (1919), for the provinces of A Pargana is former administrative unit of the Indian sub British India. It marked the first introduction of the continent, used primarily but not exclusively by the democratic principle into the executive branch of the Muslim kingdoms. Parganas were introduced by the British administration of India. Though much criticised, Delhi Sultanate, and the word is of Persian origin. As a it signified a break through in British Indian Government revenue unit, a pargana consists of several mouzas, which and was the forerunner of India’s full provincial are smallest revenue units, consisting of one or more autonomy (1935) and independence. Dyarchy was villages. introduced as a constitutional reform by Edwin Samuel Montagu (Secretary of State for India, 1917-22) and BengalVaishnavism LordChelmsford(ViceroyofIndia,1916-21). Bengal Vaishnavism or Gaudiya Vaishnavism after Federalism Bengal’s older name Gaur is unique in India in several ways. It claims, that Krishna is the supreme deity rather Federalism is a political concept, in which a group of than an incarnation of Vishnu and that he is in external members are bound together by covenant with a play(lila)withhisbelovedconsort . governing representative head. The term federalism is also used to describe a system of the government, in which The geographical focus of Bengali Vaishnavism is Nadiya sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central district, especially the town of Navadvipa, which has governing authority and constituent political units, (such some of the largest and best known communities. The asstatesorprovinces). Vaishnavite movement arose in the AD 11th and 12th centuriesinBengal. Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions, in which the power to govern is shared The 2 offshoots of Gaudiya (also Chaitanya) between National and Provincial/State Governments Vaishnavism are : Sahajiya or Tantiro Vaishnavism and creating, what is called a Federation. The Government of International Society for Krishna Consciousness Indiais organised alongfederalistlines. (ISKCON)or Hare Krishna.

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Utilitarianism Satyagraha It is a theory in normative ethics holding, that the proper Soul Force or Truth-Force, Satyagraha is a particular course of action is the one, that maximises overall philosophy and practice within the broader overall happiness. It is now generally taken to be a form of category known as non-violent resistance or civil consequentialism, although, when Anscombe first resistance. introduced that term, it was to distinguish between The term Satyagraha was coined and developed by ‘old-fashioned’utilitarianismand consequentialism. Mahatma Gandhi. He deployed Satyagraha in the Indian Independence Movement and also during his earlier FiltrationTheory strugglesinSouthAfrica. According to this theory, education is to be filtered to the Swadeshi common people. Drop by drop, the education should go Mahatma Gandhi was a champion of swadeshi or home to the common public so that, at due time it may take the economy. Gandhi’s vision of a free India was not a form of a vast stream. The company government needed nation-state but a confederation of self-governing, varioustypesofworkerstorunthegovernment. self-reliant and self-employed, people living in village They wanted to have cheap servants, who work in communities, deriving their right livelihood from their different capacities. This aim could be fulfilled only by ownproduce. the educated higher class of people of India, so they Swadeshi means local-self sufficiency and the Swadeshi started the policy of education of higher class. The British Movement, part of the Indian Independence Movement rules felt, that the educated Indians could then set an and the developing Indian nationalism was an economic exampletothelowerclasses. strategy aimed at removing the British Empire from power and improving economic conditions in India by ForwardPolicy following the principles of swadeshi. Strategies of the Swadeshi Movement involved boycotting British On 2nd November, 1961, the Indian Government issued products and the revival of domestic products and a directive for the implementation of what is called the productionprocesses. Forward Policy. This directive was passed on by the army headquarter to the area commanders concerned. The Orientalism premise of the Forward Policy was based on the assurances of the Civil Intelligence Bureau, whose views It is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural were shared by the chief of the general staff. The aim of studies scholars for the initiation and depiction of aspects the Forward Policy were to create outposts behind of middle Eastern and East Asian cultures by American advancing Chinese troops to interdict their supplies, andEuropeanwriters,designersandartists. forcing them North of the disputed line. In 1959, India started sending Indian troops and border patrols into De-Industrialisation disputedareas. The urban industry of India, at the beginning of the 19th century, was mainly in the nature of handicrafts, DoctrineofLapse producing fine textiles or other luxury products for the This doctrine was an annexation policy devised by Lord aristocracy. In handicraft, Indian urban industry had Dalhousie, who was the Governor-General of the East reached a high water-mark of excellence and enjoyed a India Company in India between 1848 and 1856. worldwidereputation. According to the doctrine, any princely state or territory The urban industry occupied a favourable and important under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British position in India’s economic activity. Inspite of this, we East India Company as a Vassal state under the British were confronted with the problem of rapid decline, both subsidiary system, would automatically be annexed, if the in artistic excellence and economic importance of these ruler was manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir. handicrafts, a decline which began as early as end of The latter supplanted the long established right of an 18th century and became very marked by the mid of Indian sovereign without an heir to choose a successor. 19th century. This process came to be known as The doctrine and its application were widely regarded by de-industrialisation. Indiansasillegitimate.

7 10 UGC NET Tutor History

Revivalism IndianRenaissance All political discourse that we can distinguish in Indian Indian Renaissance occurred after the emergence of the public life today can be traced back to India’s struggle for British forces, when a mass religious awakening took independence. The revivalist discourse, which gained place. The foremost reformists had undertaken the task considerable political ground in the 80’s can be traced withalotofeagernessandenthusiasm. back to the philosophical, religious and social Renaissance stands for rebirth and Indian renaissance movements, that originated in the latter half of the 19th refers to that period, which was marked by the quest of century as part of a quest for India’s independence from knowledgeanddevelopmentofscienceandarts. Britishrule. Communalism EconomicDrain To find out the real cause of poverty in India, more than India is a vast country, where people belonging to many 100 years ago Dadabhai Naoroji developed explicitly a religions live. Some of the important religions practiced drain theory and according to him this economic drain by by its people are Hinduism, Islam, , Buddhism, the alien ruler has a bleeding drain inherent in the built-in Jainism, Christianity and Zorastrianism. By communalism, mechanism, that extracted a large part of the revenue in we mean the opposition of religious communities to each the form of an export surplus from India and transfered it other. It means to distinguish people on the basis of toEnglandandotherEuropeancountries. religion. In India, the origin and growth of communalism can be traced to the pre-Independence days and the Colonialism policyofthedivideandrulebytheBritishrulers. Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, SubsidiaryAlliance acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by peoplefromanotherterritory. The doctrine of subsidiary alliance was introduced by Marques Wellesley, British Governor-General of India Provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India, from 1798 to 1805. Early in his governorship, Wellesley still earlier presidency towns and collectively British adopted a policy of non-intervention in the princely India, were the administrative units under the tenancy or states, but he later adopted the policy of forming the sovereignty of either the East India Company or the subsidiary alliances. Under this doctrine, Indian rulers Britishcrownbetween1612and1947. under British protection surrendered control of their foreign affairs to the British. Most disbanded their native Paramountcy armies, instead maintaining British troops within their The doctrine of paramountcy is the legal principle, that statestoprotectthemfromattack. reconciles contradicting or conflicting laws in a federalist state. Where both the Central Government and the Mercantilism Provincial or State Governments have the power to create The first phase of British rule can be termed as laws in relation to the same matters, the law of one exploitation by merchants in the context of mercantilism. government will be given priority over the other, through The main objective of the East India Company was to buy thedoctrine. as much as Indian goods as possible at the cheapest possible price. Mercantilism is the economic doctrine, in Evangelicalism which government control of foreign trade is of It is a Protestant Christian Movement, which began in paramount importance ensuring the prosperity and the 17th century and became an organised movement militarysecurityofthestate. with the emergence (around 1730) of the methodists in England and the pietists among lutherans in Germany and EconomicNationalism Scandinavia. It is a religious movement, that It is a term used to describe policies, which emphasise de-emphasises the pietism of the individual, requiring domestic control of the economy, labour and capital him/hertomeetcertainactivecommitments. formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labour, goods Bhudan/Bhoodan Movement and capital. It opposes globalisation in many cases or Bhudan or Bhoodan literally means land-gift. The atleast it questions the benefits of unrestricted free trade. Bhoodan Movement was a Voluntary Land Reform

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Movement in India started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in economy evolved, so, that both the private and public 1951, started at Poochampally village, now known as sectorscouldcontributetotheprocessofgrowth. Bhoodan Poochampally. The movement was an attempt at land reform and it intended to solve the land IndianLeft problem in the country in a noble way by making land In general, the left-wing tends to uphold a secular society, available to the most disadvantaged class of Indian egalitarian and multi-cultural. Depending on the balance societybydistributionoflandbyvoluntarydonations. of all these factors, the political left is divided into many branches ideologically. Left front is an alliance of Indian Panchsheel leftist parties. In West Bengal and Tripura, there are state The five principles of peaceful co-existence known in level committees of the left front. In West Bengal, some India as the Panchsheel (Panch five, Sheel : virtues) are a of the left front parties are the Communist Party of India set of principles to govern relations between states. Their (Marxist), the CPI, All India Forward Bloc; in Tripura it first formal codification in treaty form was an agreement is-CPI (M), CPI , RSP and AIFB; in Kerala- CPI (M), CPI, between China and India in 1954. They were inunciated RSP and AIFB, in Maharashtra— parties such as Peasant in the Preamble to the ‘Agreement(with exchange of and Workers Party of India, Kamgar Aghadi and allies of notes) on trade and intercourse, between Tibet region of theleftfront. China and India’, which was signed at Peking on 29th April,1954. HinduCodeBills Thisagreementstated5principles Following independence for India, the post-colonial 1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and government led by Jawaharlal Nehru, completed the sovereignty. codification and reform of Hindu Personal Law, a process, 2. Mutual non-agression. that had begun by the British. Accounting to the British 3. Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal policy of non-interference, reform of personal law should affairs. have arisen from a demand from the Hindu community. 4. Equalityandmutualbenefit. This was not the case, as there was significant opposition 5. Peacefulco-existence. from various Hindu politicians, organisations and devotees, who saw themselves unjustly singled out as the MixedEconomy sole religious community, whose laws were to be reformed. However, the administration saw such Mixed economy implies demarcation and harmonisation codification as necessary in order to unify the Hindu of the public and private sectors. In it, free functioning of community, which ideally would be a first step towards the market mechanism is not permitted and the unifyingthenation. government intervenes or regulates the private sector in such a way, that the 2 sectors become mutually Theysucceededinpassing4HinducodeBillswhichwere reinforcing. A mixed economy represents and achievable 1. TheHinduMarriageAct,(1955) balance between individual initiative and social goals. 2. TheHinduSuccessionAct,(1956) Planning and market mechanisms are so adjusted, that 3. HinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct,(1956) each is used for realising the objectives of the economy, to 4. HinduAdoptionsandMaintenanceAct,(1956) which it is most suited. In India, the concept of mixed

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