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The Transport and Fate of Detonation Residues Originating from Cracked Unexploded Ordnance in the Vadose Zone

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The Transport and Fate of Detonation Residues Originating from Cracked Unexploded Ordnance in the Vadose Zone Université du Québec INRS-EAU, TERRE ET ENVIRONNEMENT THE TRANSPORT AND FATE OF DETONATION RESIDUES ORIGINATING FROM CRACKED UNEXPLODED ORDNANCE IN THE VADOSE ZONE Thèse présentée par Jeffrey Lewis Pour l’obtention du grade de docteur de philosophie (Ph.D.) Jury d’évaluation Guy Ampleman, Ph.D. Jean Caron, Ph.D. Richard Martel, Ph.D. Susan Taylor, Ph.D Sonia Thiboutot Ph.D. Président du jury Jean Caron, Département des Sols et de Génie Université Laval, Québec, QC Examinateurs externes Jean Caron, Département des Sols et de Génie Université Laval, Québec, QC Susan Taylor, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire Examinateur interne Guy Mercier, INRS-ETE Directeur de recherche Richard Martel, INRS-ETE Co-directeurs de recherche Sonia Thiboutot, RDDC-Valcartier Guy Ampleman, RDDC-Valcartier Décembre 2007 © droits réservés Jeffrey Lewis, 2007 SOMMAIRE Ce travail porte sur le transport des matériaux énergétiques (ME) dissous en transit dans la zone vadose. Contrairement à la plupart des études publiées dans ce champ d’expertise, notre travail présente une approche d’ingénierie. Pour cette recherche, les conditions climatiques et les sources d’explosifs ont été reproduites en laboratoire dans l’objectif de produire de l’information applicable aux champs de tirs des secteurs d’entraînement. De grandes colonnes de sol non saturé ont été construites et placées dans un laboratoire à conditions climatiques contrôlées. Les précipitations et la température ont été ajustées pour reproduire les conditions réelles observées au champ de tir Arnhem, sur la base des forces Canadiennes (BFC) de Valcartier. La BFC de Valcartier est localisée à 25 km au nord de la ville de Québec. Le champ de tir repose sur un dépôt de sable moyen d’origine glaciaire et deltaïque. Le sable d’origine glaciaire d’Arnhem a été mis dans les colonnes. Les sources d’explosifs ont été générées avec des mortiers de 81 mm à l’explosif brisant remplis avec de la composition B. La composition B est une combinaison de 60% de 1,3,5- trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), de 39% de trinitrotoluène (TNT) et de 1% de cire. La composition B et ses composantes explosives RDX et TNT sont souvent utilisées dans les munitions militaires. Il était donc nécessaire de produire artificiellement des sources de contaminants à partir de ces munitions, dans des conditions contrôlées. Il est extrêmement difficile et dangereux de trouver et de récupérer des munitions non explosées (UXO – de l’expression anglaise unexploded ordnance) sur les champs de tirs. Il y a plusieurs façons de créer des UXO’s. Cela peut être fait par des détonateurs défectifs, par l’impact de la munition sur les sols mous, par déflection, par des vides créés lors du remplissage en explosif de la munition, ou encore par les détonateurs qui sont mal ajustés ou mal installés. Toutes les différentes sortes de munitions explosives peuvent générer des UXO. Le taux de production de UXO se chiffre entre 3-5%, selon le type de munition. La façon aléatoire dont les UXO’s sont produits, l’accès difficile au terrain et le fait que la plupart des UXO’s sont enterrés rend la tâche de trouver deux UXO identiques impossible. La similarité entre les sources d’explosifs disposées sur les colonnes expérimentales est très importante pour comparer les résultats. Pour ces raisons, il était nécessaire de produire des UXO’s de façon contrôlée. iii La génération expérimentale des sources d’explosifs a permis de démontrer expérimentalement pour la première fois le phénomène des munitions fendues. Les munitions fendent quand un UXO qui est déjà en place sur le terrain est frappé par un fragment d’une autre munition qui explose à proximité. Les fragments pénètrent l’extérieur de l’UXO et projettent les particules du remplissage d’explosif aux alentours du UXO. De plus, l’extérieur fendu de l’UXO laisse l’explosif qui reste à l’intérieur disponible pour la dissolution par l’eau qui entre en contact par les fissures. L’UXO qui est frappé par le fragment ne détonne pas. Il a été démontré que les munitions fendues produisent de grandes quantités d’explosifs qui sont disponibles pour être transportées dans la zone vadose. Jusqu’à 165.9 grammes de particules de composition B ont été mesurés autour d’une munition fendue, suite à l’impact de fragments. Puisque ces quantités d’explosifs peuvent être projetées dans l’environnement, les munitions fendues pourraient être des sources importantes de matériaux énergétiques sur les champs de tir, même si elles ne sont pas produites souvent. Il a été démontré que la distance idéale entre les deux munitions pour produire des munitions fendues varie entre 15 et 200 cm. Si les munitions sont plus près de 15 cm l’une de l’autre, l’UXO détonne au lieu de se fendre. Si elles sont plus eloignées que 200 cm l’une de l’autre, très peu de fragments pénètrent l’acier du UXO. Ces sources d’explosifs ont été mises à la surface des colonnes de sols de 60 cm de diamètre et qui contiennent une épaisseur de sable de 60 cm. Ces colonnes ont été exposées à une année d’infiltration qui reproduisait les cycles de précipitation, d’évaporation et de transpiration pour la région de la BFC de Valcartier. Le cycle annuel de précipitation dans cette région est caractérisé par deux événements majeurs, soit la fonte de la neige au printemps et les fortes pluies en automne. Il n’y a presque aucune infiltration pendant l’hiver et l’été. L’eau qui s’écoulait à travers les colonnes était recueillie et analysée pour son contenu en explosifs par chromatographie liquide de haute performance (HPLC), selon la méthode EPA 8330. Les concentrations en matériaux énergétiques dans l’eau sortant des colonnes étaient près des valeurs de saturation, après deux semaines d’infiltration. La première période d’infiltration a reproduit la fonte de la neige. L’hypothèse qui explique pourquoi ces valeurs sont aussi élevées est que les particules très fines du résidu de détonation provenant des munitions fendues sont dissoutes très rapidement. Les particules fines ont un ratio surface spécifique élevé, ce qui accélère les cinétiques de dissolution, malgré les valeurs de solubilité qui sont très faibles pour les explosifs. Vers la fin de la première période d’infiltration, les concentrations d’explosifs dans iv l’eau ont commencé à diminuer. Ceci est une indication que les fractions très fines des résidus de détonation ont été complètement dissoutes. Une des colonnes de sol était utilisée pour une expérience avec un traceur inerte et ne contenait aucun explosif. Dix grammes de KBr ont été mis sur la surface au début de l’expérience et les concentrations en bromure étaient mesurées dans l’effluent de la colonne. Le bromure est un traceur inerte et sa concentration dans l’effluent était utilisée pour la caractérisation de l’écoulement non saturé dans les colonnes. La courbe des concentrations « bromure vs. temps » était aussi utilisée pour la calibration du modèle numérique d’écoulement dans les colonnes. Le facteur de retard pour les trois explosifs TNT, RDX et HMX a été de 1.56 + 0.5, ce qui indique que le temps nécessaire pour que ces trois composés sortent de la colonne est de 1.56 fois plus long que pour le bromure. Ceci est une indication d’adsorption minimale des matériaux énergétiques sur le sol sableux dans les colonnes. Les coefficients d’adsorption mesurés étaient de 0.123 L/kg pour le TNT, de 0.091 L/kg pour le RDX et de 0.18 L/kg pour le HMX. Ces valeurs sont en accord avec les valeurs de la littérature. Ces faibles valeurs sont une autre indication qu’il y a très peu d’adsorption de ces trois composés sur le sol, dans les colonnes provenant de la zone vadose du champ de tir Arnhem. La période d’infiltration du printemps était suivie par quatre mois de sécheresse. Pendant les mois d’été au Québec, les pertes d’humidité par évaporation et transpiration sont équivalentes aux précipitations. Il n’y a donc pas d’écoulement vers la zone vadose. Pendant le période d’infiltration d’automne qui a suivi les quatre mois de sécheresse, les concentrations initiales en composantes explosives dans l’effluent des colonnes ont augmenté très brièvement jusqu’aux valeurs de saturation. Ceci s’explique par une dissolution des résidus de détonation dans les eaux interstitielles qui étaient immobiles pendant la période de sécheresse. Cette masse dissoute très mobile a été immédiatement transportée dans la zone vadose lorsque l’infiltration d’automne a débuté. Pendant les infiltrations du printemps et de l’automne, les concentrations en produits de dégradation du TNT dans l’eau de l’effluent étaient en général de plus d’un ordre de grandeurs plus faibles que les concentrations en TNT. Ceci est une indication de la vitesse à laquelle ces composantes sont transportées dans la zone vadose : il n’y a pas eu assez de temps pour que la transformation du TNT commence. v Les expériences de dissolution ont démontré que la fraction la plus fine des résidus de détonation a produit les concentrations les plus fortes dans l’eau, par rapport à la masse initiale. Les cinétiques de dissolution sont quant à elles linéaires et proportionnelles à la dimension des grains de résidus de détonation. De plus, les résultats préliminaires de dissolution supportent l’hypothèse que la fraction la plus fine des résidus de détonation est dissoute rapidement. Par contre, une fois que ces grains fins sont complètement dissous, les concentrations en matériaux énergétiques dans l’eau commencent à diminuer.
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