antarc tic [I OFTHE hUN (TED JJxu1 U STATES

December 1988 National Science Foundation Volume XXIII—Number 4

New data reveal shallower ozone hole

Using data obtained from ground- Although chlorine is the key ingre- based and balloon-borne instruments dient in the ozone destruction cycle and the Total Ozone Mapping Spec- above Antarctica, a strong polar vortex trometer (TOMS) aboard the Nimbus-7 centered over the pole, extremely low satellite, atmospheric scientists found temperatures in the lower stratosphere, that the ozone layer above Antarctica and polar stratospheric clouds also must thinned by only 10 to 15 percent in Oc- be present. The polar vortex is a strong tober 1988. This change did not surprise belt of westerly winds that seal off the researchers. According to NASA scien- antarctic atmosphere and prevent it from tists, they had predicted a moderation in mixing with warmer air and ozone from the depletion but had expected the de- northern latitudes. This isolation cou- pletion to slightly greater-25 to 30 per- pled with lower stratospheric tem- cent rather—than what was actually peratures (below -80°C) sets up the nec- observed. essary conditions for the formation of These measurements sharply contrast polar stratospheric clouds (PSC). The ice with those acquired last year, when crystals that make up PSCs contain nitro- ozone levels in the antarctic stratosphere gen that would normally make chlorine dropped to the lowest ever recorded. harmless, and provide reactive surfaces During the same period in 1987 total that convert nondestructive chlorine ozone abundance in the area of the de- molecules to destructive chlorine mole- pletion had dropped to 50 percent below cules through a series of heterogeneous Owl normal winter levels, while in some reactions. areas instruments recorded levels as Approximately 1 year ago, researchers much as 90 percent below normal. recognized that the severity of the ozone depletion could be linked to the direc- tional change in wind flow patterns in the lower stratosphere over the equator. Called quasi-biennial oscillation, these In this issue. Aw New data reveal shallower winds have a 26-month cycle during ozone hole ...... which their flow changes directions. NSB approves Foundation plan During 1987 when the greatest ozone to implement polar regions losses were measured, westerly winds ,. H recommendations ...... 2 were dominant. However, 1988 the Designing a new science facility winds changed to an easterly flow for McMurdo Station ...... 4 pattern. - U.S. Antarctic Safety Panel submits final report and The 1988 change in stratospheric recommendations ...... weather patterns apparently pushed the Sweden and Spain become Antarctic . polar vortex north. With warmer air con- Treaty Consultative Parties... . .7 taining more ozone circulating, the polar The austral crescent ...... 7 vortex was weakened. This change raises Treaty nations agree to regime temperatures in the stratosphere above for managing mineral the southern continent. In fact, 1988 resource activities ...... 13 temperatures in the antarctic strat- Observations of birds and marine osphere were 10°C higher than last year. mammals at Palmer Station, Also, balloon observations at McMurdo November 1985 to November 1986 .14 An evaluation of the Station showed that strong winds ap- NASA photo by Larry Sammons. Amundsen-Scott South Pole peared to be bringing ozone-rich air into Station power source...... 18 stratosphere at altitudes above the de- Errata ...... 19 pleted area. Atmospheric researchers prepare to launch an Foundation awards of funds for instrumented balloon near McMurdo Station in The lower levels of depletion this year 1987. This year observations made using sim- antarctic projects, 1 July emphasize that temperature and weather to 30 September 1988 ...... 19 ilar instruments indicate that more ozone-rich Weather at U.S. stations ...... 23 patterns have a significant part in the air is entering the stratosphere at altitudes ozone-destruction cycle and apparently above the area of ozone depletion. control the degree of loss. However, sci- ommendations are already being imple- entists are sill unsure about how the pol- NSB approves mented; others will be carried out in the ar vortex and quasi-biennial oscillation Foundation plan to future. Also, these activities reaffirm the are linked. Added to this controversy is Foundations dedication to improving the discovery that sunspots also affect implement polar regions understanding of the role played by the polar temperatures. recommendations polar regions in global change and its Scientists point out that these facts effects on the geosphere and biosphere. raise new questions about ozone deple- Table 2 summarizes the recommenda- tion and climate change. For example, At the March 1988 meeting of the Na- tions, which the committee divided into although the "greenhouse effect" warms tional Science Board (NSB), the Founda- three categories—research, support, the lower stratosphere, it cools the upper tions Director Erich Bloch presented the and policy. For each recommendation ex- stratosphere. This suggests that ozone NSF plan to implement 15 recommenda- amples of programs and plans related to depletion could occur in other parts of tions developed by a special NSB com- antarctic research is provided. However, the world, if the temperatures were low mittee to strengthen the National Sci- the following outlines the topics covered enough and circulation patterns ence Foundations role in polar research. by the recommendations and the current changed. The recommendations, accepted by the and planned activities to implement Also the relationship between lower Board at its July 1987 meeting, resulted them. temperatures and greater ozone destruc- from a year-long study of how the Foun- Research. The recommendations call tion suggests that ozone depletion could dation can ensure strong, high-quality for a doubling of NSF funds available to occur over the Arctic, despite the dif- programs in the Antarctic and Arctic. support polar research over the next 3 ferences in arctic and antarctic climate When the Board accepted the recom- years, beginning with the 1989 budget. dynamics. Observations made during mendations, the members requested Several areas are highlighted for special January and February 1988 above Green- that Mr. Bloch develop an implementa- consideration—basic engineering re- land showed that similar chemical reac- tion plan. Because of the wide scope of search in the polar regions, research into tions were occurring but not at the level the recommendations, a cross-directo- the origins and culture of Arctic peoples, of those occurring over the Antarctic. rate committee, chaired by Anton Inder- and more emphasis on health, medicine, bitzen and Jerry Brown of the Division of and social sciences research in the polar Polar Programs, was formed. The mem- regions. bers with their respective affiliations are Table 3 shows the planned increases listed in table 1. that are necessary to meet the recom- In developing the implementation mended doubling of funding for arctic plan, the committee reviewed the polar and antarctic research. The implementa- regions report and recommendations, tion plan lists past, present, and future I1 along with existing and planned re- engineering studies, descriptions of NSF search programs of the Foundation. The activities to implement other recommen- resulting report and implementation dations, and 15 activities directed toward plan illustrate the diversity of current learn more about the history of Arctic and planned NSF activities related to the peoples and polar aspects of health, polar regions. Although the required medical, and social sciences. Editor Winifred Reuning effort to reach the objectives of each rec- Support. Eight recommendations focus Antarctic Journal of the United ommendation varies, many of the rec- on providing more effective support to States, established in 1966, reports on U.S. activities in Antarctica and Table 1. Members of the NSF-wide committee related activities elsewhere, and on trends in the U.S. Antarctic Research Program. It is published quarterly Chairmen (March, June, September, and De- Jerry Brown, Division of Polar Programs cember) with a fifth annual review Anton L. lnderbitzen, Division of Polar Programs issue by the Division of Polar Pro- grams, National Science Foun- Geosciences Directorate dation, Washington, D.C. 20550. Telephone: 202/357-7817. Louis B. Brown, Division of Ocean Sciences H. Lawrence Clark, Division of Ocean Sciences The Antarctic Journal is sold by the Brian A. Tinsley, Division of Atmospheric Sciences copy or on subscription through the Thomas 0. Wright, Division of Earth Sciences U.S. Government Printing Office. Re- Ronald R. La Count, Division of Polar Programs quests for prices of individual issues Whitney S. Slater, Division of Polar Programs and subscriptions, address changes, Ted E. DeLaca, Division of Polar Programs and information about other subscrip- tion matters should be sent to the Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences Directorate Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Richard T Louttit, Division of Behavioral and Neural Sciences Government Printing Office. Washing- ton, D.C. 20402. Engineering Directorate The Director of the National Science William S. Butcher, Engineering Infrastructure Development Office Foundation has determined that the publication of this periodical is nec- Science and Engineering Education Directorate essary in the transaction of the Theodore L. Reid, Undergraduate Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Education Office public business required by law of this agency. Use of funds for print- Mathematical and Physical Sciences Directorate ing this periodical has been approved Adrian M. DeGraaf, Division of Material Research by the director of the Office of Man- agement and Budget through 31 Office of Budget and Control March 1991. Richard Wright, Program Analysis Section

2 Antarctic Journal Table 2. NSFs Role in the Polar Regions: NSB antarctic-related recommendations and NSF plans for implementation.

Recommendation Examples of number Recommendation implementation

Part 1—Research

15 Double polar budget in 3 years 1. See table 3 for proposed funding amounts 2. Participate in world- wide environmental change research: ice coring and glacial ice sheet studies on global climate history and sea-level change 3. Establish a Long-Term Environmental Research Project in the Antarctic Peninsula and/or McMurdo Sound

14 Conduct basic engineering research and develop 1. Study by the U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory of operational knowledge foundation design on snow 2. Develop a method to prepare hard-surface runways for wheeled airplanes in polar regions 3. Develop an air- transportable field laboratory

5 Support basic social sciences 1. Expand behavioral, psychological, and medical research in Antarctica 2. Cosponsor with NASA, a conference on the psychological and physiological reactions of people in isolated and hazardous stations

Part II—Support 1 Logistics support research 1. Construct a large multi-disciplinary laboratory at McMurdo Station 2. Acquire an ice- breaking research ship for antarctic research

2 Establish a network of support centers 1. Develop a new support for polar ice-coring 2. Plan and develop a new international antarctic center in Christchurch, New Zealand

7 Acquire ice-capable research vessels 1. Obtain a new ship for antarctic research

8 Seek industry participation in construction and logistics 1. Purchase a hovercraft for use in Antarctica support 2. Work with Army and Navy experts in cold- regions design and construction

10 Fund remote and automated data systems 1. For the Antarctic develop communications for near and real-time data transmission and search and rescue 2. Explore use of meteorburst technology to augment high- frequency and intra-continental data/communications 3. Develop new air droppable " automatic weather stations

9 Upgrade health, safety, environmental practices 1. Review by an independent committee of antarctic health, safety, and environmental practices 2. Prepare an environmental protection plan for the antarctic program 3. Review existing USAP environmental impact statement

11 Review antarctic naval support 1. Transfer, where possible, support functions from the U.S. Navy to the civilian contractor 2. Identify civilian and military responsibilties overlap or are duplicated

Part Ill—Policy

4 Devleop interagency national polar research plan 1. Form an interagency committee, through the Antarctic Policy Group, to review NSF plans and help formulate an integrated, interagency plan

12 Increase involvement in development of polar policy 1. Establish and organize international working group, Managers of National Antarctic Programs 2. Send NSF delegates to special treaty-related meetings 3. Work with other nations to reorganize the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research

13 Seek national legislation on tourism indemnity 1. Work with other nations to develop a code of conduct for tourist groups 2. Analyze feasibility of legislation

December 1988 3 Table 3. Funding for NSF antarctic and arctic science programs, 1988-1991, in millions of arctic and provide improved information dollars and data acquisition, handling, and com- munications. Six activities described in the plan focus on current and planned FY90 FY91 FY88 FY89 upgrades to the antarctic infrastructure that are related to arctic technologies and Antarctic 12.6 14:6 20.0 26.0 cooperation with other organizations. Arctic 18.5 22.7 30.7 38.7 Policy. The NSB special committee rec- ommended that NSF develop an inter- 50.7 64.7 Total 31.1 37.3 agency national plan for polar research, encourage and guide national and inter- national discussions concerning the safe- polar research and include environmental practices in Antarctica. ty and conduct of tourists in Antarctica, • ice-capable research vessels The implementation plan lists various and increase its role in developing polar • research support centers projects, among which are the con- policy. In response the implementation • transfer of industrial knowledge tinuing assessment of the antarctic work plan describes current and proposed and experience from the Arctic to the force, plans to procure a research ice- projects that lead to developing a na- Antarctic breaking ship for the Antarctic, the prep- tional polar research plan and three ac- • remote automated data systems aration of an Environmental Protection tivities that focused on antarctic tourism. • logistics to support arctic research Plan, and a review by a Blue Ribbon Safe- Also, 11 activities in the plan detail how • review of antarctic naval support ty Panel. It identifies technologies that NSF is enhancing its role in polar policy • an upgrade of health, safety, and are applicable to both Arctic and Ant- formulation.

The development of a design plan Designing a new science facility for In the fall of 1984, the National Science Foundation (NSF) contracted with the McMurdo Station Pacific Division of Naval Facilities Engi- neering Command in Honolulu, Hawaii Ground was broken for McMurdo Sta- ence program has expanded and (PACDIV) for design of the new antarctic tions new science laboratory on 9 Janu- changed. Scientists no longer come to science laboratory. As NSFs agent PAC- ary 1988. Dr. Peter Wilkniss, Director of Antarctica merely to survey the con- DIV selected the CJS Group Architects, the National Science Foundations Divi- tinent and the surrounding oceans. In- Ltd., from Honolulu, to survey the exist- sion of Polar Programs, hosted the cere- stead they come to Antarctica to study ing science facilities at McMurdo Station. mony, which was attended by many of problems that have global significance. Two members of the CJS design staff, S. the stations residents. Distinguished To keep pace with a rapidly changing Lee Davis and Joseph Ferraro visited guests of the U.S. Antarctic Program- science program, the early laboratories McMurdo Station from 22 December U.S. Congressmen Alan B. Mollohan were enlarged and modified—and re- 1984 to 18 January 1985, when many sci- (D., Virginia) and Tim Valentine (D., modified. Today these buildings are in- ence projects were underway. They vis- North Carolina) and National Science adequate and outdated and, in some ited and surveyed all of the science facili- Board members Dr. Craig Black and Dr. cases, fall short of recognized safety ties at the station, interviewing about 50 Frank Rhodes—honored the gathering standards. The new facility, designed to researchers, NSF staff members at by participating in the ceremony. alleviate such problems, will provide sci- McMurdo, and support staff from NSFs For many years the National Science entists with not only adequate work contractor ITT/Antarctic Services, Inc. Foundation (NSF), manager of the U.S. space but also modern equipment. The Interviews were conducted individually program in Antarctica, has recognized building is designed for maximum flex- and by support or science discipline that a replacement for the existing labo- ibility so that as the science program ratory facilities at McMurdo Station was changes in the future, it will be possible needed. Since the first temporary labora- to alter the building to meet new Nlr. Ferraro is now with the firm Ferraro, Choi tory was opened in April 1959, the sci- demands. and Associates, Honolulu.

To improve support to scientists working in Antarctica as part of the U.S. Antarctic Program, the National Science Foundation began in 1984 planning the construction of a new multi-disciplinary science facility for McMurdo Station. Employees of ITT/Antarctic Services Inc., the NSF support contractor prepared the area for the new laboratory drawing the 1987-1988 austral summer and began laying the foundations at the beginning of the 1988-1989 season.

NASA photo by Larry Sammons.

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Antarctic Journal group. Each person or group was inter- This close coordination among users, a shipping and receiving area, and viewed several times, yielding a com- owner, design agent, designers, and offices. pendium of data that, after analysis, was construction contractor has contributed The flexible design allows for varia- used to form a design plan. to the success of the project thus far. tions in the function of spaces, for the Environmental considerations. The The final design of the facility includes present as well as the future, as research climate and terrain of Ross Island pre- a core pod or wing containing admin- emphasis changes. Removable parti- sented some unique design problems for istrative and other functions common to tions at office groupings provide flex- the architects.. McMurdo Station (7751S all science disciplines. Each discipline ibility and are compatible with the se- 166°40W) is built on the bare volcanic group will have a pod or wing connected lected furnishing modules. Operable rock of Hut Point Peninsula on Ross Is- to the rest of the facility by a circulation partitions are used in the library and land, approximately 2,100 statute miles spine. In the future, the laboratory could conference areas. south of New Zealand. Recorded tem- be expanded by building outward from perature extremes range from —57°F each wing or by adding pods to the Design specifications for construction (-50°C) to +47°F (+8°C). The annual spine. Designed to withstand the extreme mean temperature is 0°F (-18C). The 45,650-square-foot (4,240-square- variations of weather conditions, the Monthly mean temperatures range from meter) facility will consist of five pods all new facility has an expected life of at least +27F (-3C) in January (austral sum- linked by a circulation spine: 20 years and is considered to be a "per- mer) to - 18°F (- 28°C) in August (aus- • Core. The core pod (12,500 square manent" structure. Its exterior design tral winter). Drifting snow can accumu- feet or 1,160 square meters) houses gen- will make it a prominent feature at late about 5 feet (1.5 meters) per year, eral offices, library, conference rooms, a McMurdo Station, and its interior en- although during the austral summer the photography laboratory, a small com- vironment will enhance the research station is relatively snow-free. Average puter room, glassware washing and stor- efforts. The facility is capable of being wind speed is about 10 knots (12 miles age rooms, and shipping/receiving plus fully functional year-round, although per hour or 5 meters per second), though various storage rooms. Special rooms for portions of the building can be deacti- gusts can exceed 100 knots (116 miles per vibration-sensitive equipment would be vated during the winter when science hour or 52 meters per second). Local fea- in the core pod. activities are minimal. tures include Mount Erebus (an active • Biology. The biology pod (15,500 Classified "industrial" and designated volcano), McMurdo Sound, the Ross Ice square feet or 1,440 square meters) in- ordinary hazard group 3 for most areas, Shelf, and the ice-free dry valleys of cludes microbiology, general biology, the building will have a sprinkler system southern Victoria Land. and physiological biology laboratories, throughout with service from a hydro- CJS conducted a site analysis, study- offices for the researchers, clean rooms, pneumatic storage tank that has a 15- ing several sites in and near McMurdo preparation rooms, and environmental minute supply. Station, then recommended a specific chambers. Chemical and flammable The mechanical systems will ensure a building site. As CJS developed its plan storage rooms and a field-party staging healthy, constant interior climate and in- for the new laboratory, they integrated area are also part of the design. clude back-up equipment in the event of the needs of the users carefully with the • Aquarium. The aquarium (4,200 failure. Laboratory environmental demands of the severe environment. square feet or 390 square meters) in- health and safety considerations are part Science support considerations. The cludes a holding tank area with piped of the design and were reviewed by E. resulting plan included a list and analy- ambient temperature salt water (about Robinson Hoyle of Arthur D. Little, Inc., sis of current facilities, a determination of —1.8°C or + 28°F) and a laboratory. Cambridge, Massachusetts. The me- how space would be used (e.g., labs, • Earth sciences (including \ lacu locy and chanical systems will provide 10 cubic storage, offices, etc.) and how much ocean sciences). The earth sciences pod feet per minute (0.28 cubic meters per space was required presently and in the (6,300 square feet or 585 square meters) minute) per person of fresh air in the future, and an assessment of the rela- features a rough-cut and sectioning laboratories and 5 cubic feet per minute tionships between the various scientific room, environmental rooms, instrument (0.14 cubic meters per minute) per per- disciplines. Because the science program rooms, and a laboratory. It also has of- son in other areas. In the occupied mode, evolves in response to the science com- fices for the researchers, a loading dock, the building occupancy is planned for 24 munity, CJS recommended a "pod" con- and a shipping and receiving area. hours per day, 7 days per week. Ventila- cept to allow for changes in program em- • Atmospheric sciences. The atmos- tion in occupied laboratories is specified phasis and for growth. pheric sciences pod (5,500 square feet or at 10 air changes per hour. The operating CJS presented the initial plan to NSF 510 square meters) includes an elec- capacity is based on the actual installed and members of the polar science com- tronics receiving and recording area and fume-hood flow-rate requirements and a munity at two general meetings on 6 and workshop, an environmental laboratory, hood face velocity of 100 feet per minute 7 March 1985. After discussions that led to some adjustments in the plan, NSF adopted the CJS document as the design plan for the replacement science labora- An artists model of the new science laboratory, which is currently under construction at McMurdo Station. tory, and CJS proceeded with more de- tailed planning. In June 1986 con- ferences were held in San Diego and Washington, D.C., with members of the science community. CJS presented the full design concept to the scientists par- ticipating at the meetings, as well as to PACDIV and NSF PACDIV and NSF con- tinued to monitor the development of the design and construction specifica- tions at 35 percent, 65 percent, and 95 percent completion stages. Because the NSF support contractor will construct the building, the present contractor, ITT! Antarctic Services, Inc., (ANS), also par- ticipated in all design review meetings. December 1988 (1,830 meters per second) with the hood system, "pewter metallic" in color. Indi- plete by February 1988, the end of the sash in any open position. Six air vidual panels will provide a maximum 1987-1988 season. Vertical construction changes per hour are specified for of- U-factor of 0.04. When erected, the com- will start in October 1988. NSF is plan- fices, open work areas, and working util- plete panel system will provide a ho- ning for partial occupancy during the ity spaces. mogeneous envelope of insulation en- 1991-1992 season, with completion and The primary heating system will con- closing the building and its structure full occupancy no later than the sist of two low-pressure steam boilers with a maximum U-factor of 0.05. This 1993-1994 austral summer. with diesel fuel (arctic grade) as the pri- includes suitable allowances for losses mary fuel source. Low-pressure steam through joints and panel fasteners but —Robert J. Haehnle (PE), Engineering will heat outside air and offset the build- does not consider windows, doors, and Manager, U.S. Antarctic Program, Divi- ing skin load, provide humidification, other major penetrations that are not part sion of Polar Programs, National Science and heat domestic hot water. A steam/ of the panel system. Air infiltration Foundation, Washington, D.C. 20550. water heat exchanger will generate hot through the panel system will be less water for the terminal heating coils that than 0.025 cubic feet per minute per control the individual zone tem- square foot (0.0076 cubic meters per min- peratures. Each boiler will serve the en- ute per square meter) of fixed area of tire facility independently. The specified panel system. Precast concrete founda- U.S. Antarctic Safety interior temperature is 70°F ±3°F (21°C tion blocks and columns will be the only ±1.7°C) at 30 percent relative humidity structural elements penetrating the skin. Panel submits final with both boilers operational. If one of Wood-bearing plates and wood blocking the steam-generation systems did not will provide a thermal break between the report and function, the temperature could drop to inside and outside of the building. recommendations 50°F ±3F (10°C ± 1.7°C) at 20 percent rel- The laboratory is being built on about ative humidity under the worse weather 2-1!2 acres (1 hectare) of mildly sloping In July 1988 The U.S. Antarctic Safety conditions. With both systems down, terrain, which will provide a view from Review Panel presented to the Division the back-up electrical heating system each pod. Cut and fill of the site provide of Polar Programs (DPP) the results of would maintain the interior at 45°F a level area for each building pod. Water their year-long study of environmental, +3°F!-5°F (7.2°C +1.7°C!-2.8°C). and sewer connections, made to existing health, and safety practices in the U.S. Electric space heaters located in the pe- utilities that cross the project site, will be Antarctic Program. The panel was estab- rimeter spaces and in the crawl space above ground on steel supports in prein- lished in July 1987 after an internal Na- below the first floor will serve as back-up sulated, fiberglass heat-traced pipe. Pota- tional Science Foundation committee heating to maintain space temperature if ble water, salt water, sewage, and electric recommended to DPP that such a review both of the independent primary sys- utilities will be on the same supports. be performed. Responding to this rec- tems should fail. ommendation, the Director of the Divi- Acoustic and vibration considerations Construction costs and timetable sion of Polar Programs Peter Wilkniss ap- were a major program concern. The Construction at McMurdo is possible pointed former astronaut Rusty Sch- planned use of very sensitive electron for only about 5 months each year during weikart to chair the 6-person group. microscopes and other similar equip- the austral summer, which lasts from Oc- The panel was directed to ment required special design attention. tober through February. All construction • perform a comprehensive review of Alan T. Rosen and Anthony P. Nash (PE) materials are imported on the U.S. pro- all aspects of safety related to U.S. opera- of Charles M. Salter and Associates, San grams single supply vessel, which ar- tions in Antarctica Francisco, conducted a vibration analy- rives at McMurdo in late January or early • review not only air, ship, facility, sis and participated in the design of the February. Because of this, planning, pro- and other operations practices and pro- facility. curement, and shipping must be com- cedures but also institutional and man- The environment dictated special con- pleted a full year before a project begins. agement concerns siderations. The elevated structure Additionally, there is no indigenous la- • review, evaluate, and advise on ac- chosen by the designers will maintain bor force. These three factors affect the tivities, procedures, systems, and pol- the frozen-grade conditions. The build- planning, construction methods, time- icies that affect safety in the U.S. Ant- ing alignment with respect to prevailing table, and costs of all buildings in Ant- arctic Program winds will minimize snow drifting. arctica but particularly a building of this • recommend ways to improve safety Model testing helped designers select size and complexity. in USAP operations with priority to the optimum orientation and height Construction costs for the science fa- those activities that may be life- above grade. To encourage the natural cility are anticipated to be $19.6 million threatening flow of the cooling winds and create a (approximately $429 per square foot or • prepare a report discussing con- venturi effect, the lower portion of the $4,620 per square meter), including all clusions and recommendations. sides of the structure will slope inward at furniture and built-in equipment. The During their review the panel found 45 degrees, to create a funneling effect. A median 1987 U.S. cost of research labora- that the U.S. program had shifted in snowdrift control study, involving tories (as estimated in Building Con- character from expeditionary to opera- model analysis, was conducted by struction Cost Data, 1987, 45th annual edi- tional. This change requires that NSF Rowen Williams Davies and Irwin, Inc., tion, R.S. Means Company) is $88.65 per must place greater emphasis on its role as Consulting Engineers and Microclimate square foot excluding furniture and manager and accept the responsibility Specialists, Guelph, Ontario. built-in equipment. Typically estimates for safety throughout the program. In- The structures will have a hybrid fram- for construction projects in Antarctica cluded in the 13 recommendations that ing system incorporating structural are based on the cost of materials deliv- focus on improving NSFs management steel, cold-formed steel, wood, and pre- ered to the pier at Port Hueneme, Cal- capabilities is establishing a new posi- cast concrete. The elevated buildings will ifornia, with labor at three times Wash- tion in the Division of Polar Programs. be completely enclosed within an insu- ington, D.C., rates. Shipping costs from The person in this position would be re- lated skin. The building panels will be Port Hueneme to McMurdo are consid- sponsible for managing and overseeing factory fabricated from galvanized G90 ered separately. Productivity losses and safety, environmental, and health con- steel, 26-gauge minimum thickness, extraordinary recruiting costs account siderations for the program. steel-faced insulated panels with poly- for the triple rate. The panel divided its findings and rec- urethane foam insulation. The finish will Site preparation for the facility started ommendations into nine categories— be a factory-applied polyester coating in October 1987 and was virtually com- health and medical care; accident pre-

Antarctic Journal vention and policies; communications; tion systems and train personnel to use concerns were diving practices, LC-130 science field parties; survival, search, the fire-fighting equipment available at refueling pumps, use of seat belts in ve- and rescue; environment and energy; each work area. Another area of concern hicles, and training and licensing of ve- non-governmental activity; air opera- was the handling of hazardous materials; hicle operators. tions; and occupational safety. A brief the panel suggested that NSF should de- The panel report, Safety in Antarctic: summary of their findings follows. velop and implement standards for Report of the U.S. Antarctic Program Safety Health and medical care. The panel rec- these situations and train participants as Review Panel is available through the Di- ommended that some U.S. antarctic fa- necessary. Other occupational safety vision of Polar Programs. cilities should receive regular inspec- tions of their medical facilities and upgrade equipment and medication if necessary. They concluded that the cur- rent medical staff should be augmented and that special training should be Sweden and Spain become Antarctic Treaty provided so that emergencies could be Consultative Parties effectively handled. Additionally, they were concerned about the quality of food In September 1988 Sweden and Spain the consultative parties have ratified it. and diet, the potential for substance became the twenty-first and twenty- Accession to the Treaty is open to "any abuse, storage of blood products, recrea- second Antarctic Treaty consultative par- State which is a member of the United tion for participants, and psychological ties. They are eighth and ninth countries Nations, or any other state which may be screening procedures for wintering to gain consultative status since the invited to accede to the Treaty with con- personnel. Treaty was signed by 12 countries on 1 sent of all Contracting Parties." (Antarctic Accident prevention and policies. To learn December 1959. Sweden acceded to the Treaty, Article XII, paragraph 1). The na- more about the causes of accidents and to Treaty in 1984 and Spain in 1982. tions that have acceded to the Treaty prevent future accidents, they recom- To achieve consultative status each of agree to abide by the Treaty but do not mended that NSF develop procedures to these countries "demonstrated its inter- participate in its operation. be followed to prevent accidents and to est in Antarctica by conducting substan- The 12 original signatories to the investigate accidents after they occur. tial scientific research there, such as the Treaty are Argentina, Australia, Corn inn n ications and science field parties. establishment of a scientific station or Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zea- Attention should be given to improving dispatch a scientific expedition (Antarctic land, Norway, the Republic of South Af- communications between field parties Treaty, Article XI, paragraph 2). Both rica, the Soviet Union, the United King- and main bases. Suggestions by the pan- countries can now participate in the de- dom, and the United States. Poland el to meet these needs ranged from pur- liberations, recommendations, and deci- became a consultative party in 1977, the chasing pocket-sized personal locator sions of the Antarctic Treaty consultative Federal Republic of Germany in 1981, beacons to using satellite communica- meetings. A recommendation to the Brazil and India in 1983, the Peoples Re- tions. They also proposed that NSF em- Treaty requires unanimous approval by public of China and Uruguay in 1985, the ploy government sponsored and trained all voting representatives, but it does not German Democratic Republic and Italy field safety experts to issue certificates to enter into force until all governments of in 1986. qualified research personnel. Survival, search, and rescue. In Ant- arctica survival training should be ex- panded to include various levels of train- ing from basic to advanced. Along with The austral crescent this program, NSF should develop a way to test and evaluate new materials, prod- Only a portion of the antarctic region litical information about Antarctica and ucts, and clothing for use in Antarctica. has the resources and accessibility to the surrounding areas of the Southern Environment and energy. Recognizing make it potentially interesting to most Hemisphere. Recent scientific and politi- the increased concern for protecting the nations: in this portion, increased ac- cal information should modify our view antarctic environment, the panel recom- tivities can be expected to occur. Al- of Antarctica and focus attention on im- mended that NSF fund, as soon as possi- though our knowledge of Antarctica has portant regions of the antarctic continent ble, an environmental clean-up of increased considerably since its discov- and surrounding oceans. McMurdo Station and studies to deter- ery in 1820, the current understanding This paper discusses the bases for a mine better ways of treating, disposing, and view of the region, as presented in geopolitical zone: the political, natural and retrograding waste. To conserve en- popular and scientific literature, does resource (including geological, ergy, the Foundation should develop not adequately represent our growing geophysical, geographical, biological, new standards and integrate these into body of knowledge. As a result, our per- scientific, and scenic), and transporta- plans for all U.S. antarctic stations. ception of Antarctica is inappropriate tion factors. The fields of politics, natural Air operations. The panel emphasized and, in the present geopolitical climate, resources, and geography are used to that NSF should provide adequate re- inadequate. define a zone of primary interest within sources not only for field operations but A new, comprehensive view of Ant- Antarctica, in an attempt to improve our also for offseason training. The Founda- arctica is needed. Those unfamiliar with perception of the region as a whole. tion should find ways to augment its fleet the physiography, resources, and pol- The geopolitical zone is crescent- of aircraft and actively work to acquire itics of the continent often hold the sim- shaped and extends across a large part of funding to replace its existing LC-130 air- plistic view that Antarctica is nothing Antarctica and the adjacent oceans, from planes, which are approximately 30 more than the island continent they see South America to New Zealand and years old. New landing sites, such as on a planimetric map, dissected by ter- Australia (figure 1). The horns of the "blue-ice" areas, should be evaluated to ritorial claims projected to the South crescent are anchored in Montevideo make the science and operations ac- Pole. Sadly, some antarctic scientists and Christchurch, but the area is not tivities more flexible. who have not explored the realm of the rigidly outlined. Partial rotation of the Occupational safety. Recognizing that policy sciences may hold similar views of crescent could place the anchors or fire is one of the greatest threat to an Antarctica. horns over Hobart and Ushuaia or Punta antarctic station, the panel encouraged This new view must be based on geo- Arenas or other ports in Australia and NSF to review fire detection and preven- graphical, geological, biological, and po- South America. In this paper, this December 1988 geopolitical zone is called the austral cres- Table 1. Antarctic Treaty nations cent, a term that was applied informally (in chronological order by year of accession)a in an earlier report (McKenzie 1984). Within this zone lies the most important Consultative nations Acceding nations part of the antarctic region, one that is expected to be the focus of increased ac- tivity. Awareness of the factors that de- Original treaty members (1959) Poland (1961)b fine the zone should provide the key to Czechoslovakia (1962) understanding many aspects of antarctic Argentina Denmark (1965) geopolitics. Australia The Netherlands (1967) Belgium Romania (1971) Political factors Chile German Democratic Interest in antarctic activities is mount- France Republic (1 974)b ing as is indicated by the increased rate of Japan Brazil (1975)b accession to the treaty and the number of New Zealand Bulgaria (1978) new consultative nations (table 1). As Norway Federal Republic of more nations become involved in Ant- South Africa Germany (1979)b arctica, the focus of interest on the cres- Soviet Union Uruguay (1980)b cent probably will increase. Political in- United Kingdom Papua New Guinea (1981) Italy (1981)b terest within the area of the austral United States crescent already is high as is shown by Peru (1981) the distribution of claims in Antarctica Spain (1982) (figure 2). Only claims by Norway, Fran- Peoples Republic of ce, and Australia lie mainly outside of Later consultative nations China (1983)b the crescent as drawn in figure 1, al- India (1983) though with minor rotation, most of the Hungary (1984) French sector also lies within the cres- Poland (1977) Finland (1984) cent as do parts of the Australian claims. Federal Republic of Sweden (1984)1 The main claimants within the crescent of Germany (1981) Cuba (1984) are Argentina, Chile, New Zealand, and Brazil (1983) Republic of Korea (1986) the United Kingdom. Possibly of equal India (1983) Democratic Peoples significance, particularly to nations that Peoples Republic of Republic of Korea(1987) have not signed the Antarctic Treaty, is China (1985) Greece (1987) the large, unclaimed sector of Antarctica Uruguay (1985) Austria (1987) between 90°W and 150°W. The un- German Democratic Ecuador (1987) claimed sector constitutes one of the Republic (1987) Canada (1988) largest areas within the crescent. If a Italy (1987) non-signatory nation, group of nations, Spain (1988) international non-governmental organi- Sweden (1988) zation, or even the United States or U.S.S.R. were to claim a part or all of the a As of 1 October 1988. unclaimed sector, the political situation b Now consultative parties. within the austral crescent would be fur- ther complicated. ably between the austral crescent and the Antarctica—or at least all coastal re- The distribution of claimants and rest of Antarctica. Simply by looking at a gions—would be of equal interest to a claims in Antarctica illustrates how the map showing the outline of the con- nation or group wanting to participate in focus of political activity differs consider- tinent, one might assume that all areas of the management of Antarctica. This is

Table 2. Distribution and status of stations in Antarctica

Within crescent Remainder of Antarctica

Nation Year-round Summer Abandoned Nation Year-round Summer Abandoned

Argentina 0 Australia 0 Brazil 0 Belgium 0 Chile 0 France 0 China 0 German Democratic 0 Federal Republic 0 Republic of Germany India Italy 0 0 Japan Korea 0 0 Norway New Zealand 0 0 South Africa Poland 0 0 U.S.S.R. United Kingdom 4 0 0 United States 3 0 0 Uruguay 0 0 U.S.S.R. 3 0 0 Totals 26 14

a As of 1 October 1988. Antarctic Journal

Figure 1. The austral crescent geopolitical zone. As drawn, Montevideo and Christchurch At/antic anchor the horns of the crescent; however, par- tial rotation of the zone would make Hobart and tevidea- Ocean / +60°S Ushuaia or Punta Arenas the anchors of the / crescent.

Fal kland Is. . \\\ not the case, however. A significant po- litical factor within the crescent is the overlap of claims in the Antarctic Penin-

A-"--5----- sula by Argentina, Chile, and the United Weddell Sea: /•. . Kingdom. As a management format S Punta Arenas - -- Indian evolves under the Antarctic Treaty Sys- Palmer . tem, particularly with respect to a miner- als regime, this area of Antarctica may Si0/ South Pale require special consideration. Although 90°W + - +900E internal support for the treaty is strong (Woolcott 1984), if the treaty system were I to fail, the Peninsula would be of even Ocec4n greater geopolitical interest as the poten------. McMurdo tial for conflict in the region would be ////RossSe increased. Pacific \\ The locations of occupied research sta- tions in Antarctica also show a bias to- Worlds most distant ward the austral crescent (table 2). Sta- point from land tion locations are chosen based upon Ocean political and historical interest, available sites, and climatic conditions that control access to the sites. There are 20 year- round stations, 1 summer station, and I / / / Austral Crescent unoccupied station in the crescent. The Shelf ice I/I Hobart - - rest of the continent contains a total of 25 Limit of sea ice stations, 7 of which are unoccupied. Of o 1000 2000 1bC1iristchurch course, these numbers will change as the 1800 Statute Miles use of stations changes, as new stations are built, or as the austral crescent is ro- tated slightly. Possibly of equal signifi- cance is the proximity of stations to each 60 other in some parts of the crescent. The

+ opportunity for cooperation—and for conflict—is increased when stations exist 45 °W 450E >< >< within the same area.

± Natural resources X Natural resources are generally de- ( undefined limi fined in terms of tangible commodities:

-_- • • - T • sources of food and fiber from a biolog- 7. ical perspective or mineral or material a - resources from a geological one. But the p realm of natural resources is much broader. In the case of Antarctica, the A • - A - A resource base also includes scientific re- 4h. sources (biological, geological, and P 00- —. geophysical—including climatology and solar-planetary studies), geographical -goow 90°E- 60S 700 80S resources (including factors of terrain, harbor, climate, and weather), and scenic resources (for tourism and for environ- Claim mentally significant areas such as Argentina "parks"). >( Mineral resources. The resource poten- Australia 1350w tial of Antarctica is not adequately Chile known, and in the case of mineral re- ELII sources, no deposits of commercial value France have yet been discovered. Thus any at- tempts to evaluate the total resource p0- New Zealand >( Norway Figure 2. Territorial claims in Antarctica. Claims >< to islands are not shown. The Soviet Union and United Kingdom 135E the United States have not established claims, 0 1000 + nor do they recognize the claims of other na- New.Zealand 0— Miles i80° tions, yet they reserve their rights to establish (7 claims. December 1988 9 tential of the austral crescent remain highly speculative. However, a few com- ments are appropriate on the occurrence of minerals in Antarctica and the classi- fication of mineral resources. Various scientists have discussed the potential for mineral resources (Wright and Williams 1974; Zumberge 1979; Splettstoesser 1980; Behrendt 1983a; Antar Quigg 1983; Splettstoesser 1985; Hayes Pe 1985; and the Polar Research Board Shelf 1986). The prime interest is considered to be petroleum resources. According to Behrendt (1983b), West Antarctica is the most promising area because of the pres- ence of thick sedimentary sequences in the Ross Sea (>8 kilometers thick), Wed- dell Sea (>15 kilometers thick), and Bell- ingshausen Basin (>3 kilometers thick). The Amundsen Sea (West Antarctica) and the Amery Ice Shelf area (East Ant- arctica) are also possibilities because they also have thick sedimentary rocks with the potential of containing hydrocar- bons. Of these sites, only the last lies outside of the crescent. Whether the Ross Sea or the Weddell Sea is the more likely exploration target is anybodys guess—too little is known about the nature of the sedimentary sequences and the potential environmental hazards Figure 3. Ice-free areas of Antarctica and areas of mineral occurrences mentioned in the text. Major (Behrendt 1983b) to be able to predict. In ice-free areas, shown by shading, are in the Antarctic Peninsula, the Transantarctic Mountains, and coastal areas of West Antarctica. Other shaded areas on map depict glaciers and the continent/sea any case, the economic costs are ex- boundary. (Diagram by A. Tope based on data from Splettstoesser 1980; Behrendt 1983; Ford 1983; pected to be very high. Larminie (1986) and Rowley et al. 1983). has suggested that drilling costs on land in Antarctica will be about ten times The Dufek intrusion (figure 3) lies Beeby 1986, 1987). This convention must higher than in the North Sea. Garrett within the Transantarctic Mountains and be ratified by 16 of the 20 Treaty Con- (1984) notes that the costs for antarctic oil the austral crescent and may contain im- sultative Parties before it enters into might be at least 50 percent more than portant metal occurrences. According to force. Chukchi Sea oil and five times more than Ford (1983), the Jurassic Dufek stratiform Most antarctic minerals can be cate- North Sea oil. At these costs, strong intrusion (approximately 200 million gorized as "undiscovered resources" ac- competition from oil shale and other years old) is similar in size to the Bush- cording to the classification of Brobst and synthetics becomes a factor. veld Complex of South Africa. The Bush- Pratt (1973), and modified in U.S. Geo- Rowley, Williams, and Pride (1983) veld and most other mafic complexes of logical Survey Circular 831 (U.S. Bureau have reviewed the reports on metallic this type contain significant metal con- of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey and non-metallic mineral occurrences in centrations, usually in the lower parts, 1980). They certainly are not reserves, Antarctica. Copper, molybdenum, and but sometimes in the upper parts of because the volume and grade, and the related minerals commonly occur within these intrusions (Ford 1983). Unfor- legal, economic, and environmental fea- the Andean province of the Antarctic tunately, only a small portion of the Du- sibility of their recovery are not known. Peninsula (figure 3). Other mineral oc- fek intrusion is exposed and the nature of According to Rowley et al. (1983), only currences within this province include the lower units is not known. Com- iron and coal in the Prince Charles chromite, the precious metals gold and parisons between the Dufek intrusion Mountains and coal in the Transantarctic silver, and lead and zinc. The transant- and the Bushveld Complex suggest that Mountains would be mined if this were arctic metallogenic province (Rowley et chromium, copper, nickel, vanadium, ti- any other continent, and these deposits al. 1983) contains copper, related pre- tanium, iron, and platinum-group met- probably can be considered to be only cious metals, thorium- and uranium- als may be present in the Dufek intru- "conditional resources" (figure 4). bearing minerals, and coal. The Ant- sion, but such comparisons are highly Rowley et al. (1983) place the remaining arctic Peninsula and transantarctic re- speculative because of the limited data metallic and non-metallic occurrences in gions are within the austral crescent, on the Dufek. Considering world abun- the "hypothetical resources" category. which includes all of West Antarctica dances, only the platinum-group miner- However, it might be more reasonable to plus parts of the Precambrian Shield and als probably would be of any economic place them in an "uneconomic mineral Beacon Supergroup rocks of East Ant- interest in the future (Ford 1983). occurrence" category because, first, arctica. Outside of the crescent, the nota- For all mineral deposits, there remain most of these deposits have not been ble deposits include: major uncertainties concerning the eco- fully evaluated geologically and, second, • iron in the Prince Charles Moun- nomic and environmental factors of op- the economic, legal, and environmental tains and other parts of the iron metal- erating in Antarctica. Most deposits have constraints in Antarctica are so severe. logenic province of East Antarctica not been studied sufficiently, and ques- Ford (1983) placed the resources in the (Rowley et al. 1983); tions regarding exploration and extrac- Dufek intrusion in the "speculative" cate- • coal in the Prince Charles tion rights in Antarctica remain unre- gory, which is reasonable because only Mountains; solved, although in June 1988, 33 nations the favorable geologic setting has been • mica, graphite, and other non-me- agreed to a framework to regulate min- identified. The special conditions of Ant- tallic minerals; ing, mineral exploration, and develop- arctica, the need for important on-site • uranium and thorium minerals. ment in Antarctica. (Anonymous 1973; use of resources there, and the difficulty 10 Antarctic Journal

in placing antarctic resources in the cur- antarctic resources include water, ob- important, but factors of terrain (eleva- rent classifications used for mineral re- tained either by melting snow and ice, tion, relief, and slope), weather and cli- sources suggest that a special classifica- for on-site use, or by the proposed re- mate, and harbors (anchorage, sea-ice tion for mineral resources in this area is moval of tabular icebergs from Ant- factors) also must be considered as re- warranted. Figure 4 provides one alter- arctica. Other geologic resources are sources. In figure 3, the shading on the native to the current classification geothermal energy and non-metallic margins and in the mountains of Ant- scheme, but more work on a resource rocks and minerals. In the latter category arctica shows the approximate distribu- classification system is needed. are sand and gravel and crushed stone tion of land not covered by ice (see also Several additional points should be that would be suitable for aggregate, Splettstoesser 1980). Most of this land made regarding antarctic resources. subgrade, and fill material. Water, ener- resource is within the austral crescent. First, East Antarctica is underlain by Pre- gy, and building materials that can be Unfortunately, figure 3 does not show cambrian bedrock. This shield region used on-site are important resources for the geographical factors that may influ- may contain significant occurrences of the operation of bases in Antarctica, ence whether or not a site is suitable, nor metallic and non-metallic minerals (e.g., whether or not the bases are for science, does it detail the important geophysical diamonds) by analogy with the once ad- tourism, or the exploitation of physical or hazards (wind, fog, precipitation, ice- jacent Gondwanaland continents of Af- biological resources. bergs, and sea ice) that can make sites rica and Australia. In fact, the shield Geographical and geophysical resources.rces. unsuitable. probably contains more useful minerals In discussing the use of on-site re- Living resources. Living resources in than the non-shield regions of Ant- sources, the site itself must be consid- Antarctica occur along the margins of the arctica, but because the east antarctic ice ered as a resource. Available sites for continent and in the adjacent seas. Ma- sheet covers most of the region, explora- bases or for other facilities in Antarctica rine life is abundant in the southern tion and exploitation of minerals that are controlled primarily by geographical oceans, and biomass production is high, might exist beneath it, except perhaps and geophysical factors, although Spe- but only disoriented seals and stray immediately adjacent to the margin, are cially Protected Areas (SPAs) or Sites of skuas invade the interior of the con- precluded. Second, mineral resource ex- Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) also tinent. The flowing ice sheet with its traction might occur in Antarctica even if may introduce ecological factors. changing weather reveals that most of it were not considered economic to do Approximately 97 percent of Ant- Antarctica is alive in a geophysical sense, so, perhaps in an attempt to improve the arctica is covered with ice, leaving only a even though it is dead biologically. status of a claim or to obtain a supply of limited area of bedrock and unconsoli- Considering only the coastal living re- strategic material following a significant dated material upon which to establish sources (including the seals and birds) change in the free market system bases. Although facilities can be estab- the zone of the austral crescent south of (Rowley et al. 1983). Third, neither the lished on snow and ice, these usually are 60°S, with its numerous islands, proba- full range of geologic resources nor the more expensive to construct and main- bly contains about half of the terrestrial potential for on-site use of resources has tain than those on rock or rock material. living resources of Antarctica. This esti- been discussed elsewhere. Additional Not only is the substrate for construction mate is speculative although some sup- port for the idea is given by the distribu- Figure 4. Mineral resource and occurrence classification based on geologic and economic analyses. tion of SPAs in Antarctica. Because seals, Reserves are those resources that are evaluated (location, grade, and quantity are known through penguins, and other birds are not har- site inspection, detailed sampling, and measurement, usually in outcrops, trenches, and/or drill vestable resources, they might more holes) and that can be economically extracted at the time of classification. Conditional resources are properly be considered in the realm of those that are subeconomic, or unavailable because of legal or environmental constraints. They may scenic resources. be fully to incompletely evaluated. Mineral occurrences include those materials that are of low grade The targeted species for harvesting at or otherwise unavailable and are not considered to have resource potential. Mineral occurrence may be fully to incompletely evaluated or undiscovered. Modified from Brobst and Pratt (1973) and U.S. the present time are bottom fish and krill Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey (1980). (Gulland 1986). The distribution and abundance of fish is poorly known. If the distribution of fish follows that of krill, UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES there is a relative paucity of both within the austral crescent. According to IN KNOWN IN UNDISCOVERED Mitchell (1983), the main concentrations IDENTIFIED RESOURCES DISTRICTS DISTRICTS of krill are along the coast of East Ant- arctica, and near or north of 60°S, from the South Shetland Islands east to RESERVES beyond Bouvet Island. If one considers near-continent marine resources, the areas near the South Shetlands, the HYPOTHETICAL I SPECULATIVE South Orkneys, and other island groups within the crescent contain harvestable marine resources. According to Sahr- RESOURCES I RESOURCES hage (1985) these areas are still the main CONDITIONAL RESOURCES fishing grounds—the same areas that in the past were important in the exploita- tion of whales and fur seals (Hatherton 1986). Scientific resources. The natural labora- tory of the continent and the surround- ing seas is an obvious resource. Scientific MINERAL OCCURRENCE information also is a resource (Rassam 1986), with the focus here on the natural environment as a scientific resource. All parts of Antarctica are of interest to scientists. However, because the impor- tance of sites in and around Antarctica varies by discipline, it is difficult to deter- December 1988 11 mine which areas may be the most im- arctica on small tour ships and on private cation may be favored over others. Oper- portant scientifically, because not all yachts. Tourists also arrive by air, landing ations in Antarctica from both ends of the questions that concern Antarctica have at strips adjacent to bases in the Antarctic crescent are preferred. The importance been asked. Currently, most of the re- Peninsula or at remote sites in West Ant- of access to potential resource areas has search is done along the margins of the arctica and the Transantarctic Moun- been recognized by others (Fifield 1982). continent near the scientific bases. Lo- tains. Those tourists who travel farthest gistics are important in research, and the from the ice-free coasts are mountain Conclusions austral crescent is important scien- climbers, who fly by small plane along The proposed austral crescent tifically, because many of the bases are the Peninsula to Mount Vinson in the geopolitical zone provides the basis for a present there. The interior on the polar Ellsworth Mountains. revised perception of Antarctica, and a plateau is important for glaciologists, Until recently the deep interior of the focus for future activities there. The zone planetologists, and atmospheric scien- polar plateau has had little potential for is defined by political factors, including tists. From sites on the plateau, par- tourism. However, on 12 January 1988 a claims and stations; natural resource fac- ticularly at the Amundsen-Scott Station Twin Otter airplane under contract to a tors, such as mineral occurrences; at the South Pole, scientists are address- tour company brought the first 20 tour- favorable station sites and on-site re- ing important questions concerning cli- ists to Amundsen-Scott South Pole Sta- sources; scientific resources; scenic, en- mate, solar activity, planetary composi- tion. Their arrival at the isolated U.S. vironmental, and historical resources; tion, and chemistry of the atmosphere. research station indicates the growing and transportation factors and access to Because the South Pole and some other public interest in Antarctica and sug- the continent. areas of the polar plateau lie within the gests that the type of visitor who wishes Except for glaciological and at- austral crescent as defined here, and im- to go to the South Pole is changing. mospheric studies, there probably are portant non-coastal research thus falls Not all the natural and wilderness re- few reasons (except politics) for most na- within this geopolitical zone. gions of Antarctica are open to tourism. tions with an interest in Antarctica to The distribution of SSSIs provides ad- Some areas are protected under the Ant- concentrate their activities outside of the ditional support for the concept that the arctic Treaty System as SPAs. Of the 14 austral crescent. Our current under- research is focused within the crescent. SPAs, only three are outside the cres- standing of natural resources and the ca- Currently 24 SSSIs and 3 marine SSSIs cent. Historic monuments, a cultural re- pabilities of transportation systems sug- are protected (Scully 1986; Arnaudo source, show a similar bias toward the gest a focus within the crescent that 1988). This includes new sites approved crescent. Only 14 of 52 monuments are could be intensified as more nations be- during the 14th Antarctic Treaty Con- in East Antarctica, again demonstrating come interested in Antarctica and the sultative Meeting in October 1987. Eight that historically the concentration of ant- resource potential is better known. are in the South Shetland Islands (three arctic activity has been within the on King George Island), four in southern crescent. or northern Victoria Land, and one each Acknowledgments in the Antarctic Peninsula, on Adelaide Transportation This study was supported in part by Island, on Anvers Island, in the Palmer The final justification for defining the the Mershon Center and the Byrd Polar Archipelago, and on White Island. Only austral crescent geopolitical zone is ac- Research Center. I thank D. Pride and M. six sites are outside the crescent region. cess to the continent. Long flights by Clark for helpful comments on the They are large (mainly LC-130 Hercules and C-141 paper. • one on Haswell Island near the Sovi- Starlifters) and small airplanes (Twin Ot- —Carry MacKenzie, Ohio State Uni- et station Mirnyy, ters) are made to sea-ice, snow, or con- versity, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1293. Dr. • two on the Budd Coast, ventional runways, but these flights usu- MacKenzie, a geologist, served as associ- • one on the east coast of Lutzow- ally are made from the nearest points of ate program manager for earth sciences HoIm Bay, land outside Antarctica. Although no in the Division of Polar Programs in 1984 • one in Queen Maud Land, and scheduled airlines fly over the continent, and 1985. • one in the Vestfold Hills in Princess in the Peninsula region there are "reg- Elizabeth Land. ular" flights to the continent. Travel by References Some of the 14 SPAs, which are also sea is slow and passengers prefer the used for research, are located within the shortest routes to the continent. Anonymous. 1973. Report of the Seven- crescent. In effect, the horns of the crescent (fig- th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meet- Scenic, environmental, and historical re- ure 1) are points of access to the con- ing, Wellington, 1972. Polar Record, 16, sources. An additional group of resources tinent, whether by ship or air. Although 595-612. that must be considered, includes spec- ships can reach any part of the continent tacular scenery, wilderness, or historical from almost anywhere in the world, Arnaudo, R. V. 1988. Antarctic Treaty Na- sites that attract tourists. Scientific sta- fuel, cargo, maintenance, and passenger tions meet in Rio de Janeiro; adopt 10 tions, even if they are not particularly service centers near the continent are fa- recommendations. Antarctic Journal of scenic or exciting, also attract tourists, vored. The sites nearest to Antarctica the U.S., 23(1), 1-16. possibly because they are the only evi- also provide the potential for the most dence of human existence in Antarctica, efficient operation of a transportation Beeby, C.D. 1986. The Antarctic Treaty as well as being adjacent to safe landing system. In the Eastern Hemisphere, the System as a resource management areas. Designation of all or part of Ant- United States has a transportation center mechanism—Nonliving resources. In arctica as a park potentially could attract in New Zealand but could also have one Polar Research Board (Eds.), Antarctic more tourists, particularly those with in Australia. In the Western Hemi- Treaty System: An assessment, Proceed- money and the desire to visit unique re- sphere, Ushuaia, Argentina, and Punta ings of a Workshop held at Beardmore gions of the world. For the most part, Arenas, Chile, are transportation cen- South Field Camp, Antarctica, January increased tourism will mean increased ters, but other places farther north, such 7-13, 1985. Washington, D.C.: Na- visits to the margins of the continent. as Montevideo, Uruguay, and Buenos tional Academy Press. Because the cost of transportation is a Aires, Argentina, also could be used. factor, those areas within the austral cres- Theoretically, all of the treaty nations in Behrendt, J.C. (Ed.). 1983a. Petroleum and cent that are closest to New Zealand, this area should be open to cooperative mineral resources of Antarctica. U.S. Australia, and South America are be- arrangements for staging antarctic re- Geological Survey Circular 909. Wash- coming the most important for tourism. search; however, because of changing ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- Tourists traveling by sea now reach Ant- political and economic conditions one lo- ing Office. 12 Antarctic Journal

Behrendt, J.C. 1983b. Are there pe- ington, D.C.: National Academy ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- troleum resources in Antarctica? In Press. ing Office. J.C. Behrendt (Ed.), Pet roleuin and mm- eral resources of Antarctica. U.S. Geo- McKenzie, G.D. 1984. National security Zumberge, J.H. 1979. Mineral resources logical Survey Circular 909. Wash- and the Austral Crescent. Mershon and geopolitics in Antarctica. American ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- Center Quarterly Report, 8(4), 1-8. Scientist, 67, 68-77. ing Office. Mitchell, B. 1983. Frozen stakes. The future Brobst, D.A., and W.P Pratt. 1973. United of Antarctic minerals. London: Interna- States mineral resources. U.S. Geological tional Institute for Environment and Survey Professional Paper 820. Wash- Development. ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print- ing Office. Polar Research Board. 1986. Antarctic Treaty nations agree to Treaty System: An assessment, Proceed- Fifield, R. 1982. Antarctic resources ings of a Workshop held at Beardmore regime for managing beyond the Falklands. New Scientist, South Field Camp, Antarctica, January mineral resource activities 94, 561-563. 7-13, 1985. Washington, D.C.: Na- tional Academy Press. After more than 6 years of negotia- Ford, A.B. 1983. The Dufek intrusion of tions, representatives of 33 nations Antarctica and a survey of its minor Quigg, P. W. 1983. A pole apart. McGraw- signed a new convention to regulate metals and possible resources. In J.C. Hill: New York. mineral exploration and development Behrendt (Ed.), Petroleum and mineral in Antarctica. Signed on 2 June 1988 in resources of Antarctica. U.S. Geological Rassam, G.N. 1986. Using geoscience Wellington, New Zealand, the new Survey Circular 909. Washington, info as a resource. Geotimnes, 31(12), Convention on the Regulation of Ant- D.C.: U.S. Government Printing 10-11. arctic Mineral Resource Activities Office. (CRAMRA) is the first successful inter- Rowley, PD., P.L. Williams, and D.E. national agreement designed to man- Garrett, J. N. 1984. The economics of Ant- Pride. Mineral occurrences of Ant- age the non-renewable resources of a arctic oil. In L.M. Alexander and L.C. arctica. In J.C. Behrendt (Ed.), Pe- continent. It applies to all non-living, Hanson (Eds.), Antarctic politics and troleum and mineral resources of Ant- natural, non-renewable resources on marine resources: Critical choices for the arctica. U.S. Geological Survey Cir- continental Antarctica, all islands and 1980s. Kingston, Rhode Island: Center cular 909. Washington, D.C.: U.S. ice shelves south of 60°S, and the sea for Ocean Management Studies, Uni- Government Printing Office. floor and subsoil of offshore areas near versity of Rhode Island. the deep seabed. Sahrhage, D. 1985. Fisheries overview. The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1961, Gulland, J.A. 1986. The Antarctic Treaty In L.M. Alexander and L.C. Hanson does not consider management of the System as a resource management (Eds.), Antarctic politics and Marine re- continents mineral, oil, and other non- mechanism-Living resources. In Pol- sources: Critical choices for the 1980s. renewable resources. Large grounded ar Research Board (Eds.), Antarctic Kingston, Rhode Island: Center for ice shelves and sea ice that fluctuates Treaty System: An assessment, Proceed- Ocean Management Studies, Univer- between about 3 million square miles ings of a Workshop held at Beardmore sity of Rhode Island. and nearly 19 square miles isolate Ant- South Field Camp, Antarctica, January arctica. Glacial ice covers more than 7-13, 1985. Washington, D.C.: Na- Scully, T. 1986. Antarctic Treaty nations than 97 percent of continent. These tional Academy Press. meet in Belgium; adopt 16 recommen- physical factors, combined with the re- dations. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., gions extreme climate, make the logis- Hatherton, T. 1986. Antarctica prior to 21(1), 1-8. tics required to operate there complex the Antarctic Treaty-A historical per- and costly. spective. In Polar Research Board Splettstoesser, J. 1980. Coal in Ant- Although scientists have been sur- (Eds.), Antarctic Treaty System: An as- arctica. Economic Geology, 75, 936-942. veying and studying antarctic geology sessment, Proceedings of a Workshop and history for more than 30 years, no held at Beardmore South Field Camp, Splettstoesser, J. 1985. Antarctic geology one has determined whether oil and Antarctica, January 7-13, 1985. Wash- and mineral resources. Geology Today, other minerals exist in sufficient quan- ington, D.C.: National Academy 1(2), 41-45. tities to make mining and drilling oper- Press. ations profitable. But, with demands for nonrenewable resources and fuel Hayes, D.E. 1985. An overview of the U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geo- increasing, the Antarctic Treaty con- geological history of Antarctica with logical Survey. 1980. Principles of a re- sultative parties recognized that a reg- regard to mineral resource potential. source/reserve classification for miner- ulatory system was needed before In L.M. Alexander and L.C. Hanson als. U.S. Geological Survey Circular there was a demand for antarctic min- (Eds.), Antarctic politics and marine re- 831. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern- erals and began to negotiate a regime. sources: Critical choices for the 1980s. ment Printing Office. During the last 8 years, they have infor- Kingston, Rhode Island: Center for mally agreed to refrain from resource Ocean Management Studies, Univer- Woolcott, R. 1984. One consultative par- exploration and development. Once sity of Rhode Island. ty outlook. In L.M. Alexander and ratified, the convention will replace this L.C. Hanson (Eds.), Antarctic Politics informal moratorium. Larminie, G.E. 1986. Remarks in discus- and Marine Resources: Critical Choices for Environmental protection was a key sion on technology and economics of the 1980s. Kingston, Rhode Island: factor in developing CRAMRA. Before minerals development in polar areas. Center for Ocean Management Stud- any exploration, mining, or related re- In Polar Research Board (Eds.), Ant- ies, University of Rhode Island. source activity can begin, the possible arctic Treaty System: An assessment, Pro- impact to the environment must be as- ceedings of a Workshop held at Wright, N.A., and P.L. Williams. 1974. sessed. This assessment must consider Beardmore South Field Camp, Ant- Mineral resources of Antarctica. U.S. whether the activity will produce sig- arctica, January 7-13, 1985. Wash- Geological Survey Circular 705. Wash- nificant adverse effects in December 1988 13 • air and water quality tions. A scientific group will evaluate tivity is to begin. Notification includes • atmospheric, terrestrial, and ma- the environmental impact of these ac- an environmental impact assessment, rine environments tivities and advise the regulatory monitoring plans, identification of • distribution, abundance, and pro- committees. minerals or other non-renewable re- ductivity of animals and plants. The convention defines three levels source, a description of the prospecting Also, the impact on endangered or of activity—prospecting, exploration, method, and the technical and finan- and development. Prospecting, the threatened species and the risk to spe- cial qualifications of the prospecting cial biological, scientific, historic, aes- first level of mineral resource activities, organization. identifies areas that are likely to be ex- thetic, or wilderness areas must be Exploration and development re- plored or may potentially be de- assessed. quire the unanimous approval of the veloped. The convention allows geo- convention commission. At all levels of To evaluate proposals for exploration chemical, geophysical, and geological activity, the sponsoring government or commercial development, the con- investigations, field observations, re- can be held liable for any environmen- vention establishes a commission that mote sensing, and surface, sea-floor, tal damage that results. has full authority to decide who will be and sub-ice sampling but does not al- given permission to explore. After ap- low drilling deeper than 25 meters, The convention will enter into force proval, licenses will be issued by one of dredging, or other related exploration. after 16 of the 22 Antarctic Consultative several 10-member regulatory commit- Although a permit is not required, the parties have ratified it. For the United tees, which will be made up of four government sponsoring the prospec- States, this means that the Senate must representatives from the claimant na- ting effort must notify the convention approve it, and Congress must develop tions and six from the non-claimant na- commission 9 months before an ac- and pass implementing legislation.

26 November 1986. In 1986, pack ice Observations of birds and marine moved into the area around southern Anvers Island in June. It remained for mammals at Palmer Station November most of the winter, but drifted in and out after the end of September. Fast ice 1985 to November 1986 formed in Arthur Harbor on 13 July and remained after we left Palmer Station on Many researchers, as well as the Scien- In this report we summarize our daily 25 November 1986. tific Committee on Antarctic Research, observations of birds and marine mam- • In contrast, heavy ice conditions have called for periodic censuses of ant- mals occurring near Palmer Station be- were encountered for only 6 weeks in arctic seabirds and marine mammals to tween 12 November 1985 and 25 1983. help clarify the relationships between November 1986. The observation area in- • Fewer animals spent the 1986 winter population fluctuations, environmental cludes the small islands within 5 kilo- in the area and fewer species were seen. factors, and human influence. Occasion- meters of the station, Dream Island and • The pygoscelid penguins were cen- al censuses and surveys have been done four unnamed islands in the Joubin ar- sused and numbers were consistent with in the Palmer Station area at 64°46S chipelago. We kept daily records of birds previous years. 64°03W (Holdgate 1963; Muller-Sch- and marine mammals in this area, and • A nesting attempt of a macaroni warze and Muller-Schwarze 1974; Par- these observations were compared with penguin was documented for the first melee, Fraser, and Neilson 1977; observations made in 1983 (Heimark and time. It occurred on Humble Island in Hoffman et al. 1977; Heimark and Heimark 1984). The following con- 1985-1986. Heimark 1984; Muller-Schwarze 1984; clusions and results typify our study: • The blue-eyed shag population has Parmelee and Parmelee in press). Most of • The winter of 1986 was colder, and increased on Cormorant Island and a this census work has focused attention heavy pack ice and fast ice remained in new colony was found on Christine on nesting penguins. the area from June 1986 until we left on Island.

Palmer Station locked in mid-winter fast ice, September 1986.

Photo courtesy Rebecca and Gary Heimark.

14 Antarctic Journal

• Observations of population in- Table 1. Nest and chick counts of Adélie penguins near Palmer Station 1985-1986 to creases or decreases are noted for giant 1986-1987. fulmars, petrels, sheathhills, skuas, gulls, and terns. • The elephant seal population has in- 1985-1986 1986-1987 creased and continues to breed in the area. Crabeater, leopard, and fur seal ob- Island . Count Naturea Date Count Naturea Date servations were irregular but similar to

1983 records. Ten Weddell seal pups Torgersen 8,483 Ni 1 Dec. 8,528 Ni 3 Dec. were born in 1986. Humble 2,407 Ni 5 Dec. 2,560 Ni 27 Nov. • Humpback, killer, and minke 2,683 Ci 7 Feb.

whales were occasionally observed from Litchfield 586 Ni 12 Dec. 577 Ni 23 Nov. the station. 550 Ci 9 Feb.

Cormorant 872 Ni 2 Dec. 693 Ni 17 Dec. 880 Ci 9 Feb.

Birds Christine 1,459 Ni 2 Dec. 1,151 Ni 5 Jan. Adélie penguin (Pygoscelii adLIn) nest 1,455 Ci 9 Feb.

and chick censuses for 1985-1986 and Dream 10,700 N3 29 Dec.

1986-1987 are shown in table 1. We fol- Joubin (31)b 255 Ni 12 Jan.

lowed Croxall and Kirkwood (1979) in Joubin (J2)c 61 Ni 12 Jan.

recording the nature and accuracy of our Joubin (J3)C 165 Ni 12 Jan.

counts. (In table 1, NI denotes individu- Joubin (J.4)C 397 Ni 12 Jan. al nest counts accurate to ±5 percent; N3 denotes nest counts accurate to ±10-15 a percent; Cl denotes individual chick Nature code based on Croxall and Kirkwood (1979). Ni denotes individual nest counts with counts accurate to ±5 percent.) We fol- accuracy to ±5 percent; N3 denotes nest counts with accuracy to ±10-15 percent; C denotes lowed Parmelee and Parmelees (1987) chick counts with accuracy to ±5 percent. Joubin Islands identification numbers. Croxall and Kirkwood (1979) island number 31. Nest counts for 1985-1986 and 1986-1987 Parmelee and Parmelee (in press) island identification. are consistent with counts from previous years (Parmelee and Parmelee in press) indicating that no drastic change is oc- curring in the population. We believe the 1985-1986 chick counts underestimate Nesting chinstrap penguin pair at edge of Adélie penguin colony on Humble Island, 5 December fledgling success because immature Adé- 1985. lies were observed on the beaches and in shallow water on 7 February and some Photo courtesy Rebecca and Gary Heimark. chicks may have departed the islands— the counts indicate a success rate of at least one chick per nest. U Adélies were on eggs when we arrived at Palmer Station 12 November 1985. Ac- cording to Stan Dame (personal com- munication) about 5 percent of Adélies were on one egg by 7 November. This date is earlier than first egg dates pre- sented by Holdgate (1963), Parmelee et al. (1977) or Heimark and 1-leimark ( , (1984). Those eggs were observed hatch- ing on 12 December 1985. Adélies were seen throughout the summer and early winter. They were last seen 20 July 1986 after fast ice formed in the harbor and heavy pack ice extended to the horizon. They returned beginning 9 October and the rookeries were full by 24 October in spite of 5/10 pack ice coverage. Breeding peaked around 29 October. We saw the first egg for the 1986-1987 season on 10 November. (In general, Adélies return by mid-October, lay eggs by mid-November, and eggs be- gin hatching by mid-December.) A single chinstrap penguin (PygoscLlis antarctica) nest was discovered on 5 De- cember 1985 at the edge of an Adélie colony on Humble Island. The chinstrap pair successfully fledged one chick, which was last seen 7 February 1986. r Muller-Schwarze and Muller-Schwarze (1975) documented a single isolated 9 nesting of a chinstrap penguin in Arthur Harbor in 1971. No chinstrap nesting has AM

December 1988 15 been documented between these observations. The nesting chinstrap population is in- creasing on Dream Island, 14.5 kilo- meters (9 miles) northwest of Palmer Sta- tion (Parmelee and Parmelee in press). On 29 December 1985, we counted 136 nests, an increase of 27 nests from 1984-1985. Chinstraps nest with Adélie and gen- too penguins (Pygoscelis papua) on one island in the Joubins, referred to by Croxall and Kirkwood (1979) as island 31. On 12 January 1986, we counted 20 chinstrap nests (Ni) and 90 gentoo nests (Ni). The chinstrap nest count is consis- tent with previous counts. The gentoo nest count is the highest taken so far for the island and represents a 50 percent increase from the previous year (Par- melee and Parmelee in press). One macaroni penguin (Eudyptt chrysolophus) attending a nest with one egg was discovered on 5 December 1985 on Humble Island at the edge of an Adé- lie penguin colony. The nest had been abandoned by 24 December 1985. A mac- aroni was seen again near the nest site on 5 January 1986, but left the colony after our approach. We last saw the macaroni 7 February. Others have encountered mac- aroni penguins (Holdgate 1963; Par- Photo courtesy Rebecca and Gary Heimark. melee and Parmelee in press), but this is the first documented nesting attempt in Macaroni penguin attending egg at edge of Adélie penguin colony on Humble Island, 5 December the area. 1985. The blue-eyed shag (Phalacrocorax atriceps) nesting population on Cor- morant Island has increased since 1983 and a new nesting colony was estab- south polar and brown skuas were found Marine mammals lished on Christine Island in 1985. Par- on Humble (two pairs) and Litchfield Fur seals (Arctocephalus gaze/la) were melee et al. (1977) observed at least 100 (two pairs) islands. Skuas migrated from observed from the end of January until occupied nests on Cormorant Island on the area by mid-April and returned by September 1986. All were males and ob- 25 November 1973. We counted 378 ac- November. servations made in 1986 were similar to tive nests on 8 December 1983. On 2 De- Southern giant fulmars (Macronectes gi- 1983. Several hundred males—but no cember 1985, we counted 729 nests. Par- ganteus), southern blackbacked gulls females—were observed in the Joubin melee, Parmelee, and Fuller (1985) ob- (Larus dominicanus) and the American archipelago on 22 February 1986. served blue-eyed shags establishing a sheathbill (Chionis alba) nested locally Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) colony on a sea cliff on Christine Island and were seen throughout the 1986 appear irregularly in the area. In 1983, in 1984-1985; fresh nests but no eggs winter. Winter numbers were less abun- the largest group seen was 60 on 12 were found. On 2 December 1985, we dant in 1986 than 1983. November. In August 1985, 350 to 400 counted eight nests with eggs on the cliff Antarctic petrels (Thalassoica antarctica) crabeaters hauled out on fast ice in Hero on Christine Island. On 9 February 1986, and cape petrels (Daption capense) were Inlet (Jim Stretch, personal communica- we again counted eight nests with a total seen on only a few occasions in tion). The largest group seen during our of 13 chicks. 1985-1986. Snow petrels (Pagodroma most recent year was 12 on 23 November During the 1985-1986 austral summer, nivea) were seen periodically throughout 1985. We saw only a few crabeaters from south polar skuas (Catharacta mac- the year, but the large migration seen in November 1985 to February 1986 and cromicki) nested successfully in large October 1975 (Parmelee et al. 1977) and rarely from June to November 1986. On numbers compared to a complete nest- 1983 (Heimark and Heimark 1984) was 14 November we witnessed a pair at- ing failure in 1983. In the Arthur Harbor not seen in 1986. Wilsons storm petrels tempting copulation on the harbor fast area, from Bonaparte Point to Norsel (Oceanites oceanicus) nest on many of the ice. Point, Ash Morton (personal communi- nearby islands in the summer but mi- Southern elephant seal (Mirounga cation) of the British Antarctic Survey grate from the area in April. leonina) numbers have increased since counted 230 south polar skua nests with Antarctic terns (Sterna vittata) were 1983. The 1985-1986 summer population 439 eggs. On 5 February 1986, we found present all summer and nested in the consisted mostly of moulting subadult that 11 of 12 nests on Humble Island had area but were not seen after the winter males, but females and breeding-sized at least one chick and that at least 74 fast ice formed. In contrast, terns were males were seen in greater numbers than percent of the eggs had survived to seen thoughout the 1983 winter. Terns in the summer 1982-1983. We consid- chicks. returned 16 October 1986 and were on ered males to be breeding-sized if they Brown skuas (Cat ha racta lonnbergi) also eggs when we left the station. were larger than 4 meters (with much nested successfully in 1985-1986. Six Black-browed albatrosses (Diomedea scarring on the neck and shoulders) and pairs nested on Litchfield Island and two melanophris) were seen on two occasions, a developed proboscis (Tierney 1977). pairs on Humble Island. Mixed pairs of 10 and 12 January 1986. Smaller animals were sexed when possi-

16 Antarctic Journal ble by the location of the urogenital pore. Table 2. Elephant seal census in Arthur Harbor, 1986. Since we tried not to disturb the seals, many could not be sexed. After the 1985 winter in which rela- Date of census tively little sea ice formed, six pups were born on Elephant Rocks and Bonaparte Parameter 9 Mar 5 Apr 13 Apr 17 May 15 June 29 June 13 July Point. This compares to four pups born in 1983 on Elephant Rocks (Heimark and 1-leimark 1986). The females departed Breeding-sized males 44 80 44 9 20 2 3 after weaning their pups. The largest Females 1 22 15 11 0 0 0 numbers of females were seen between Subadult males 0 157 97 163 58 51 16 26 January and 9 February. Our highest Sex unknown 98 461 391 272 214 135 68 count occurred on 30 January when 24 Totals 143 720 547 455 292 188 87 females out of 102 seals were sexed on Humble Island. The breeding-sized males also returned to moult about this time. Table 2 presents population counts in Arthur Harbor (Norsel Point, Old Pal- abilities of many birds to find food. Sea Holdgate, M.W. 1963. Observations of mer, Humble Island, Litchfield Island, ice did not appear to interfere with the birds and seals at Anvers Island, Pal- Torgersen Island, and Elephant Rocks) timing of the return migration. Adélies, mer Archipelago, in 1955-57. British for several dates in summer and early skuas, Wilsons storm petrels, and ele- Antarctic Survey Bulletin, 2, 45-51. winter 1986. The population peaked phant and Weddell seals all returned in around 5 April when we counted 720. spring at nearly the same time as pre- Hoffman, R., R. Reichie, D. Siniff, and This compares to a peak population of vious years. D. Muller-Schwarze. 1977. The leop- 457 seals on 15 May 1983. Elephant seal We wish to thank the National Science ard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) at Palmer numbers steadily decreased into the Foundation and ITT Antarctic Services Station, Antarctica. In Adaptions within 1986 winter, and all had departed by 29 (ITT/ANS) for giving us permission and antarctic ecosystems: Proceedings of the July after fast ice formed in the harbor the necessary permits to make these ob- third SCAR symposium on antarctic and heavy pack extended to the horizon. servations while we worked at Palmer biology. A single, breeding-sized male returned 7 Station. We appreciate A. Mortons help October having traveled through exten- in counting shags, penguins, and skuas Morton, Ash. 1986. Personal sive pack ice and across the harbor fast in 1985. B. Obst helped with the 1986 communication. ice. Only two females returned and pup- penguin chick counts. Special thanks to ped on Humble Island between 16 Oc- M. Elias and Y. Matthews for completing Muller-Schwarze, C., and D. Muller- tober and 2 November. It may be that the the 1986-1987 penguin nest counts in Schwarze. 1975. A survey of twenty- extreme ice conditions prevented more Arthur Harbor. We appreciate the assist- four rookeries of pygoscelid penguins seals from returning to pup and breed. ance given us by D. Parmelee. in the Antarctic Peninsula region. In B. Our 1986 observations of leopard seals Stonehouse (Ed.), The biology of pen- -Gary M. Heimark and Rebecca J. (Hydrurga leptonyx) compare with our guins, Baltimore: University Park 1983 records and with those of Hoffman 1-leimark, Isle, Minnesota 56342. Press. et al. (1977), which indicate that numbers increase in the area from December During their stay at Palmer Station, the through January and then decline into Heimarks were employed by ITT/ANS, Muller-Schwarze, D. 1984. Possible the winter. We saw no leopard seals after the National Science Foundation ant- human impact on penguin popula- fast ice formed in 1986. arctic support contractor. tions in the Antarctic Peninsula area. Antarctic Journal Weddell seals (Leptonychotes wedelli) of the U.S., 19(5), were seen occasionally throughout the 158-159. summer and early winter but were rarely seen in midwinter. Weddells returned in References Parmelee, D.F., W.R. Fraser, and D.R. early October when 10 pups were born Neilson. 1977. Birds of the Palmer Sta- on the fast ice between Litchfield and Croxall, J.P., and E.D. Kirkwood. 1979. tion area. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 12(1/2), 14-21. Torgersen islands. The distribution of penguins on the Ant- arctic Peninsula and islands of the Scotia Minke (Balaenoptera acutorosfrata), Parmelee, D.F., J.M. Parmelee, and M. humpback (Megaptera novacancliac), and Sea. Cambridge: British Antarctic Survey. Fuller. 1985. Ornithological investiga- killer whales (Ornicus orca) were seen tions at Palmer Station: The first long- from the station on a very few occasions distance tracking of seabirds by satel- between 6 December 1985 and 16 April lites. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 19(5), 1986. Most sightings took place in early Dame, Stan. 1985. Personal 162-163. January. communication. In summary, more species were seen Parmelee, D.F., and J.M. Parmelee. In during the winter 1983-when sea-ice press. Revised penguin numbers and conditions were more moderate-than 1-leimark, G.M., and R.J. Heimark. 1984. distribution for Anvers Island, Ant- 1986. In addition, more individuals of Birds and marine mammals in the Pal- arctica. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin. each species were seen in 1983. Antarctic mer Station area. Antarctic Journal of the terns and leopard seals were seen during U. S., 19(4), 3-8. Stretch, Jim. 1986. Personal the 1983 winter but not during the 1986 communication. winter. Although petrels, fulmars, shags, gulls, and sheathbills were seen 1-leimark, R.J., and G.M. Heimark. 1986. Tierney, T.J. 1977. Southern elephant both winters, the number seen of each Southern elephant seal pupping at Pal- seal, Mirounga leonina, (L) in the Ves- species was higher in 1983. This may in- mer Station, Antarctica. Journal of tfold Hills, Antarctica. Australian Wild- dicate that extensive sea ice hinders the Mammalogy, 67(1), 189-190. life Research, 4, 13-24. December 1988 17 An evaluation of the 40 Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station power source 35 Because many research applications 30 use equipment dependent on an exter- nal power source, researchers need a 25 reasonable evaluation of the constancy of Z AC voltage and frequency. This type of LU information can help researchers imple- o 20 ment the necessary measures to protect LU instruments against malfunctions orig- a. 15 inating from an irregular power source. In January 1986, a University of Flor- ida research team installed the South 10 Pole optical telescope (SPOT) at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. 5 Our objective was to monitor variable stars photometrically for long uninter- 0 rupted periods of time and to test whether making night time astronomical 108 ItO 112 114 116 observations was feasible from this site. VOLTAGE (V) Because our telescope is automated, we needed to include a power supply that Figure 1. Relative occurrence of voltages as a percent of the total number of points. could not be interrupted to protect the computer system from power outages. This system also enabled us to measure and evaluate the quality of the South Pole Stations power generation. The data analyzed in this paper in- clude nearly 46 days from April to Sep- tember 1986. The database consists of 622 readings, each of voltages and fre- 50 - quencies, measured and recorded typ- TOTAL DATA POINTS 616 ically once an hour. Resulting voltage 45 - MEAN 59,94 Hz STANDARD DEVIATION Oil Hz and frequency distribution graphs are shown in figures 1 and 2, respectively, 40 - together with corresponding statistical 35 - information. In general, variations in voltage and 30- frequency were not correlated with time LU 0 but were randomly distributed around a 25 - their respective means. As can be seen LU from figure 1, voltages show a coarse 20 - peak around the mean, with 94 percent of the data concentrated between 112 to 15 - 116 volts. The remaining points between 108 and 111 volts were not typical of the 10-

data sampled. Instead they correspond 5- to a period in August when the stations power was substantially lower than at other times; this is shown in figure 3. 59.0 59.5 60,0 60,5 61.0 In contrast to the voltage data, fre- FREQUENCY (Hz) quencies show a relatively finer peak (figure 2), with 95 percent of the data in Figure 2. Relative occurrence of frequencies as a percent of the total number of points. Statistical the 59.8 to 60.1 Hertz-range. Minor information does not include six data points around 50.0 and 70.0 hertz. peaks, comprising 4 percent of the data, are located around 59.0 and 61.0 Hertz. As shown figure 4, these peaks appear sporadically throughout the data. The remaining 1 percent of the frequency data obtained from the South Pole is not shown in figure 2 but would be located at about 50.0 and 70.0 Hertz. These spu- rious points probably can be attributed > 116

to irregularities in the data transfer pro- LU cess from the telescope to Florida. I wish to thank John P. Oliver and .j 108 I - 0 - I I I I Kwan-Yu Chen for their advice in pre- > APRIL 9 MAY 3 JUNE 27 JULY 26 AUGUST 22 SEPTEMBER 3 paring this paper. I also wish to than 986 Mary Jane Taylor for providing me with the raw data, and Paul P. Gombola for Figure 3. Representative sampling of voltage fluctuations over 6 months.

18 Antarctic Journal preparing the figures. The SPOT project is supported by National Science Foun- dation grants DPP 84-14128 and DPP I 86-14550.

>- 60 —Jamie Esper, Department of Astron- LU omy, University of Florida, Gainesville, 0 LU Florida 32611. Cr Li

59

APRIL 9 MAY 3 JUNE 27 JULY 26 AUGUST 22 SEPTEMBER 3 986

Figure 4. Representative sampling of frequency fluctuations over 6 months. Of the 622 total data points, only 6 show significant deviation from the trend shown here, ranging from 50.0 hertz and 50.1 hertz (2 points) to 69.9 hertz (1 point) and 70.0 hertz (3 points).

tion of energy metabolism in fish. DPP Foundation awards of funds for antarctic 85-16137. $77,000. projects, 1 July to 30 September 1988 Smith, Walker 0. University of Ten- nessee at Knoxville, Knoxville, Ten- Following is a list of National Science Foundation antarctic awards made from 1 July nessee. Antarctic Marine Ecosystem to 30 September 1988. Each item contains the name of the principal investigator or Research at the Ice-Edge Zone (AM ER- project manager, his or her institution, a shortened title of the project, the award IEZ): Collaborative research on nu- number, and the amount awarded. If an investigator received a joint award from more trient dynamics and phytoplankton than one Foundation program, the antarctic program funds are listed first, and the productivity. DPP 84-20213. $55,242. total amount of the award is listed in parentheses. Award numbers for awards initiated by the Division of Polar Programs contain the prefix DPP, those by the Division of Earth Stockton, William L. University of Cal- Sciences the prefix EAR, those by the Division of Ocean Sciences the prefix OCE, those ifornia at San Diego, Scripps Institu- by the Division of Industrial Science and Technological Innovation contain the prefix tion, La Jolla, California. Growth, pre- ISI, and those by the Division of International Programs contain the prefix INT. dation, and mortality in foraminifera: Effects on community structure. DPP 86-17149. $73,512. Biology and medicine Karentz, Deneb. University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, Cal- Sullivan, Cornelius W. University of Becker, Robert A. ITT Antarctic Services ifornia. Biological consequences of in- Southern California, Los Angeles, Inc., Paramus, New Jersey. Support of creased ultraviolet radiation associated California. Photobiology of sea-ice mi- ultraviolet monitoring network. DPP with antarctic ozone depletion. DPP croalgal species. DPP 87-17692. 80-03801. $260,000. 87-12533. $77,914. $96,083.

Frederick, John E. University of Chi- Lynch, Louise. Courtesy Travel Service, Trivelpiece, Wayne Z. Point Reyes Bird cago, Chicago, Illinois. Ultraviolet ra- Washington, D.C. Travel and admin- Observatory, Stinson Beach, Califor- diation environment of Antarctica. istrative services in support of domes- nia. Pygoscelid penguin population DPP 88-09294. $61,712. tic and international science and engi- studies. DPP 83-14667. $89,384. neering activities sponsored by the Frost, Bruce W. University of Wash- National Science Foundation. INT Wartzok, Douglas. Purdue University, ington, Seattle, Washington. Antarctic 86-18696. $18,000. West Lafayette, Indiana. Sensory com- Marine Ecosystem Research at the Ice- ponents of under-ice movement and Edge Zone (AMERIEZ): Acoustic as- hole-finding behavior of ringed seals sessment of nekton and micronekton. Morse, Daniel E. University of California and Weddell seals. DPP 86-19272. at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, Cal- DPP 84-20215. $85,017. $140,729. ifornia. Workshop on the tools of bio- Harbison, C. Richard. Harbor Branch technology and molecular biology in Foundation, Fort Pierce, Florida. The the ocean sciences. OCE 88-12899. biology of gelatinous zooplankton: $10,000. ($55,000). Studies on ctenophores, saips, and Errata pteropods in antarctic waters. DPP Nelson, David M. Oregon State Univer- In the September 1988 issue of the 86-13388. $92,581. sity, Corvallis, Oregon. Antarctic Ma- rine Ecosystem Research at the Ice- Antarctic Journal of the United States, the list of funds awarded for antarctic Holm-Hansen, Osmund. University of Edge Zone (AMERIEZ): Collaborative research and support was mistakenly California at San Diego, Scripps In- research on nutrient dynamics and identified as the listing for 1 January stitution of Oceanography, La Jolla, phytoplankton productivity. DPP to 31 March 1988. Although the California. Ultraviolet radiation in ant- 84-20204. $108,044. awards are correct, they actually were arctic waters: Dynamics response of made between 1 April and 30 June phytoplankton and attenuation by Sidell, Bruce D. University of Maine at 1988. pigments. DPP 88-10462. $89,389. Orono, Orono, Maine. Characteriza-

December 1988 19 and mapping. DPP 85-12516. $303,000.

Taylor, Thomas N. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Paleobotany in Ant- arctica: Paleozoic and Mesozoic. DPP 86-11884. $4,000.

Walder, Joseph S. University of Wash- ington, Seattle, Washington. Debris entrainment processes at glacier beds. DPP 87-21159. $29,707. ($34,707).

Glaciology Bindschadler, Robert A. National Aero- nautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center, Green- belt, Maryland. West antarctic glaciology-11. DPP 86-14407. $113,750.

Kamb, Barclay. California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Flow mechanism of Ice Stream B, West Antarctica. DPP 85-19083. $235,636.

Mosley-Thompson, Ellen. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Glaciological and climatological analy- sis of the past 2,000 years from ant- arctic ice cores. DPP 84-10328. $111,993.

Muszynski, Isabelle. National Center for Atmospheric Research Control. Boul- NSF photo. der, Colorado. A marine ice-sheet model for coupled icesheet climate Personnel from the U.S. and New Zealand antarctic programs learn techniques for climbing and studies. DPP 88-01016. $52,000. traversing areas that are crevassed. Raymond, Charles F. University of Washington, Seattle, Washington. Geophysical surveys and ice-flow modeling to support ice coring for pal- White, David C. University of Tennessee DePaolo, Donald J. University of Califor- eoclimate in the antarctic peninsula. at Knoxville, Knoxville, Tennessee. nia at Berkeley, Berkeley, California. DPP 87-16243. $9,026. Ecology of antarctic shallow-water Geochemistry of Paleozoic granites of benthic microbial communities. DPP the Transantarctic Mountains: Phase Thompson, Lonnie G. Ohio State Uni- 86-13248. $92,309. 2. DPP 86-14649. $108,253. versity, Columbus, Ohio. A cooper- ative climatological-glaciological pro- Yen, Jeannette. University of Hawaii at Denton, George H. University of Maine gram in the antarctic peninsula, phase Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii. Reproduc- at Orono, Orono, Maine. Isotopic dat- 1. DPP 87-16384. $10,886. ($17,886). tive ecology of eucha eta antarctica, a car- ing of antarctic glaciations. DPP nivorous marine copepod. DPP 86-13842. $129,875. Whillans, Ian M. Ohio State University, 86-13957. $52,460. Columbus, Ohio. Studies of internal Hodge, Steven M. Geological Survey- layering and basal conditions in ice Earth Sciences Tacoma, Tacoma, Washington, Trans- sheets using low-frequency ice radar. fer, repackaging, and evaluation of an DPP 85-19550. $33,093. Aaron, John M. U.S. Geological Survey, ice radar. DPP 86-19246. $39,832. Reston, Virginia. Preparation, print- Meteorology ing, and distribution of a uniform se- Kurz, Mark D. Woods Hole Bromwich, David H. Ohio State Univer- ries of antarctic geologic maps. DPP Oceanographic Institution, Woods sity, Columbus, Ohio. Continuing 88-46827. $9,500. Hole, Massachusetts. Applications of study of the windfield near Terra Nova cosmogenic helium to earth sciences. Bay. DPP 87-16076. $61,371. Behrendt, John C. U.S. Geological Sur- EAR 88-03783. $20,000. ($50,000). vey, Reston, Virginia. Seismic refrac- tion survey of Victoria Land Basin Bromwich, David H. Ohio State Univer- area, Ross Sea. DPP 88-13554. $1. Maim, Michael C. Arizona State Univer- sity, Columbus, Ohio. Satellite studies sity, Tempe, Arizona. Abrasion target of west antarctic surface winds. DPP Cassidy, William A. University of Pitts- recovery. DPP 87-16505. $4,997. 87-16339. $6,000. burgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Search for meteorites. DPP 83-14496. Starr, Lowell E. U.S. Geological Survey, Chuan, Raymond L. University of New $92,582. Reston, Virginia. Antarctic surveying Hampshire at Durham, Durham, New

20 Antarctic Journal Al

S

NASA photo by Larry Sammons.

Near Lake Hoare in Taylor Valley, one of southern Victoria Lands ice-free areas, U.S. biologists established a field camp during their study of the lakes ecology. The camp shows the mixture of types shelters used by U.S. scientists in Antarctica—the arched Jamesway (tent-like units built on wooden frames and foundations), the pyramid-shaped Scott tents (used first by Robert F Scott), and various one- and two-man tents.

Hampshire. Sampling and analysis of Ocean Sciences 88-58830. $25,000. large aerosol particles in the antarctic troposphere and near surface ice. DPP Bullister, John L. Woods Hole Dunbar, Robert B. Rice University, 87-04319. $68,650. Oceanographic Institution, Woods Houston, Texas. Sinking and sus- Hole, Massachusetts. Chlo- pended particulate matter on the ant- Radke, Lawrence F. University of Wash- rofluoromethane (freon) studies in the arctic shelf. DPP 85-16911. $13,994. ington, Seattle, Washington. Proposal Filchner III experiment. DPP 86-19704. for the maintenance of the data ac- $55,001. Fisk, Martin R. Oregon State University, quisitions and display system for the Corvallis, Oregon. Petrology and National Science Foundations Curry, Judith A. Purdue University, geology of marginal basin volcanics LC-130R aircraft. DPP 85-07730. West Lafayette, Indiana. Presidential from the Bransfield Strait. DPP $28,000. Young Investigator Award. DPP 86-14022. $8,244.

December 1988 21

Flegal, A.R. University of California at Gardner, Chester S. University of Illinois communications for scientific pur- Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California. at Urbana, Urbana, Illinois. Sodium poses: UNOLS fleet management and Lead in the Antarctic. DPP 86-14243. lidar studies of the upper atmosphere polar programs support. OCE 86- $51,819. at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Sta- 03719. $14,254. tion. DPP 87-18089. $93,058. Hall, Michael J. National Oceanic and At- Fisher, Dwight, D. Department of De- mospheric Administration, Wash- Helliwell, Robert A. Stanford University, fense, Washington, D.C. Logistic sup- ington, D.C. Support for Argos data- Stanford, California. Very-low-fre- port of the U.S. program in antarctica. collection and location system. OCE quency wave-particle interaction ex- DPP 76-10886. $2,627,700. 83-41973. $44,550. ($239,250). periments on the magnetosphere and ionosphere from Siple Station, Ant- Hushen, W. Timothy. National Academy Katsouros, Mary Hope. National Acade- arctica and Lake Mistissini, Quebec. of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Sup- my of Sciences, Washington, D.C. DPP 86-13783. $5,215. port for the Polar Research Board. DPP Workshop on the continental margins: 82-07098. $45,000. Evolution of passive continental mar- Morley, Bruce M. SRI International, gins and active marginal processes. Menlo Park, California. National Kubany, Susan. OMNET Inc., Boston, OCE 88-15064. $17,500. ($70,000). Ozone Expedition (NOZE) lidar ob- Massachusetts. SCIENCEnet Elec- servations of polar stratospheric cloud, tronic Mail Services. DPP 86-19368. Martinson, Douglas G. Columbia Uni- aerosol, and ozone distributions. DPP $10,900. ($44,700). versity, Lamont-Doherty Geological 88-09141. $96,000. Kuivinen, Karl C. University of Observatory, Palisades, New York. Po- Nebraska at Lincoln, Lincoln, larstern Winter Weddell Sea Project: Peterson, Jeffrey. Princeton University, Upper ocean (study years 4 and 5).. Princeton, New Jersey. Cosmic back- Nebraska. Logistical support for polar DPP 88-09942. $48,056. ground isotropy measurements from ice core drilling. DPP 83-18538. the South Pole. DPP 87-16458. $24,810. $110,257. ($534,078). Owens, W. Brechner. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Rosenberg, Theodore J. University of Martin, George F Department of Trans- Hole, Massachusetts. Travel to the Maryland at College Park, College portation, U.S. Coast Guard, Wash- AARI, Leningrad, USSR. DPP Park, Maryland. Studies of ington, D.C. Icebreaker support in the 85-18747. $1,720. ionospheric variability and mighfre- U.S. antarctic program fiscal year quency radiowave propagation in the 1988. DPP 82-17331. $2,240,407. Southern Polar Region. INT 88-15373. $3,875. ($7,750). Miller, Stephen D. Thermalon Indus- tries, Ltd., Harbor City, California. Torres, Arnold L. National Aeronautics Lightweight, non-absorbent, loose- Upper atmosphere studies and Space Administration, Goddard fill, and batting-type thermal insula- Space Flight Center, WFF, Wallops Is- tions for cold climate clothing. ISI 88- Clark, Kenneth C. University of Wash- land, Virginia. Antarctic ozone pro- 01660. $135,323. ington, Seattle, Washington. Antarctic files: Palmer Station. DPP 88-10257. $1. neutral thermospheric and meso- Nelson, Marilyn K. Blue Pencil Group, spheric dynamics and ther- Zeller, Edward J. University of Kansas Inc., Reston, Virginia. Editorial Serv- modynamics. DPP 88-14563. $15,000. Main Campus, Lawrence, Kansas. Re- ices for the Antarctic Journal of the Unit- lationship of solar cosmic rays to nitra- ed States. DPP 86-16512. $7,300. Doolittle, John H. Lockheed Missile and te flux by highresolution analysis of a Space, Palo Alto, California. Automat- snow sequence on the Ross Ice Shelf. Proenza, Luis M. University of Alaska ic geophysical observatories for use in DPP 87-15543. $2,000. Fairbanks Campus, Fairbanks, Alas- Antarctica. DPP 88-14294. $500,000. ka. Polar ice coring and support. DPP 88-20948. $25,000. Dragovan, Mark. AT&T Bell Laborato- Services and support ries, Murray Hill, New Jersey. Milli- Stoermer, Eugene F. University of Michi- meter wave observations of the cosmic Brown, Otis B. University of Miami gan at Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, Michi- microwave background. DPP School of Marine and Atmospheric gan. Ship operations support. OCE 87-17330. $1. Sciences, Miami, Florida. Satellite 86-16054. $97,530.

22 Antarctic Journal

C CD CD C- Weather at U.S. stations Ct

August 1988 September 1988 October 1988

Feature McMurdo Palmer South Pole McMurdo Palmer South Pole McMurdo Palmer South Pole Average temperature (°C) -17.5 - 6.8 -56.3 -19.4 - 2.2 -55.8 -12.8 0.0 -46.2

Temperature maximum (°C) - 2.0 2.5 38.0 - 9.2 4.0 39.0 - 4.2 5.0 -32.0 (date) (20) (13) (29) (30) (6) (18) (26) (28) (12) Temperature minimum (°C) -32.5 -15.0 --74.5 -33.7 -15.0 -69.0 -33.4 -11.0 -61.0 (date) (9) (28) (23) (15) (19) (15) (8) (8) (2) Average station pressure (mb) 978.5 1000.4 679.7 987.3 991.0 683.2 991.9 1000.0 689.2

Pressure maximum (mb) 1007.3 1024.0 693.0 1013.3 1012.6 699.8 1012.9 1026.0 702.6 (date) (22) (9) (26, 27) (13) (15) (30) (8) (25) (10) Pressure minimum (mb) 951.3 979.0 666.7 956.1 960.0 666.0 962.8 975.0 676.9 (date) (29) (31) (31) (1) (23) (1) (26) (5) (3) Snowfall (mm) 147.3 15.4 TRACE 45.7 165.1 TRACE 175.3 160.0 TRACE Prevailing wind direction 1200 0300 3600 nq° 0300 0400 i nfl 0 fl300 090° Average wind (m/sec) 5.0 3.6 6.0 4.5 5.9 5.9 6.2 3.5 5.3

Fastest wind 32.6 25.7 16.5 54.1 27.8 16.5 36.0 29.9 20.3 (m /see) (29) (30) (8) (18) (30) (29) (14) (3) (9) (date) 190 0 0400 3200 2200 0300 3600 1800 0300 010°

Average sky cover 7.6 7/10 6.1 6.8 9/10 5.8 7.4 8/11 4.5 Number clear days 2.0 7.5 10.8 3.0 0.3 10.0 3.0 0.3 15.4 Number partly cloudy days 9.0 3.8 5. 0 11.0 4.3 9.8 9.0 4.8 5.6 Number cloudy days 20.0 19.8 15.2 16.0 25.5 10.3 19.0 26.0 10.2 Number days with visibility less than 0.4km. 2.9 --- 1.8 0.9 ___ 2.0 5.0 2.0

Prepared from information received by teletype from the stations. Locations: McMurdo 7751S 166°403E. Palmer 6446S 643W, Amundsen-Scott South Pole 90S. Elevations: McMurdo sea level, Palmer sea level, Amundsen-Scott Pole 2835 meters. For prior data and daily logs, contact National Climate Center, Asheville, North Carolina 28801.

NJ CjJ NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION WASHINGTON, D.C. 20550 111111

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