A Repertoire Selection Rubric for Preservice and Beginning Choral Conductors Based on Criteria of Aesthetic and Pedagogical Merit
A Document Submitted to the
CCM Graduate Thesis and Research Committee of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
in the Ensembles and Conducting Division of the College-Conservatory of Music
August 2011
by
Brandon L. Dean 144 Rita Road Mankato, Minnesota 56001 [email protected]
B.M., Luther College, 2000
M.M., The University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2003
Committee Chair: Ann Porter, Ph.D. !
ABSTRACT
The foundation of successful choral music education begins with the selection of repertoire that is of artistic and pedagogical merit and appropriately fitted to the needs of the ensemble. The limited resources presently available to beginning teachers and the relatively indiscriminate methods traditionally utilized by new conductors reduces their effectiveness in selecting choral literature. Several recent studies on literature selection have uncovered pertinent data related to processes and criteria used by narrow groups of music educators, yet these studies stop short of suggesting a methodology that could prove useful to preservice and beginning secondary choral music educators. This document presents a rubric-based methodology for the evaluation of choral literature designed specifically for preservice and beginning choral music educators.
The analytic rubric presented in this document is designed to determine the quality of the core aesthetic characteristics of the composition and the inherent pedagogical value for use in secondary choral music education. In addition to providing a detailed description and rationale for each component of the selection rubric, the document includes a review of related literature and musical examples that demonstrate effective utilization of the selection rubric. The
Appendix includes a directory of distinctive lists of choral repertoire.
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Copyright ! 2011 Brandon L. Dean All rights reserved
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To my wife, Ashley, for her unwavering love and support.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my sincere appreciation to committee members, Dr. Ann Porter, Dr. Earl
Rivers, and Dr. Brett Scott, for their expertise and support they have provided throughout my course of study at the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music. Each has abundantly contributed to my development as a choral conductor and music educator, as well as to the successful completion of this document. I am especially thankful to Dr. Peter Eklund,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, for his outstanding mentorship over the past ten years. And, I am forever grateful to Mr. Weston Noble, Dr. Dennis Darling, Dr. Timothy Peter, and Dr. Sandra
Peter of Luther College. They inspired me to pursue music education and provided the tools to be successful - in life and in music.
I am deeply appreciative of the unfailing support shown by my parents, Douglas and
Patricia Dean, my wife’s parents, Wayne and Diana Nielsen, and all my extended family members. Without their patience and understanding, the completion of this terminal degree would not have been possible. Most importantly, I am extremely humbled and unable to properly express the incredible gratitude I have for my wife, Ashley, and son, Carter. Their love and support has not wavered through the many joys and difficult challenges of the past three years and they mean everything to me.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi
LIST OF TABLES ...... ix
LIST OF TERMS ...... x
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 2 Significance of the Problem ...... 3 Purpose of the Study ...... 4 Limitations of the Study ...... 5
2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 6
Philosophical Foundations ...... 6 Current Repertoire Selection Practices ...... 12 Preservice Preparation ...... 21 Conclusion ...... 23
3 AESTHETIC MERIT CRITERIA ...... 25
Textual Integrity ...... 27 Craftsmanship ...... 35 Predictability ...... 46 Consistency ...... 52 Originality ...... 58 Validity ...... 62 Summary ...... 65
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4 PEDAGOGICAL MERIT CRITERIA ...... 67
Breath Control ...... 68 Tone Quality ...... 72 Intonation ...... 79 Rhythmic Integrity ...... 82 Diction ...... 88 Music Literacy ...... 92 Summary ...... 95
5 RUBRIC-BASED REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT ...... 97
Three Madrigals by Emma Lou Diemer ...... 97 The May Night by Johannes Brahms, Arr. Arthur Frackenpohl ...... 108 Exultate Deo by Alessandro Scarlatti ...... 120 Conclusion ...... 131
APPENDICES
A REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT RUBRIC ...... 133
B QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT ...... 136
C DIRECTORY OF SELECTED CHORAL REPERTOIRE LISTS ...... 140
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 141!
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1 General Descriptions of the Aesthetic Merit Criteria ...... 27 ! Table 3-2 Textual Integrity Criterion ...... 28 ! Table 3-3 Craftsmanship Criterion ...... 35 ! Table 3-4 Predictability Criterion ...... 47 ! Table 3-5 Consistency Criterion ...... 52 ! Table 3-6 Originality Criterion ...... 59 ! Table 3-7 Validity Criterion ...... 62 ! Table 4-1 General Descriptions of the Pedagogical Merit Criteria ...... 68 ! Table 4-2 Breath Control Criterion ...... 69 ! Table 4-3 Tone Quality Criterion ...... 73 ! Table 4-4 Intonation Criterion ...... 79 ! Table 4-5 Rhythmic Integrity Criterion ...... 83 ! Table 4-6 Diction Criterion ...... 89 ! Table 4-7 Music Literacy Criterion ...... 93 ! Table 5-1 Repertoire Selection Rubric for Three Madrigals ...... 108 ! Table 5-2 Repertoire Selection Rubric for The May Night ...... 119 ! Table 5-3 Repertoire Selection Rubric for Exultate Deo ...... 131 ! ! ! ! ! !
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LIST OF TERMS
Aesthetic: Concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty
Consensus Assessment: A method for determining measurement standards for ambiguous domains of knowledge
Criterion: A principal or standard by which something may be judged or decided
Generic, analytic rubric: A type of rubric that can be applied to a number of different scenarios and presents multiple, separate scales yielding a set of results
Pedagogy: The method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept
Praxial: Relating to the practical application of learning
Preservice: Relating to the period of training before a person takes job, especially in teaching
Qualitative: Related to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something rather than its quantity
Secondary: Relating to education for children ages eleven to eighteen
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Retention of beginning teachers is one of the principal challenges facing music education in the twenty-first century. The transition from preservice training to in-service teaching is often overwhelming and the multitude of challenges facing new music teachers has contributed to the rising attrition rate in recent years. The statistics are staggering: A recent study by Henke, Chen,
Geis and Knepper found that 20 percent of all beginning teachers leave the profession within three years of service,1 and Richard M. Ingersol has reported that between 40 and 50 percent quit teaching within five years.2 The diminishing number of college students completing preservice music education degrees further complicates the problem of teacher retention. Approximately
11,000 new music teachers are needed to fill vacancies in the United States annually, yet only about 5,500 new music educators join the profession each year.3 Those responsible for recruiting, educating, and retaining future music teachers face a considerable challenge that demands new methodologies, innovative tools, and a fresh approach to sustain music education into the twenty-first century.
My experience as a secondary choral music educator, as well as my background in training preservice music educators, affirms that successful teaching experiences during the initial years of professional placement will generate seeds for young educators to continue on the path of career teaching. Furthermore, successful choral music education begins with the selection of repertoire that is of artistic and pedagogical merit. Many leading choral music educators share this opinion, including Hilary Apfelstadt, Director of Choral Activities at the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Henke, R., Chen, X., Geis, S., & Knepper, P., “Progress through the teacher pipeline: 1992–93 college graduates and elementary/secondary teaching as of 1997” (No. NCES 2000-152), Washington, D.C.: National Center for Educational Statistics. 2 Richard M. Ingersoll, “The Teacher Shortage: Myth or Reality?,” Educational Leadership 60 (2003): 30. 3 Willie L. Hill, “The Teacher Shortage and Policy,” Music Educators Journal 89 (March 2003): 6.
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University of Toronto, who argued that “selection of repertoire is the single most important task that music educators face.”4 In addition, Alfred J. Swan noted “making for ultimate success is the choice of the material, since no amount of inspiration will overcome the obstacles presented by compositions that are too difficult or that are generally ill-suited for amateur performers.”5
Statement of the Problem
Selecting quality repertoire for use with secondary-level choral ensembles is a difficult and multifaceted undertaking for novice and expert conductors alike. There are numerous variables to consider, ranging from ensemble ability and concert programming, to budgetary constraints and student appeal. These variables provide conductors with a wide variety of repertoire options for study and performance, but also cloud the decision-making process.
Moreover, the selection of repertoire has a profound impact on the entire choral program, from skill development and enrollment, to accolades and revenue. According to Don L. Collins, “the choice of music literature reaches the heart of the choral music education program.”6 Given the central role assumed by repertoire in the choral music education curriculum, what repertoire should be selected for study and performance? And what resources are available to assist novice teachers in selecting appropriate repertoire for their choral ensembles? Authorities in the field of choral music education generally agree that the answer to the first question is subjective, yet simple: quality music with pedagogical value. The answer to the second question is much more difficult to ascertain.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 Hilary Apfelstadt, “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire,” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 19. 5 Alfred J. Swan, The Music Directors Guide to Musical Literature (New York: Prentice Hall, 1949): preface. 6 Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999): 52.!
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Significance of the Problem
The arduous task of selecting choral repertoire is undermined by the lack of quality resources available to preservice and beginning choral music educators. Resources frequently cited by conductors as influential in the literature selection process include concert programs, audio recordings, convention reading sessions, and lists of recommended repertoire. As a result of the overwhelming volume of published choral repertoire, many repertoire lists are currently available. Like a concert program or audio recording, a list is only the point of departure for the larger burden of determining aesthetic and pedagogical value within a specific context. Even thoroughly annotated repertoire lists or well-written program notes do not provide sufficient information to determine the appropriateness of a work for a specific ensemble. Identification of the text, translation, voicing, key, formal structure and other characteristics is certainly an important aspect of the selection process, however, it does not provide enough information to determine educational value.
There are a small number of other resources available that focus on the marriage of quality literature and educational objectives, such as the “Teaching Music through Performance in Choir” series by GIA Publications. This two-volume set features a wide-range of choral repertoire and includes information pertinent to instructional planning. Unfortunately, this material provides little assistance for the beginning conductor for selection of repertoire outside the limited canon of the publication. Many choral method books address literature selection.
However, the discussions tend to be brief and often focus on concert programming rather than qualitative selection criteria.
A recent study on choral literature selection processes conducted by Guy Forbes,
Associate Director of Choirs at Milliken University, found that most choral conductors do not
! 3! ! use a systematic approach based on specified values, but favor a more indiscriminate method.
“Directors tend to sift through possible selections using one or two criteria in order to reduce the number of possible selections down to a manageable size. In most cases, directors then apply other criteria to further refine their choices.”7 Another recent study of eleven nationally recognized high school choral conductors8 found:
All of the directors interviewed have the majority of criteria by which they select performance literature in common. They all look for quality, well-written choral works, and all of them have variety as an important criteria...In addition, all of the conductors select music which they themselves “love.”9
The findings of these two studies underscore the significance of the problem with current repertoire selection practices. Vague criteria, such as “quality” and personal affection, do not objectively assess the value of art music in a meaningful way. Furthermore, variety is a criterion that can only be used in a comparative context and does not assess the value of an individual work. The selection criteria described above may work for experienced conductors who have extensive knowledge of choral repertoire. However, novice teachers will likely struggle to find repertoire that will enable them to refine their teaching skills while advancing the musicianship of their students.
Purpose of the Study
According to Forbes, “repertoire is the medium through which students begin the development of discriminatory skills with regard to the qualitative elements in music, which in !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7 Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of High School Choral Directors,” Journal of Research in Music Education 49 (2001): 117. 8 In this study conducted by Tracy Caldwell Hunsaker, “nationally recognized” was defined as choral conductors whose high school ensemble performed at the 1999, 2001, 2003, or 2005 ACDA National Convention. 9 Tracy Caldwell Hunsaker, “Processes and Criteria of Nationally Recognized High School Choral Directors for the Selection of Performance Literature” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2007): 111.
! 4! ! turn leads to greater aesthetic awareness and sensitivity.”10 To sustain and improve the caliber of choral music education in the twenty-first century, preservice and beginning teachers need meaningful resources to aid the repertoire selection process. Concert programs, repertoire lists, reading session materials, audio recordings, and best practices of outstanding conductors are important resources, but they all fail to teach novice teachers how to categorically assess a given work. The purpose of this document is to develop a rubric based on criteria of aesthetic and pedagogical merit to aid preservice and beginning secondary choral music educators in the repertoire selection process.
Limitations of the Study
From time to time, all choral conductors make repertoire decisions based on extra- musical criteria, such as budgetary constraints, student appeal, contest requirements, concert programs, student ability and so on. Many choral method books, refereed journal articles, and dissertations have addressed the above-mentioned criteria and offered valuable insight for novice choral music educators. In contrast, the scope of this document is limited to the assessment of choral repertoire based on aesthetic and pedagogical criteria utilizing a generic, analytic rubric.
Once the aesthetic and pedagogical value of the work is determined, the conductor can then apply extra-musical criteria for programmatic or other contextually based purposes.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10 Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of High School Choral Directors.” Journal of Research in Music Education 49 (2001): 112. !
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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A number of highly respected music educators have contributed to the growing body of literature pertaining to repertoire selection over the past four decades and the overwhelming majority of these have cited repertoire selection as the most significant task in determining the overall success of a choral program. In order to examine the breadth of extant literature related to choral repertoire selection practices and criteria, the following review of related literature is divided into three sections: (a) philosophical foundations of music education, (b) repertoire selection practices of choral conductors, and (c) preservice teaching preparation.
Philosophical Foundations
Every decision in the choral music education process reaffirms the philosophical ideology of the educator, regardless of whether these values are stated or unstated. Bennett
Reimer eloquently summarized this unique phenomenon, stating “every time a choice is made a belief is applied.”11 The inherent value of music education, and in particular the ability to facilitate growth in both technical and emotional arenas, has been cited by many prominent music educators. According to David J. Elliott, vocal music can be expressive of human emotions because it “can and does partake of the inherent emotional qualities of the human voice and because music patterns can and do bear resemblances to expressive human gestures.”12 In addition to providing opportunities for human expression, the study and performance of choral repertoire can develop the understanding of feelings. In 1958, Leonard Bernstein summarized the relationship between music and feelings in the first of his Young People’s Concerts: !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11 Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education (Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1989): 7. 12 David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press): 149.
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The most wonderful thing of all is that there’s no limit to the different kinds of feelings music can make you have. Sometimes we can name the things we feel, like joy or sadness or love or hate or peacefulness. But there are other feelings so deep and special that we have no words for them, and that is where music is especially marvelous. It names the feelings for us, only in notes instead of words.13
How do music educators select repertoire that will offer maximum opportunities for the transformative experiences described by Bernstein? The first step is to designate repertoire for study and performance based on their philosophical viewpoint. This decision is paramount in determining the achievement of desired educational outcomes and the extent to which a relationship between music and feeling will be cultivated. Many authorities in the field of music education have noted the impact of a sharply defined philosophical ideology on music instruction. In his book Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education, Elliott underscored the importance of a philosophy through a simple analogy:
A philosophy is like a map, and doing philosophy is like map making...a good philosophy can show us the best routes to our destinations based on careful considerations of the territory we want to travel. It may also point us to routes and destinations we never considered.14
Bennett Reimer also outlined the importance of an educational philosophy in his book, A
Philosophy of Music Education:
First, the individual who has a clear notion of what his aims are as a professional, and who is convinced of the importance of these aims, is a strong link in the chain of people who collectively make a profession....The second reason for the importance of strengthening individual beliefs about music education is that the understanding a person has about the value and nature of his profession inevitably effects his understanding of the value and nature of his personal life.15 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13 Leonard Bernstein, What Does Music Mean?, Young People’s Concert, January 18, 1958. 14 David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 9. 15 Bennett B. Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970): 5.
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Although many philosophical doctrines have influenced music education over the past sixty years (rationalism, empiricism, pragmatism, referentialism, expressionism, formalism), the aesthetic and praxial philosophies are currently the most prominent viewpoints. Bennett Reimer became the figurehead of the philosophy movement in the 1970s after the publication of his book, A Philosophy of Music Education (1970). Reimer described an aesthetic philosophy that became the dominant view for next thirty years, deeply influencing all aspects of music education and teacher training. In recent years, David Elliott introduced a contrasting philosophy that he labeled “praxial” in his book Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music
Education (1995). The praxial philosophy quickly gained favor in the field of music education and now rivals the aesthetic philosophy in theory and practice.
The term aesthetic was first used in the middle of the eighteenth century by the German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten to signify the science of beauty.16 The term was first applied to the arts in a series of twenty-seven letters collectively titled Letters upon the Aesthetic
Education of Man (1794) by J.C. Friedrich Schiller. A brief excerpt from Letter IX summarizes
Schiller’s thoughts:
Humanity has lost its dignity, but art has saved it, and preserves it in marbles full of meaning; truth continues to live in illusion, and the copy will serve to reestablish the model. If the nobility of art has survived the nobility of nature, it also goes before it like an inspiring genius, forming and awakening minds. Before truth causes her triumphant light to penetrate into the depth of the heart, poetry intercepts her rays, and the summits of humanity shine in a bright light, while a dark and humid night still hangs over the valleys.17
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16 Donald W. Crawford, “The Question of Aesthetics,” in Aesthetics and Arts Education, Ralph A. Smith and Alan Simpson (Eds.), (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1991): 18. 17 J. C. Friedrich von Schiller, Letters Upon the Aesthetic Education of Man, Letter IX, http://www.bartleby.com/32/509.html (accessed April 3, 2011).
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Schiller’s belief that beauty (aesthetic) was a vital tool for moving mankind forward, not merely for enjoyment and recreation, paved the way for modern aesthetic education philosophers, including Bennett Reimer.
Reimer’s advocacy for higher standards of philosophical foundations in music education has shaped the entire field for the past four decades. Assessing Reimer’s impact on music education, Wayne Bowman stated:
The first edition of Reimer’s book, A Philosophy of Music Education, built upon ideas advanced by Charles Leonhard and others in the late 1960s. It offered the music profession a challenging and affirming image of itself, one that maintained the inherent worth and dignity of instructional endeavors in music at a time when educational practices in general were subject to uncomfortably intense scrutiny. Music education was justified, the profession found comfort in saying, to the extent it contributed to the broader project of “aesthetic education.” This framework and the vocabulary in which it was couched were an apparently fortuitous match for many of the needs, real or perceived, of the music education profession. They were embraced widely, and, by many, passionately.18
The aesthetic philosophy presented in A Philosophy of Music Education values musicality within each individual and is not limited to the musically elite. Reimer supported the selection of quality literature that promotes the emotional power of music and exposure to music of other cultures. According to Reimer, “the most important role of music education as aesthetic education is to help children become progressively more sensitive to the elements of music which contain the conditions which can yield insights into human feeling.”19 Reimer also advocated that music educators be familiar with the core values of music and comprehensively teach it to students. For Reimer, the requirements of a “musical experience” included (a) the perception of sounds as being artistically (aesthetically) organized, (b) affective responsiveness !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18 Wayne Bowman, “Symposium: Bennett Reimer’s Philosophy of Music Education,” Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education 2 (2003): 2. 19 Bennett B. Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970): 40.
! 9! ! to the expressive nature of sounds, (c) a sensuous dimension, (d) a creative dimension, and (e) a contextual/social dimension.
While there are many differences between the aesthetic and praxial doctrines, perhaps the central division revolves around the definition of music in relation to the concept of doing.
According to Reimer, “music is the product of the labor of composers and performers...but all those matters should disappear, leaving only the work in its pristine isolation, as sound with value strictly as sound, separated from the worlds and experiences of the people who created it.”20 In contrast, Elliott argued that “music is not simply a collection of products or objects.
Fundamentally, music is something that people do.”21
The term praxial is derived from praxis, which was first used by Aristotle in his Poetics and is defined as the practical application of learning. According to David Elliott, an important distinction between aesthetic and praxial philosophies concerns the action of doing music:
I call Music Matters a praxial philosophy because this one-word label captures a key idea (but not all key ideas) of this philosophy: that a full understanding of the nature and significance of music involves more than an understanding of pieces or works of music. I want to highlight the importance of conceiving ‘music’ as a particular form of action that is purposeful and situated and, therefore, revealing of one's selfhood and one's relationship with others in a community. ‘Praxial’ emphasizes that music (as products-and-processes) ought to be understood in relation to the meanings and values evidenced in actual music making, music listening and musical outcomes in specific cultural contexts.22
Dr. Philip Alperson, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Louisville, first used the term “praxial” was in 1991 for an article in the Journal of Aesthetic Education. In his article,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20 Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education: Advancing the Vision (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003), 48. 21 David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 39.! 22 David J. Elliott, What Does Praxial Mean?, http://www.davidelliottmusic.com/musicmat/praxial.htm#top (accessed March 23, 2011).
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Alperson suggested that a successful music education program:
must take into account, not only the history and kind of appreciation appropriate to the musical work of art, but also the nature and significance of the skills and productive human activity that bring musical works into being, if for no other reason than the fact that the results of human action cannot be adequately understood apart from the motives, intentions, and productive considerations of the agents who bring them into being.23
In addition to the importance placed on music making, Elliott advocated for a multidimensional approach to the music curriculum through the actions of performing, improvising, composing, arranging, and conducting, all of which are closely linked to musical listening. Elliott claimed that “music making and music listening are unique and major ways of bringing order to consciousness and, therefore, unique and major ways of achieving self-growth and self- knowledge.”24 Throughout his book, Elliott argued that musical works involve many distinct kinds of meanings, that musical understanding involves many closely related kinds of thinking and knowing, and that the significance of music in human life can be explained in terms of many important life values.
The establishment of philosophical beliefs about the nature and value of music will directly impact the decisions of how to teach, who to teach, and most importantly for this document, what to teach. With a philosophical foundation firmly established, choral music educators can begin the process of examining and selecting repertoire that will best facilitate the achievement of aesthetic and pedagogical goals.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23 Philip Alperson, “What Should One Expect from a Philosophy of Music Education,” Journal of Aesthetic Education Vol. 25, No. 3 (Autumn, 1991): 235. 24 David J. Elliott, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 117.!
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Current Repertoire Selection Practices
From the physics of acoustical sound to ethnomusicological considerations, there are countless avenues for cognitive, kinesthetic, and affective growth through the study and performance of choral repertoire. The selection of repertoire, therefore, is one of the most important decisions for a choral music educator. An examination of current repertoire selection practices will better inform the novice choral conductor as to pertinent trends in the field.
Scholarly research pertaining to repertoire selection practices in choral music education is generally limited to method books, refereed journals, and dissertations. Information related to concert programming is by far the most voluminous topic addressed in method books. Authors have frequently advocated for programmatic interest and variety, including contrasting historical periods, cultures, styles, and genres. For example, Noble Cain (1942) called for educators to program music from the past five centuries and suggested using one of three types of concert programming: chronological, mood type, and contrast.25 Method book authors have also emphasized unification of concert programs through shared literary or musical characteristics.
For example, Robert L. Garretson suggested that conductors “select publications that fall into three or more groups and have some definite literary or stylistic relationship to each other.”26
Choral method books that include information related to programmatic repertoire selection include books by Noble Cain (1942), Walter Ehret (1959), Paul F. Roe (1983), Robert L.
Garretson (1970), Harold A. Decker & Julius Herford (1973), and Kenneth E. Miller (1988).
More important to the scope of this document are method books that specifically address repertoire selection criteria, including texts by Miller (1979), Roe (1983), Lamb (1988), Decker and Kirk (1988), Roach (1989), Garretson (1993), Hylton (1995), Brinson (1996), Collins !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 Noble Cain, Choral Music and Its Practice (New York: M. Witmark & Sons Education Publishing, 1942): 123. 26 Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music, 7th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993): 254.
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(1999), and Phillips (2004). Each author presented a distinct collection of selection criteria and this body of literature is the foundation of knowledge on the subject matter.
In Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (1979), Kenneth
E. Miller divided his discussion of repertoire selection into four chapters: (1) Sources and
Guidelines for Selecting Choral Music, (2) Selection Music for Performance: Recommended
Compositions, (3) How to Maintain a Choral Library, and (4) Public Performance: Matching
Performers and Audience. With regards to the use of selection criteria, Miller argued:
Many of us have seen conductors make unwise choices because they had simply ‘liked’ a piece of music or ‘thought’ it would be ‘good’ for their choir. Selecting repertoire under such circumstances rarely produces the best results. It is necessary for us to use criteria in selecting music if we are to be successful in building a significant and balanced library of choral music.27
After discussing the role of the conductor and where to locate choral repertoire, Miller listed the following eighteen criteria as most important in the repertoire selection process: (a) conductor appeal, (b) educational value of the text, (c) marriage of the text and music, (d) validity of the edition, (e) text which is easily sung, (f) vocal range and tessitura, (g) musical interest,
(h) quality of vocal part writing, (i) appeal to singers and audience, (j) music highlights the strengths of the ensemble, (k) significant addition to choral library, (l) correspondence between the arrangement and original work (m) financial investment, (n) within the technical range of the choir, (o) time needed to learn the music, (p) contribution to curricular goals, (q) availability of accompaniment instruments, and (r) marriage of accompaniment and choral writing.
In addition to advocating for repertoire to be selected from all style periods, Paul Roe was one of the first method book authors to call for higher standards of repertoire. In Choral Music
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27 Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 21. !
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Education (1983), Roe stated that “a primary goal should be the teaching of musical taste to the students. When this is the goal, trashy literature is unthinkable, for musicality and aesthetic experiences cannot develop from contacts with the trite and cheap.”28 Roe emphasized that selected repertoire should be well written within the context of its genre, including a sound formal organization and expressivity. Roe also suggested the use of an “analytical outline” to determine the quality of choral repertoire, which included: (a) harmonic structure, (b) texture, (c) tonality, (d) text, (e) melodic style, (f) rhythm, and (g) form.
Gordon Lamb believed “a conductor’s musicianship is reflected in the repertoire he chooses. Each program is an indication of the depth of the conductor’s understanding as well as a fairly accurate barometer of his choir’s capabilities.”29 In Choral Techniques (1988), Lamb suggested four basic considerations when selecting choral repertoire, beginning with whether or not the conductor can effectively teach the repertoire and if it represents a challenge to the students. He also recommended selection of repertoire that can be successfully performed and offers students an opportunity to learn about choral music.30 Lamb made note of several extra- musical considerations before introducing his list of selection criteria, which included: (a) vocal range of each part, (b) compositional craftsmanship, including an examination of the text and part writing, (c) rhythm, (d) harmony, (e) appropriate for rehearsal time, (f) ease of memorization, (g) arrangement reflects original intent, (h) programming considerations, and (i) difficulty.
According to Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk, two of the most important elements of any choral program are “the selection of music that evokes artistic expression, and the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28 Paul F. Roe, Choral Music Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1983): 62.! 29 Gordon H. Lamb, Choral Techniques, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988): 172. 30 Ibid., 172.
! 14! ! development of choral techniques that make the revealing of that artistic expression possible.”31
While many choral method books have emphasized programmatic concerns or compositional construction, Decker and Kirk also examined developmental and pedagogical concerns in their book, Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication (1988). The suggested repertoire selection criteria included: (a) vocal and emotional maturity, (b) teaching-learning objectives, and (c) artistic potential and artistic responsiveness. The authors noted “choral excellence is dependent upon the conductor’s abilities to assess learning readiness; formulate attainable objectives relating to skill development, cognition, and aesthetic responsiveness; teach that desired skills, understanding, and responsiveness develop consistently; and evaluate progress objectively.”32 In addition to addressing repertoire selection criteria, Decker and Kirk provided a useful guide to examining editions and discussed where to find repertory sources.
According to Robert L. Garretson, “the basic consideration in planning a choral program is selection of the music, since the success of the program depends to a great extent on the quality and the appropriateness of the music performed.”33 In Conducting Choral Music (1993),
Garretson encouraged the implementation of the following selection criteria: (a) text quality and meaning, (b) music reflects meaning of text, (c) appropriate for age and maturity of students, (d) appropriate to the technical facilities of the students, (e) voice parts are sufficiently interesting,
(f) authenticity of arrangements, (g) appropriate for allotted rehearsal time, and (h) contributes to a diverse variety of musical styles programmed.
In Comprehensive Choral Music Education (1995), John B. Hylton argued that
“comprehensive choral music education focuses on people and on music. The selection of the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31 Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk (Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988): 150. 32 Ibid., 151.! 33 Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music, 7th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993): 252.
! 15! ! music to be rehearsed and performed by a choral ensemble profoundly influences the quality of the music education experiences provided to the singers.”34 The recommended repertoire selection criteria included: (a) range and tessitura, (b) text, (c) voice leading, (d) accompaniment,
(e) harmony, (f) how the piece fits the choir, (g) educational implications, and (h) how the piece fits the total program. Hylton concluded his discussion of repertoire selection criteria with a useful examination of sacred music in the public school setting.
According to Barbara Brinson, the selection of repertoire “comprises the very core of the choral curriculum, and, because the choice of music has the potential to affect all else that transpires during the entire year, decisions must be made with much thought and consideration.”35 In support of her argument, Brinson dedicated an entire chapter of her book, entitled Choral Music: Methods and Materials (1996), to the process of repertoire selection.
Brinson suggested eleven repertoire selection criteria, including: (a) potential for student growth,
(b) variety of musical styles, (c) director appeal, (d) range and tessitura, (e) quality of text, (f) accompaniment forces and quality of writing, (g) quality of arrangement or transcription, (h) size of the choir, (i) vocal maturity, (j) compositional texture, and (k) audience appeal.
In his book Teaching Choral Music (1999), Don L. Collins suggested the following four repertoire selection criteria: (a) difficulty level, (b) sociological and cultural appeal, (c) educational value, and (d) aesthetic value. Collins provided a brief description of each criterion, along with a series of related questions for contemplation. He specifically argued for the selection of repertoire appropriate to the ability level of the ensemble, stating:
Directors may spend hours training their singers to be good musicians who sing with excellent vocal and choral technique, but out of a desire to sing “impressive” literature some directors !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 John B. Hylton, Comprehensive Choral Music Education (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1995): 142. 35 Barbara A. Brinson, Choral Music: Methods and Materials (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group, 1996): 73.
! 16! !
choose pieces in which the unique choral characteristics of their choirs are not considered, so the choirs do not sing well. All the hard work has been pointless. Considered in this light, choice of literature may be the most significant contributor to the finished product of any choral organization.36
Collins also noted the positive impact appropriate repertoire selection can have on classroom discipline and student attitude. He concluded his discussion with an examination of repertoire selection for younger adolescent singers.
One of the most popular choral method books is Directing the Choral Music Program
(2004) by Kenneth H. Phillips. Phillips dedicated an entire chapter of the book to repertoire selection and recommended using Walter Ehret’s selection criteria. Ehret’s criteria included the integrity of the text and the quality of the music, with particular attention on: (a) quality, (b) range and tessitura, (c) appeal to both the director and performer, and (d) contributions to a balanced program. According to Phillips, “quality choral literature is available today from numerous publishers. There is also much inferior literature, and the choral director must learn to tell the difference. In general, the music of well-known and respected composers will be better literature.”37
Although the cumulative volume of literature related to repertoire selection criteria is quite limited, the choral method books examined above provide a foundation of knowledge.
Many choral method books also contain valuable lists of suggested repertoire, including those by
Miller (1979), Decker and Kirk (1988), Lamb (1988), Roach (1989), Garretson (1993), Hylton
(1995), Brinson (1996), Collins (1999), and Phillips (2004). Also notable are method books that
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36 Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999): 359. 37 Kenneth H. Phillips, Directing the Choral Music Program (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004): 147. !!
! 17! ! completely neglect the topic of repertoire selection, including those by Wayne R. Jipson (1972),
Gerald F. Darrow (1975), and Ray Robinson & Allan Winold (1976).
In addition to choral method books, doctoral dissertations contain valuable information related to the repertoire selection processes of secondary choral music educators. For example,
Pamela K. Ogdin used a 52-item questionnaire to survey 200 secondary choral music educators from the San Diego, California area.38 The questionnaire included seventeen repertoire selection criteria and asked study participants to: (a) check which criteria they currently do use, (b) check which criteria they felt should be used, and (c) select seven criteria and rank them in order of importance. The results of the study indicated that the following criteria were deemed most important to the study participants: (a) variety of musical styles, (b) students skill level at entrance, (c) student growth, (d) difficulty level, (e) fundamental repertoire, (f) festival/contest participation, (g) student interest, and (h) teacher fulfillment.
For her dissertation Literature, Music Education, and Characteristics of Selected Virginia
Beginning High School Choirs (1995), Rebecca R. Reames surveyed 263 high school choral conductors in the state of Virginia using a 47-item questionnaire.39 The results of the survey were compiled into eight categories: (1) demographic information, (2) organization of singers,
(3) repertoire selection criteria, (4) literature sources, (5) types of literature performed, (6) program description, (7) developing sequential programs, and (8) recommended repertoire for mixed choirs. Questions on the survey specifically related to repertoire selection criteria were limited to whether the conductor used technical or aesthetic criteria for beginning choral ensembles. Results of the study revealed that “the majority of teachers (87.9%) selected
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38 It should be noted that while the questionnaire was sent to 200 secondary choral music educators, only 97 teachers responded (49%), and only 74 provided valid data (37%). 39 This study by Rebecca Reames only included participants who were members of the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) and had a return rate of 80%.!
! 18! ! beginning literature based upon both technical and aesthetic criteria. Only 8.3% of the teachers reported that aesthetic criteria was the more important criteria, and only 3.8% of the teachers reported that technical criteria was the more important criteria for choosing beginning high school choir literature.” Reames also included a list of 96 works nominated by study participants as having been successfully programmed for the beginning high school mixed choir.
Guy Forbes examined repertoire selection in his dissertation entitled The Repertoire
Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia, South
Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (1998). For his study, Forbes compared the literature selection processes of “nominated” teachers who had significant teaching experience with “non- nominated” teachers who had considerably less experience. The results of the study indicated that nominated teachers select more classical and multicultural music than non-nominated teachers. The study also revealed that non-nominated teachers also program more popular music than the nominated teachers. Forbes noted “directors place more importance on criteria directly related to the educational value of the music, with slightly less importance placed on the relative technical and artistic performance difficulties inherent in the music. Other extra-musical factors are considerably less important in the selection process.”40
In a recent dissertation entitled Processes and Criteria of Nationally Recognized High
School Choral Directors for the Selection of Performance Literature (2007), Tracy Caldwell
Hunsaker interviewed eleven nationally recognized high school choral conductors for a qualitative, phenomenological study on repertoire selection. The study also included related topics, such as festival literature selection and systems for cataloguing potential literature.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40 Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1998): 153. !
! 19! !
Participants responded to sixteen interview questions that were developed from the following seven research questions:41
1. What is the basic philosophy of a successful high school choral director regarding the selection of performance literature?
2. From where did successful high school choral directors gain their knowledge of literature selection?
3. What sources do successful high school choral directors use to find new literature?
4. What criteria are the most important to successful high school choral directors in selecting performance literature?
5. What part does festival literature play in the selection of music for the whole year by successful high school choral directors and what influences the choices for festival literature?
6. Do successful high school choral directors have a system for cataloguing pieces they discover and wish to incorporate into their programs in the future?
7. What factors influence the programming of concerts by successful high school choral directors?
According to Hunsaker, “each director conveyed information which was unique to that director, and each director conveyed information which was similar to most if not all of the other directors.”42 For example, the majority of study participants used a general selection criterion related to “quality,” but each cited different aspects of compositional design to designate a quality work, such as good voice-leading, a marriage of music and text, or melodic interest. The results of the study also indicated that several participants use personal affection as a major selection criterion in the search of repertoire. According to Hunsaker “for some, the most important criteria is quite simply whether they themselves love a choral work. They want to feel
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41 Tracy Caldwell Hunsaker, “Processes and Criteria of Nationally Recognized High School Choral Directors for the Selection of Performance Literature” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2007): 19.! 42 Ibid., 181.
! 20! ! moved by a piece when they hear it in order to put the time into rehearsing it with their choirs.”43
Other important criteria identified by these nationally recognized choral conductors included pedagogical value, the technical abilities of the ensemble, and variety of programming. While many of the criteria discussed in the study were consistently applied by study participants,
Hunsaker did not find a uniformly favored set of criteria.
Preservice Preparation
Despite the frequency with which repertoire selection is cited as the most critical aspect of choral music education, current research suggests that undergraduate method classes do not adequately prepare preservice conductors for the task. In 1983, Gerald R. Bolt surveyed 91 high school choral directors, along with 32 music education instructors teaching at National
Association of Schools of Music accredited institutions in the southwestern United States
(Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah). The purpose of the study was to examine whether preservice music educators were receiving the information necessary to make repertoire selections for high school choral ensembles. Based on the results of his study, Bolt recommended:
Music educators place more emphasis on the choral literature that the future teachers will be able to use with high school choral organizations. Respondents indicated that more emphasis needs to be placed upon exposing students to methods and criteria for selecting choral literature....Choral music education majors need increased exposure to a wider variety of musical styles than that represented in the five major historical periods.44
The impact of teacher education level on repertoire selection practices has also been
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 43 Ibid., 181.! 44 Gerald R. Bolt, “Choral Repertoire Selection Competency Development in Undergraduate Music Education Curricula” (Ed.D. diss., Arizona State University, 1983): 212.
! 21! ! studied. In his dissertation The Effect of Choral Program Size, Teacher Experience, and Teacher
Educational Level on the Selection of High School Music Literature (1991), Henry N. Dahlman surveyed 148 high school choral conductors in the state of Missouri (25.7%) and found that reported choices of representative choral music were significantly affected by choral program size, teacher experience, and teacher education. Dahlman also found that “there exists a hierarchy of selection criteria for teachers that is independent of selected variables of program size, teacher experience, and teacher education.”45 Based on the results of the survey instrument,
Dahlman divided the twelve most important repertoire selection criteria into a hierarchy with three distinct tiers. The first-tier criteria were: (a) teacher appeal, (b) teaching goals and objectives, (c) musical quality, and (d) preparation factors. The second-tier criteria included: (e) student appeal, (f) programming, (g) text, and (h) audience appeal. The third-tier criteria were:
(i) musical style, (j) accompaniment, (k) score design and clarity, and (l) cost.
The results suggested that teachers of diverse backgrounds generally use the same basic criteria when selecting repertoire for high school choral ensembles. Dahlman speculated that the qualitative assessment skills of choral conductors are established during the formative years of preservice teacher training, although no quantitative data was presented in the study. Dahlman summarized his findings, stating:
It is noteworthy that choral program size, teacher experience, and teacher education levels had no significant relationship with the ordering of the selection hierarchy. It seems possible that teachers do not choose differently based on their instructional setting. It may be that attitudes concerning literature selection are formed early and basically remain constant during a teacher’s career. Teaching training at the undergraduate level could be important in forming attitudes concerning content quality, variety, and prioritization of instructional goals.46 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45 Henry N. Dahlman, “The Effect of Choral Program Size, Teacher Experience, and Teacher Education Level on the Selection of High School Music Literature,” (D.M.A. diss., University of Missouri - Kansas City, 1991): 52. 46 Ibid., 53.
! 22! !
In her dissertation The Repertoire Selection Practices and Skills of Beginning Choral
Educators (2005), Laura D. Diddle found that personal performance background and professional placement experience (student teaching) made a more significant impact on repertoire selection skills than method courses. Moreover, method courses ranked behind choral conducting courses and student teaching experiences in the frequency of instruction related to repertoire selection. “The majority of the respondents (45%) reported that they received instruction related to repertoire selection in 2-3 class periods. Seventeen percent stated that they received repertoire selection instruction during only one class period, and 13% claimed receiving no instruction from their choral methods instructor on the task of selecting repertoire.”47 Diddle also found that novice choral music educators “seldom” were provided opportunities to select repertoire for ensembles or in classroom situations.
Conclusion
The literature suggests that music educators generally agree that the overall success of a choral music program is dependent on the ability of the educator to make appropriate repertoire selections. Furthermore, repertoire selections are a direct reflection of the conductor’s musicianship, aesthetic taste, and pedagogical knowledge. Authorities have stressed the importance of a well-articulated philosophy of music education. Research has revealed the selection processes of diverse groups of choral conductors, ranging from nationally recognized teachers with significant professional experience to those beginning their careers. Other studies
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47 Laura D. Diddle, “The Repertoire Selection Practices and Skills of Beginning Choral Educators,” (Ph.D. diss., University of South Carolina, 2005): 79.
! 23! ! have examined the relationship between repertoire selection and specific demographics, such as program size, teacher education level, and physical location.
While a diverse set of selection criteria are discussed throughout the literature, the term
“quality” is regularly cited as integral to the process of literature selection. Despite the consistent citation of the term in relation to literature selection, there is currently no extant research related to “quality” as a criterion. Guy Forbes noted “in light of the importance the experts place on quality as a criteria for repertoire selection, this appears to be a shortcoming in educational research regarding repertoire selection.”48 How do music educators define quality?
What criteria are most important in the assessment of choral repertoire? The subjective nature of qualitative assessment may prohibit definitive studies from being performed. However, the literature reviewed suggests that preservice and beginning choral music educators are in need of tools to assist in assessing the aesthetic and pedagogical value of repertoire.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 Guy W. Forbes, “The Repertoire Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1998): 47. !
! 24! !
CHAPTER THREE AESTHETIC MERIT CRITERIA
According to Harold Decker and Colleen Kirk, “the human spirit responds to artistic and musical stimuli...the conductor who values aesthetic responsiveness will select repertoire judiciously. He or she will choose choral literature that can evoke aesthetic responses in varying degrees, and will assess each work to ascertain its potential for aesthetic satisfaction....”49
Research indicates that one of the most important aspects of music education is the selection of repertoire that meets a certain level of expectation in terms of its aesthetic quality, yet there are few resources for preservice and beginning teachers. Leonard B. Meyer was one of the leaders in the field of qualitative assessment and his work impacted generations of music educators. He argued that one definitive theory of quality was simply not possible and strongly encouraged various avenues of approach to the subject. Meyer also believed the difficulty of the task does not excuse the musician from making an attempt to assess factors of quality.50
Most music educators would agree the evaluation of music is a highly subjective and personal procedure. Recent research, however, has demonstrated that educators can come to a reasonable agreement as to what is a good composition and what is not.51 Studies of this nature are typically based on “consensus assessment,” which includes a number of judges providing individual data that is analyzed for consistencies. Although consensus assessment is impractical for the professional routine of a music educator, the fact that trained musicians can define quality with reasonable consistency is an important development. How can preservice and beginning
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49 Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk (Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988): 152. 50 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 225.! 51 Maud Hickey, “Assessment Rubrics for Music Composition,” (Music Educators Journal 85 No. 4, 1999): 26.
! 25! ! choral conductors develop the skills necessary to assess the aesthetic quality of musical repertoire? What type of assessment tool should be employed? What criteria should be evaluated?
A rubric is one of the most common tools for evaluation in music education and is particularly effective when evaluating qualitative criteria. According to Alan D. Rowe, “rubrics are a critical link between assessment and instruction. They operationalize quality in our minds so we can more effectively teach and lead.”52 An analytical rubric consists of multiple, separate scales and yields a set of results. A generic, analytical rubric is particularly useful for its flexibility and will work across any musical context regardless of genre, stylistic, or historical context. Using multiple scales will enable music educators to pinpoint strengths and weaknesses related to each criterion. An additional advantage to using a generic, analytical rubric is the lack of hierarchical structure associated with separate scales. The music educator can prioritize specific criteria according to the needs of the ensemble, or, if selecting literature for an entire concert or season, can ensure that multiplicities of criteria are emphasized.
The repertoire selection criteria related to aesthetic merit presented in Table 3-1 are largely based on the work of Acton Ostling. In his dissertation, An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit (1978), Ostling developed a set of criteria based on the work of Leonard B. Meyer, applicable text books, and conservations with prominent conductors. The remainder of this chapter will provide preservice and beginning choral conductors with information related to assessing the aesthetic quality of choral repertoire.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52 Christine Conley-Sowels, “Using Rubrics to Assess Authentic Student Learning,” Texas A&M Assessment Conference, 21 March 2010.
! 26! !
Table 3-1. General descriptions of the aesthetic merit criteria
Criterion Description Textual Integrity Assesses the integrity of the selected text, the relationship between the text and musical setting, and the degree to which proper textual stresses are reflected.
Craftsmanship Assesses the craftsmanship with which the work is constructed, including formal structure, melodic, harmonic and rhythmic appeal, textural variety and part writing. Predictability Assesses the balance between predictability and unpredictability.
Consistency Assesses the consistency of the work in terms of its style and quality.
Originality Assesses whether or not the work stands out as a distinctive artistic expression and contains innovative musical devices within the framework of its historical context. Validity Assesses the degree to which the work transcends the historical or cultural context within which it was created.
Textual Integrity
The repertoire selection rubric is not organized according to a hierarchal design, allowing music educators the freedom to determine which criteria best fit curricular or programmatic aims as necessary. Despite the flexible nature of the rubric, textual integrity will be paramount to every work examined, as composers have historically used text as the impetus for choral composition. While outfitting previously composed music with a new text was an acceptable practice during certain historical periods, composers of choral repertoire have generally selected the text and then crafted the music accordingly. Robert Shaw argued “in almost all instances the composer had his text in mind when he began to compose, and that it therefore must be admitted
! 27! ! to have had some directing influence.”53 Evaluating the integrity of the text and its musical treatment is a critical step in assessing the aesthetic value of choral repertoire. The textual integrity criterion assessment descriptors are found in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2. Assessment descriptors for the textual integrity criterion
1 2 3 4 The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity, integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance. between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting. reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting stress. stress. properly reflects textual stress.
Three primary considerations in the assessment of textual integrity include (a) the integrity of the subject matter, (b) the reflection of proper textual stress, and (c) the relationship between text and music. Regardless of its secular or sacred disposition, the general nature of the text is the first concern. Does the text elicit an emotional reaction? Does the text feature figurative language or sound devices to create vivid imagery? Is the word choice vague and repetitive, or is it focused and impressive? A useful, though frequently overlooked method for examining the text is to extract it from the musical score by either writing it out by hand or typing it with a word processor. This simple exercise will illuminate the text in a holistic manner that is not easily observed within the context of the musical score. Examples 3-1 and 3-2 illustrate the practical value of writing out the text for qualitative assessment.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 53 Robert Block, ed., The Robert Shaw Reader, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 109.
! 28! !
Example 3-1. Water Night by Octavio Paz (1914-98)54
Night with the eyes of a horse that trembles in the night, night with eyes of water in the field asleep is in your eyes, a horse that trembles, is in your eyes of secret water.
Eyes of shadow-water, eyes of well-water, eyes of dream-water.
Silence and solitude, two little animals moon-led, drink in your eyes, drink in those waters.
If you open your eyes, night opens, doors of musk, the secret kingdom of the water opens flowing from the center of night.
And if you close your eyes, a river fills you from within, flows forward, darkens you: night brings its wetness to beaches in your soul.
Example 3-2. Look to the Sky by Linda Spevacek (b. 1945)
O look to the sky stretching up to the stars, galaxies and planets in grand view. The moon dressed in white casts a silvery light, dancing its bright moonbeams ‘round you.
The clouds create their art in space. The sky is such a wondrous place. And when they all turn in at night, we know that the morning will bring new light.
Sunlight, the day’s begun, tress and flowers thank the sun. When it is raining and the sky is grey, the raindrops wash all sadness away.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54 The translation of Water Night is by Muriel Rukeyser and the poem was adapted by Eric Whitacre.
! 29! !
My wish for the sun, for the moon and the stars, “May you always be there to guide me.” And so in return for your magical light, I will ever sing of your beauty.
While the subject matter of both poems share a similar scope, it is clear that the poetry of
Octavio Paz (Example 3-1) is superior with regards to poetic quality. The expressive and colorful language immediately stimulates an emotional response in the reader. The poetic rhetoric elicits poignant and graphic images, such as “night brings its wetness to beaches in your soul.” The poetry also provides ample opportunities for formal classroom discussions or cross- curricular activities. The poetry of Linda Spevacek (Example 3-2) is superficial by comparison, lacking the depth of colors and imagery achieved in the work of Octavio Paz.
In addition to examining the integrity of the text, it is also important to assess the relationship between the text and musical setting, as well as the treatment of textual stress.
Choral composers traditionally set out to create a symbiotic relationship between the text and music and the degree to which the composer is successful will impact the value of the work in an educational setting. Robert Shaw believed:
There are two elements to the musical setting of text. First there is what is called prosody: that is, the manner in which normal word accents and metrics are related to musical accents and metrics, how they match or contravene each other....The other aspect is less particular and detailed, but almost certainly more important. It has to do on the one hand with the meaning of the text, with text as a value - its idea content, the whole realm of emotion, aesthetic and spiritual associations that surround and interpenetrate it–and on the other hand, with the similar significances of the music itself particularly as provided in its larger structure.55
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55 Robert Block, ed., The Robert Shaw Reader, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 108.
! 30! !
We first turn our attention to the concept of textual stresses, which Shaw labeled prosody.
When evaluating the text of a choral composition, it is important to analyze the syllabic treatment of the musical setting within the framework of the musical phrase. Are the syllables of the words given appropriate strong and weak functions? Do significant words receive evocative or interesting treatment? In order to effectively communicate the message of the selected text, the strong-weak relationship within individual words should be preserved or even enhanced by the musical setting. Additionally, the grammatical syntax should also be reflected musically.
The familiar melody of the American folk song Shenandoah in Example 3-3 demonstrates appropriate textual stresses.
At the onset of the excerpt from Shenandoah, the eighth-note pick-up (“O”) functions as a weak beat which spurs on the accumulation of energy as it moves to the downbeat of measure 1
(“Shen-”). This relationship acutely mirrors the strong-weak functions of the poetic language.
The pattern of a weak upbeat building energy towards a strong downbeat is maintained throughout the excerpt, with one to three eighth-notes functioning as the upbeat. Observe that the strong words (nouns, verbs), or the strong syllables of the strong words, are placed on the downbeat of each measure. In contrast, the grammatically weaker words (adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions and so on) are on the upbeats. Moreover, the individual words also reflect the strong-weak relationship. For example, the natural syllabic stress of “rollin’” in measure 3 is beautifully reflected with an upper-neighbor tone gently resolving down by step to the dominant (C-sharp to B-natural). Finally, the unique rhythmic treatment of the word
“bound” in measure 7 strengthens the verb despite its metrically weak position.
! 31! !
Example 3-3. The first verse of Shenandoah (Traditional American Folk Song)
Perhaps the most apparent difference between a chorus and an orchestra or wind ensemble is the presence of text. Describing the impact of this difference, Elizabeth Green stated
“in choral music, the tangible emotion set by the words is heightened by the music. In instrumental music, the emotional appeal relies upon the intangibility of the music itself.
Dynamics in choral compositions have an emotional basis. The emotion states the dynamic.”56
Green’s commentary speaks to the critical relationship between text and musical construction, which is the final component of the textual integrity criterion in the rubric.
Diverse musical-textual connections ranging from extremely overt text-painting to exceedingly abstract correspondence make this the most subjective aspect of the text criterion.
Moreover, assigning value to the relationship between text and music is one of the most challenging and time-consuming aspects of assessing choral music. In his dissertation, Acton
Ostling noted “the problem of making value judgments in art is a difficult one since so many
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56 Elizabeth A. H. Green, The Modern Conductor, 6th ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997): 220.
! 32! ! variables comprise one individual’s approach to such evaluations as opposed to another’s.”57
Key questions to consider when evaluating the relationship between the text and music include:
What compositional devices are used to reflect the text? Does the musical style fit the subject matter and rhetoric style of the text? Do the compositional decisions of key, meter, tempo, dynamic, rhythm, range, and texture work together to enhance the textual expression? The following examples demonstrate highly effective connections between text and musical setting.
Claudio Monteverdi’s second book of madrigals for five voices, published in 1590, features his emerging predilection for text-painting. Example 3-4 from Ecco mormorare l’onde illustrates the popular Baroque-era technique, depicting the leafy branches high above, as well as the birds singing sweetly. Monteverdi begins by shaping the melody in a rising trajectory to reflect the branches high above the ground (“e sovra i verdi rami i vagh’augelli”). Sweeping melismas in the top two voices beautifully illustrate the word “cantar” (to sing) at the apex of the phrase in measure 30. Of course, not all musical-textual relationships will be as apparent as the
Example 3-4. Excerpt from Ecco mormorar l’onde by Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 57 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 22. !
! 33! ! text-painting effects found throughout Ecco mormorar l’onde. Example 3-5 from Ave verum corpus by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart demonstrates a connection that is somewhat veiled by comparison with the previous example.
Mozart composed this brief motet in June 1791, only a few months prior to his death.
The work encapsulates his profoundly expressive musical talent that he developed during his short but brilliant life. The sacred text “Cujus latus perforatum unda fluxit et sanguine” (Whose side was pierced, whence flowed water and blood) is reflected in tightly-drawn chromatic counterpoint that flows seamlessly at the opening of the B section (see Example 3-5). The vivid harmonies strike deep at the human emotion and few choral works concentrate so much affective power into such a compact structure. Ave verum corpus is a timeless choral treasure, not only for its beautiful melody and stirring harmonies, but for the deep connection between text and music.
Example 3-5. Excerpt from Ave verum corpus by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1765-91)
! 34! !
Craftsmanship
The craftsmanship criterion examines the technical aspects of compositional design and seeks to assess the quality with which the composer has structured the work. This criterion encompasses a variety of important musical elements, including formal structure, melodic, harmonic and rhythmic appeal, textural variation and part writing. The manner in which these fundamental components are combined greatly impacts the aesthetic quality of the work. The assessment descriptors for the craftsmanship criterion can be seen in Table 3-3.
Table 3-3. Assessment descriptors for the craftsmanship criterion
1 2 3 4 The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic, texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful performers. performers. understanding of the vocal mechanism.
It is important to look for a logical and deliberate organization of the musical elements when evaluating the “form” of a choral composition. Ostling makes a clear distinction between
“forms of music,” sonata for example, and “form in music,” which implies the composer has organized the materials in a specific manner to produce a desired aesthetic response.58 The two fundamental aspects of musical form are contrast and repetition. Repertory works that maintain
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 24. !
! 35! ! a fair degree of balance between contrast and repetition often result in a distinguished musical form that peaks the interest of performers and audience members alike. A composition containing too much contrasting material, or conversely too much repetition, can result in musical stasis. It is also important to be cautious of overly predicable outcomes when examining choral repertoire for formal construction. This is often the case in arrangements of popular music that follow a standard construction of verse, refrain, verse, refrain, bridge, and refrain.
Example 3-6 is a diagram illustrating the formal analysis of A New Song by James
MacMillan (b. 1959). The work features a strongly articulated formal design with balance between contrast and repetition. Although the work is set in a modified rondo form, MacMillan varies the texture, scoring and accompaniment each time the thematic sections return in order to maintain listener appeal and give the work a sense of forward motion.
Example 3-6. Formal Analysis of A New Song by James MacMillan (b. 1959)
m.1 m.11 m.27 m.38 m.54 A B a b a’
e-minor b-minor e-minor b-minor e-minor
Melody, harmony, and rhythm are the most tangible musical elements for the development of aesthetic responsiveness in untrained or developing musicians. Moreover, when choral conductors indicate that “personal affection” is an important criterion in the selection of choral repertoire, they are generally referring to a connection they feel with the melodic,
! 36! ! harmonic, and rhythmic content of the work. Composing elegantly constructed melodies over compelling harmonic progressions is an effective formula for aesthetic responsiveness.
Likewise, appealing rhythmic patterns, sudden bursts of syncopation and frequent changes of meter can elicit a wide range of emotion in the listener. Kenneth Miller noted “if these elements are sufficiently strong, then the music will almost certainly have sufficient intrinsic value.”59
Melody, harmony, and rhythm significantly contribute to the overall craftsmanship of a work and should be closely examined during the selection process.
Identifying the melody in choral repertoire is typically a straightforward task. However, at times the melody can be deceptively difficult to locate. For example, it may move rapidly between voice parts, be placed in the accompaniment, or sounded in two or more voices simultaneously. A technique that may prove useful to the conductor is to underline or highlight the major melodic content prior to assessing the work.60 Examination of the following criteria will help determine the quality of the melodic content once it has been identified: (a) style, (b) phrase lengths, (c) articulation, (d) range and tessitura, (e) dynamic changes, and (f) problematic passages.
The opening movement of Mass in G Major by Franz Schubert is one of the most recognizable choral works in music history and a repertoire work for high school concert choirs.
One of the most prominent features of the movement is the well-crafted melody found in
Example 3-7. In this example, the lyric style is perfectly matched to the mostly conjunct motion, the vocal range and tessitura demonstrate Schubert’s understanding of the voice, and there are no
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59 Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 26. 60 Ibid., 27.
! 37! !
Example 3-7. Excerpt from Kyrie (from Mass in G Major) by Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
extremely difficult passages. In measures 8 and 10, sudden bursts of dotted rhythmic figures contrast the sweeping lyricism of the opening seven measures, adding interest to the passage.
While the nature and significance of melody in choral repertoire has been relatively consistent for centuries, the harmonic rhetoric used by composers has been subject to sweeping changes across style periods and locations. According to Gordon Lamb, “the harmonic language of a composer is due, in part, to his training, cultural heritage, and personal preference. Some composers are most comfortable when composing within the bounds of tonality, while others are equally as comfortable outside those bounds. There is no reason to doubt the validity of either as long as the results are satisfying musically.”61 There is an incredibly diverse set of acceptable harmonic standards in the Modern era and the task of assessing harmonic quality can be quite demanding and time consuming.
Regardless of the relative simplicity or complexity with which it is designed, the progression of harmony provides the flow of the work. Harmonic progressions that are logical and genuine will give the music a natural sense of forward motion, while those that are awkward
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 61 Gordon H. Lamb, Choral Techniques, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988): 181.
! 38! ! or forced will give the music a sense of being contrived.62 It is particularly important to make note of progressions that seem cliché, redundant, or have an artificial connection with the text.
Consider the following questions when examining the harmonic rhetoric of choral repertoire: Do the harmonies progress in a logical and genuine manner that is appropriate for the style of the work? Is the quality of the harmonic language consistent throughout the work? Does the harmony enhance the setting of the text in a meaningful way? Examples 3-8 and 3-9 demonstrate harmonic motion that is genuine to the musical style of each work and enhances the textual imagery. The excerpt from Mozart’s Ave verum corpus previously discussed (page 34) also illustrates a strong relationship between harmony and text.
Example 3-8 is a brief excerpt from The Last Words of David by Randall Thompson
(1899-1984), one of the leading American composers of the twentieth century. In this excerpt,
Thompson uses harmonic color to reinforce textual imagery in two distinct ways. First, the uncommon chord progression by ascending whole-step dominates the tonal landscape, and secondly, the harmonic rhythm is elongated from two beats per chord at the beginning of the excerpt to four beats per chord at the climax of the phrase. Both of these subtle nuances further underscore the visual image of the sun rising out of the darkness at the break of morning.
Although the chord progression is not traditional in the sense of the standard rules of counterpoint in the common-practice period, the harmony stimulates an aesthetic response in the listener and is genuinely in the style of the rest of the work.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62 Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 27. !
! 39! !
Example 3-8. Excerpt from The Last Words of David by Randall Thompson (1899-1984)
In Example 3-9 from The Andalusian Merchant, Thomas Weelkes utilizes a variety of harmonic inflections to amplify the story of two tumultuous lovers. The work is firmly planted in the
Ionian mode at the opening of the madrigal but abruptly shifts to the Aeolian mode to depict the
“reports” of a volcanic island burning off the coast of Spain (Fogo). Weelkes further colors the passage with slithering chromatic passages depicting the word “strangely.” These harmonic mannerisms were quite popular in the late Renaissance era and demonstrate an effective treatment of harmony.
In addition to melodic and harmonic appeal, rhythmic content is paramount to the quality of compositional craftsmanship. Although the significance of rhythmic elements may not be as
! 40! !
Example 3-9. Excerpt from The Andalusian Merchant by Thomas Weelkes (ca. 1573-1623)
! 41! ! obvious to the novice musician as melody and harmony, rhythm is equally important in determining the quality and pedagogical value of any choral work. According to Miller, “choirs generally have more problems rhythmically than harmonically or melodically.”63 When examining the rhythmic components of the work, closely observe any patterns or other rhythmic devices that appear to be a foremost quality of the piece.64 Composers frequently use recurring rhythmic patterns to unify a choral work or to provide formal structure. In Example 3-10, Ernani
Aguiar (b. 1950) uses two distinct rhythmic motives throughout his setting of Salmo 150. The dotted accompaniment figures found in the alto and tenor voices, as well as the scalar passage found in the bass voice consistently provide formal structure to the work. Consider the following questions when observing the rhythmic quality of a choral work: Does the rhythm enhance the nuances of the text? Does the composer effectively vary the rhythmic patterns to maintain appeal? Are there overly complicated rhythmic passages that will dominate the musical fabric?
Example 3-10. Unifying rhythmic motives in Salmo 150 by Ernani Aguiar (b. 1950)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 63 Ibid., 27. 64 Gordon H. Lamb, Choral Techniques, 3rd ed. (Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988): 178.
! 42! !
Another important factor in assessing the craftsmanship of choral repertoire is the diversity of texture. In an unaccompanied choral composition, textural changes between sections of the choir (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass) are equally as important as changes in a fully orchestrated work. A well-crafted composition will use the selected forces in unique and contrasting ways. For example, in his unaccompanied motet Locus iste, Anton Bruckner (1824-
96) changes the texture in measures 21-29 by reducing the scoring to soprano, alto and tenor. He also moves from a primarily homophonic texture to a more linear polyphonic style with the treble voices echoing the tenors after one bar, as illustrated in Example 3-11. The change in texture lends appeal to the composition and provides structure to the tripartite form.
Example 3-11. Excerpt from Locus iste by Anton Bruckner (1824-1896)
! 43! !
The quality of the vocal part writing is the final aspect of the craftsmanship criterion to be examined in the selection process. According to Miller, “maturity in understanding the physical requirements of singing and maturity in understanding the music are both important, but too often the lack of specific stress on matters related to the singing of the vocal line in a composition prohibits musical performances from reaching the optimal level possible.”65
Assessing the technical demands of the vocal parts should include a thorough examination of the vocal range, tessitura, intervallic content and the general appeal of each part.
The skill with which a composer sets the inner voice parts (alto and tenor) is often a good indication of the care and attention used in crafting the composition. Do the inner voices have interesting parts or do they simply fill out harmonies? Are there melodic intervals that will require excessive amounts of rehearsal time and training? Do the voice parts generally remain within the comfortable vocal range? Does the composer sufficiently vary the tessitura of the vocal parts? Singing each vocal part individually during the evaluation process will often reveal the general care with which the lines have been crafted. Example 3-12 (page 45) is a brief except from a Hungarian folk song setting by Lajos Bárdos (1899-1986). The arrangement demonstrates exemplary craftsmanship of the individual vocal parts. Each section plays an equal role in the presentation of the folk melody and the accompanying material. It is obvious that the work has been crafted with the technical and aesthetic capabilities of the human voice in mind.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 65 Kenneth E. Miller, Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing (West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979): 28.!
! 44! !
Example 3-12. Excerpt from arrangement of Tambur by Lajos Bárdos (1899-1986)
! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! 45! !
Predictability
The third criterion in the repertoire selection rubric assesses the degree to which a choral composition is sufficiently predictable in its musical expression. As noted in the previous discussion about craftsmanship, a sufficient balance between repetitive and contrasting material will result in an aesthetically pleasing structural organization. Similarly, a balance of predictable and unpredictable musical outcomes will result in a high degree of aesthetic quality. According to Daniel G. Mason, “art of any profundity can be appreciated only slowly, gradually, in leisurely contemplation. One must leave it and return to it, meditate upon it, entrust it to the subconsciousness. One can not gulp it down like a cup of coffee at a cafeteria.”66 Mason’s assessment warns that a direct approach with highly predictable musical outcomes will diminish the value of the repertoire. Ostling similarly noted:
If the tendencies of musical movement are totally predictable, and directly apparent upon first hearing the composition, the value of the music is minimized. This statement does not intend to imply that only complex music can meet standards of serious artistic merit...a composition which is not complex might provoke a distinctive and unique response from the listener which of itself places that composition in the category of being sufficiently unpredictable to preclude an immediate grasp of its meaning, thus sustaining intrigue through repeated hearings.67
If the key to determining compositional predictability is not complexity, as Ostling suggested, other aspects of the musical landscape must come to the forefront. Unanticipated twists and turns in the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic fabric can defer and diffuse the sense of motion towards a predictable musical goal. Sudden shifts of dynamic, articulation, texture, tessitura and scoring can create unpredictable musical events that add significant intrigue to the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 66 Daniel G. Mason, “Artistic Ideas IV. Originality,” The Musical Times Vol. 13, No. 1 (January, 1927): 3. 67 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 24.
! 46! ! work. According to Patricia O’Toole, “a good composition reveals a striving toward a musical goal and the best pieces have unusual musical goals that are reached in a somewhat indirect way.
A predictable musical goal reached by the quickest, most obvious, or most direct route will not hold lasting interest for students, teachers, or listeners.”68
In addition to being sufficiently unpredictable, a quality work of choral repertoire will also be appropriately predictable to achieve certain musical goals in a somewhat direct fashion.
A work that is wholly unpredictable and consistently fails to reward the listener through the resolution of logical musical progressions will often result in frustration. Leonard B. Meyer argued that “a work that establishes no tendencies will be of no value...if the goal is never reached, or if the tendencies activated become dissipated in the press of over-elaborate or irrelevant diversions, then the value will tend to be minimal.”69 A quality musical work will achieve a balance between the accomplishment and deferment of predictable musical goals. The assessment descriptors for the predictability criterion can be seen in Table 3-4.
Table 3-4. Assessment descriptors for the predictability criterion
1 2 3 4 The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68 Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103. 69 Leonard B. Meyer, Music, The Arts and Ideas (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967): 26.
! 47! !
It is beneficial to locate logical musical progressions and examine how the composer has fulfilled or deferred resolution when assessing repertoire for predictability. The simple harmonic progression in Example 3-13 demonstrates a basic tendency of functional harmony in Western music:
Example 3-13. A simple harmonic progression demonstrating a predictable musical tendency
While most choral repertoire is much more interesting and complex than the harmonic progression found in Example 3-13, the strong musical tendency evident in the example is common in almost all Western tonal music. The listener is culturally conditioned to expect a specific resolution of the cadential figure and anticipates the fulfillment of the harmonic motion.
When the composer elects to do something other than the anticipated resolution, interest is accumulated and the complete understanding of a work is masked. Predictability has a direct correlation with comprehension in that a work that is sufficiently unpredictable bears repeated hearings and challenges the listener to understand the layers of meaning.70
A more sophisticated example of predictability is found in Example 3-14. The excerpt is taken from the opening movement of Gloria (RV 589) by Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). In this except, Vivaldi used the harmonic progression in measures 62 through 67 to generate an active
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 70 Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103.
! 48! ! lock on the dominant. To further heighten anticipation of a tonal resolution, Vivaldi inserted a prolonged caesura before finally confirming expectations with one final statement of the primary theme in the tonic key. Although the return of the tonic key and thematic material is certainly a predictable outcome given the style period, Vivaldi’s unexpected use of the caesura provides balance through unpredictability.
Example 3-14. Excerpt from Gloria (RV 589) by Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
! 49! !
Harmonic progressions are one of the most common avenues by which composers manipulate the fulfillment of predictable musical outcomes, but there are many other options as well. Composers frequently use melody, rhythm, tessitura and scoring to establish balance between predictable and unpredictable musical outcomes. An example of such treatment can be seen in Dirait-on by Morten Lauridsen (b. 1943), which is one of the most frequently performed works in the modern choral repertoire and well-suited for high school choirs. Lauridsen seamlessly weaves together two melodic motives with a balanced proportion of imitative and homophonic textures throughout the work. Examples 3-15 and 3-16 demonstrate how Lauridsen used subtle variations in melody and scoring to influence the predictability of the work.
! 50! !
Example 3-15. The original thematic motive of Dirait-on by Morten Lauridsen (b. 1943)
Example 3-16. Subtle melodic and scoring variations in Dirait-on by Morten Lauridsen
!
! 51! !
Consistency
In addition to textual integrity, fine craftsmanship and balanced predictability, outstanding choral repertoire will exhibit consistency in style and quality from the beginning to the end of the work. This is particularly important for large multi-movement works, but the same standard applies to individual sections of single-movement works. A work should be examined with regards to the sustained integrity of the musical components discussed in the previous three criteria (textual integrity, craftsmanship, predictability) and the work should be cohesive in its style. Patricia O’Toole stated “a good piece of music sounds like everything belongs together and all sections are consistent in quality. Profound moments are not followed by trivial ones.”71 The assessment descriptors for the consistency criterion are found in
Table 3-5.
Table 3-5. Assessment descriptors for the consistency criterion
1 2 3 4 The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial passages. !
Quality choral repertoire will contain enough similarities of style and sound to be understood as a holistic unit regardless of its duration. For the purpose of assessing the aesthetic value of a work, Ostling noted “style may be defined as describing a composition in terms of its consistencies with, and differences from, other compositions relating to the historical periods of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 71 Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103.
! 52! ! music. Any eclecticism reflected in the music must be justified by the artistic concept behind the work, rather than existing as a chance happening....”72 This is not to imply that specific musical styles, whether conservative or avant-garde, are more deserving of the “quality” designation.
Regardless of the nature of the selected musical style, it should be carried out for the duration of the work with minimal deviation.
According to Ray Robinson and Allen Winold, the study of style is “concerned first and foremost with the expressive character and the structural nature of the music of a particular period or style and the sound ideal through which these are realized. Furthermore it must always be considered within the framework of the sociocultural conditions at the time the work was written.”73 When evaluating a work for its musical style, it is not enough to look at the historical period in which the work was composed and presume stylistic conformity. Often choral repertoire will vary considerably from the style characteristics of a given period, reflecting established traditions or breaking new ground. In his book on choral repertoire, Dennis Shrock noted that “dates are only convenient markers; styles began and ended over a period of time, and some genres adopted newer traits quickly while others held to older traditions. In general, the choral genres were conservative and slow to adopt new stylistic trends.”74 Moreover, Leonard B.
Meyer argued that “an individual’s style of speaking or writing, for instance, results in large part from lexical, grammatical, and syntactic choices made within the constraints of the language and dialect he has learned to use but does not himself create. And so it is in music....”75
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 28.! 73 Robinson, Ray, and Allen Winold, The Choral Experience: Literature, Materials, and Methods (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1976): 323. 74 Dennis Shrock, Choral Repertoire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 355. 75 Leonard B. Meyer, Style and Music: Theory, History, and Ideology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989): 6.
! 53! !
The second aspect of the criterion is related to the sustained quality of the work in terms of its technical merit. Analysis begins with an assessment of the first two criteria of the repertoire selection rubric: textual integrity and craftsmanship. Examining these criteria should have revealed any inconsistencies with the treatment of both music and text. Although certain aesthetic moments may stand out to the performer and listener, an outstanding choral work will maintain a high standard of quality and be free of lapses into trivial, futile, or unsuitable passages.76 Consider the following questions when assessing the consistency criterion: Does the composition contain characteristics that conform to a particular musical style? Are there specific aspects of the work that do not conform to the style characteristics? Does the composer maintain the style throughout the duration of the work? Are there momentary lapses of quality that result in trivial passages? Madrigal (Op. 35) by Gabriel Fauré (1845-1924) will serve as a case study.
Gabriel Fauré is considered by some to be the most advanced composer of the pre-
Debussy generation in Paris and one of the great masters of French song. The stirring melodies of his Madrigal (Op. 35) reflect Faure’s personal style that influenced future generations of
French composers. The work is a setting of a poem by Armand Silvestre that depicts the perpetual battle of the sexes in a very tongue-in-cheek manner. Fauré reflects the humorous nature of the text by using an exact quotation of the hymn Aus tiefer Noth (“Out of deep need”) and presenting the work as a wedding gift.
Madrigal bears no musical resemblance to the Renaissance genre implied by the title and instead reflects the French art song tradition of the late Nineteenth century. The work features a harp-like accompaniment that gently supports the lyric melodies alternating between paired sections: the tenors and basses at first, followed by the altos and sopranos. The texture becomes
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 76 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 27.!
! 54! ! more dense as the composer accumulates energy for the admonishment to “love when you are loved.” The paired voices return for the second half of the work, however, this time the composer alternates between the altos and tenors as they publically air their frustrations with each other. Cooler heads prevail as the dense independent voices are replaced with soothing homophony in the final measures of the work. Examples 3-17, 3-18, and 3-19 illustrate the consistency of style and quality achieved by Fauré in Madrigal (Op. 35).
Example 3-17. Fauré’s use of alternating paired voices to depict a dialogue between men and women in Madrigal (Op. 35)
! 55! !
Example 3-18. An increasingly dense texture marks the climax of the opening section of Fauré’s Madrigal (Op. 35) for the text “love when you are loved”
! 56! !
Example 3-19. The tension in the battle of the sexes in Fauré’s Madrigal (Op. 35) resolves amicably with a simple homophonic texture and soothing accompaniment. !
! !
! ! !
! 57! !
Originality
In the introduction to The Art of Judging Music, renowned twentieth-century American composer Virgil Thomson cited (a) the ability of a work to hold one’s attention, (b) one’s ability to recall the work vividly, and (c) the presence of a certain strangeness to the music as primary indicators of musical quality.77 The “strangeness” Thompson noted was described as the incorporation of innovative melodic, rhythmic, harmonic, contrapuntal or instrumental devices.
No doubt heavily influenced by his vantage point as a composer, Thomson’s criteria are each centered around the concept of originality. Leonard Bernstein echoes Thompson’s sentiments about originality, stating “any great work of art is great because it creates a special world of its own. It revives and readapts time and space, and the measure of its success is the extent to which it allows you in and lets you breathe its strange, special air.”78
The word origin stems from the Latin word oriri which means “to rise,” and refers to a primal source. The wonderful imagery of a composition rising up from a primal location within a composer speaks to the intrinsic nature of this criterion, making it perhaps the most difficult to objectively quantify. Henry F. Gilbert noted that “only in those works of art where the quality of originality, or being ‘different,’ is the result of the creative artist remaining true to the primal sources of his inspiration is this quality of an authentic or real value.”79 The difference between average and outstanding choral repertoire is often the originality, ingenuity or creativity demonstrated by the composer. The assessment descriptors for the originality criterion are found in Table 3-6.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 77 Virgil Thomson, The Art of Judging Music. (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1948): 7. 78 Patricia O’Toole, Shaping Sound Musicians (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2003): 103. 79 Henry F. Gilbert, “Originality” The Musical Quarterly 5 (1): 1
! 58! !
Table 3-6. Assessment descriptors for the originality criterion
1 2 3 4 The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical devices. devices. devices. !
Western music is filled with mannerisms common to different composers within and across historical periods. Throughout the common-practice period, for example, fundamental principles governed the way in which harmonies progressed.80 The consistency with which these principles were applied suggests that originality in harmony was not highly valued at the time.
Other common mannerisms from the period included a limited selection of musical forms, the use of Alberti bass accompaniment figures, a limited selection of cadence types, and writing for common ensembles. Despite the restrictive nature of such stylistic mannerisms, the common- practice period produced many of the finest compositions in the history of music, including works of incredible originality. According to H.V. Spanner, “composers, even among the greatest, use clichés from the common stock, and yet they succeed in saying things which no one but themselves has said, or will ever say again.”81
When evaluating originality, it is important to consider whether or not the work (a) stands out as a distinctive artistic expression in the given style period, and (b) contains innovative musical devices within the framework of its historical context. Gilbert argued: “That a piece of music should have its own message is to me such a primal consideration, that if it lacks this distinctive quality of intrinsic and original character all other qualities which it may possess seem !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 80 The common-practice period is roughly defined as 1700-1900 in Europe. 81 H.V. Spanner, “What is Originality?” The Musical Times (July 1952): 310.
! 59! ! to me negligible.”82 Spanner also noted the role of individuality in the assessment of musical quality, stating “each of us has something possessed by no one else. This distinctive quality may be perceptible to the stranger at once, or it may be hardly to be discovered by any but those who know us as life-long friends...personality, then, is the basis of originality.”83 The degree to which a choral work reveals the individual expression of a composer is the first component of the originality criterion.
Originality can manifest itself through an extremely eclectic collection of compositional devices and is not limited to a particular set of musical elements (melody, rhythm, orchestration).
In Now I Become Myself, for example, Gwyneth Walker (b. 1947) included whispering to poignantly express the poetry of May Sarton (Example 3-20). In this excerpt, Walker used a sudden change of timbre to dramatically portray a reaction to the poetic phrase “Hurry, you will be dead before....” The startling effect profoundly expresses the emotion of the text and makes this particular compositional device highly effective in this situation. Another example can be found at the onset of Três Cantos Nativos dos Indios Kraó, a set of three Brazilian songs arranged by Marcos Leite. The work begins with improvised sounds that combine to create the acoustic atmosphere of a rain forest jungle, including rain, river, wind, and forest animals.
Creativity and innovation in music is a highly valued commodity in the Modern era and discerning the difference between authentic and artificial originality can be difficult for beginning choral music educators. Daniel G. Mason noted that “never has there been a time when what may be called pseudo-originality has so flourished. Now the peculiar thing about pseudo-originality is that it always aims at pleasing others rather than one’s self; it is the product of what we have called ambition rather than of spontaneity; hence an unfailing mark of it is its
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 82 Henry F. Gilbert, “Originality” The Musical Quarterly Vol. 5, No. 1 (January 1919): 1. 83 H.V. Spanner, “What is Originality?,” The Musical Times (July 1952): 310.
! 60! !
Example 3-20. Gwyneth Walker (b. 1947) uses whispering to enhance textual expression in Now I Become Myself.
! 61! ! impatience, its desire for immediate and startling rather than remote and gradual effects. It prefers novelty to beauty....84 A quality work of choral repertoire will utilize innovative compositional techniques that are appropriate to the musical context, avoiding the superficial and cliché.
Validity
A choral repertory work that exhibits a distinctive artistic expression (as described in the preceding criteria) will often transcend the historical and cultural context in which the work was conceived. For certain repertoire, the quality and aesthetic value of the work is understood long after it was composed despite any contextual limitations. This is not to suggest that only works that withstand the “test of time” should be regarded as having validity. Indeed, many modern works or new editions of previously composed works also contain a high degree of validity.
When assessing musical validity, it is important to separate the aesthetic value of the work from its historic relevance or the contemporary influence of the composer. The assessment descriptors for the validity criterion are found in Table 3-7.
Table 3-7. Assessment descriptors for the validity criterion
1 2 3 4 ! The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the work is completely the work is somewhat the work transcends its the work transcends its dependent on its dependent on its the historical and the historical and historical and/or historical and/or cultural significance to cultural significance to cultural significance. cultural significance. a moderate degree. the fullest degree.
When assessing the validity of a choral work, it is important to first consider the authenticity of the work within its historical or cultural context. A practical example may be
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 84 Daniel G. Mason, “Artistic Ideas IV. Originality,” The Musical Times Vol. 13, No. 1 (January, 1927): 4.
! 62! ! observed through the emergence of global music, which has been one of the most prominent movements in choral music during the past several decades. The desire to diversify concert programming through non-Western music traditions has greatly impacted the music publishing industry. While much of the “multicultural” repertoire published and programmed today has a moderate or high degree of validity, certain works are simply utilized to fulfill a specific niche.
According to Hilary Apfelstadt, “much of what we do in the name of multiculturalism is merely a weak attempt to pay lip service to music that we do not understand and do not have the technique to perform appropriately.”85
While there is no question that all music is the product of culture, it is possible for specific multicultural repertoire to transcend its cultural framework and become aesthetically valuable to a global audience. Example 3-21 is the opening phrase of La Paloma, a traditional
Venezuelan folk song arranged by Cristian Grases (b. 1973). The arrangement blends monophonic and homophonic vocal textures with guitar and percussion accompaniment to create a striking adaptation of the original tune. The omnipresent melody and dance-like rhythms capture the spirit of the traditional song and make it accessible to a global audience.
When assessing the validity of choral repertoire it is important to separate the historical relevance of the work or the contemporary influence of the composer from the composition itself. In his study, Ostling noted that a work should be evaluated “only on the basis of its significance as a composition of serious artistic merit. Care must be exercised to prevent such factors as the historical importance of a composition from contaminating an evaluation on the basis of its merit in quality.”86 A newly crafted commission by a prominent contemporary
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 85 Hilary Apfelstadt, “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire,” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 20. 86 Acton Eric Ostling, Jr., “An Evaluation of Compositions for Wind Band According to Specific Criteria of Serious Artistic Merit,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1978): 30. !
! 63! !
Example 3-21. Excerpt from the arrangement of La Paloma by Cristian Grases (b. 1973)
! 64! ! composer, or a modern edition of a previously unknown work by a highly-respected composer may yield a considerably different style and quality than the rest of the oeuvre. Moreover, any composer who produces more than a single work will achieve some degree of variance in terms of quality, the degree to which depends on the ability of the artist. General assumptions regarding the aesthetic merit of a work should not be made based on a composer’s extant repertoire.
Summary
Based on the present research, it is recommended that the repertoire selection process begin with a systematic evaluation of criteria related to aesthetic merit, including (a) textual integrity, (b) craftsmanship, (c) predictability, (d) consistency, (e) originality and (f) validity. It is also recommended that potential repertoire is assessed in the sequence presented in this document, as certain criteria can only be evaluated once other relevant information is gathered.
For example, the consistency criterion takes into account information gathered from the textual integrity, craftsmanship and predictability criteria. While information obtained from other criteria will be needed in order to make an informed assessment, this does not indicate a hierarchy in the selection process.
Recent research has demonstrated that a group of music educators can determine with relative consistency the aesthetic quality of a given repertory work. The subjectivity of the repertoire selection process comes when weight is applied to specific criteria. Is text the most important criterion in choral music? Perhaps it is the originality of the composition or the beauty of the melody? Of course there is not a “correct” answer to these questions, but that should not
! 65! ! prevent music educators from developing the skills to assess the qualitative aspects of repertoire.
The first section of the repertoire selection rubric (Appendix A) provides preservice and beginning choral music educators with a systematic method of assessing the aesthetic merit of repertory works. In the next chapter, the focus will shift to the pedagogical concerns of the repertoire selection process.
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CHAPTER FOUR PEDAGOGICAL MERIT CRITERIA
Repertoire is the vehicle through which students develop and refine their technical abilities, as well as their cognitive understanding of music and its significance in our world. The selection of repertoire based on criteria of pedagogical merit, therefore, is of immeasurable significance. According to Barbara Brinson, “first and foremost, students need to be better singers and more intelligent musicians as a result of working on the repertoire chosen for their music education.”87 Selecting repertoire that will maximize student growth is a complicated matter, particularly for preservice and beginning choral music educators who lack experience teaching musical concepts. What elements of music and music-making will students learn by selecting particular repertoire? Does specific repertoire enhance opportunities for student growth?
According to Hilary Apfelstatdt, “good music will meet the standard of teachability because its content and expressive qualities will be sufficient to provide a basis for teaching material. Provided that teaching strategies are appropriate, teachable music holds learners’ attention because it has substance.”88 By first assessing repertoire based on criteria of aesthetic merit, we can narrow potential selections to those that match Apfelstatdt’s definition of teachability and proceed to the second section of the repertoire selection rubric. The criteria of pedagogical merit presented in Table 4-1 has been identified by leading authorities as the most fundamental characteristics of the choral music education experience. The selected criteria will examine the close relationship between repertoire selection and effective choral pedagogy.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87 Barbara A. Brinson, Choral Music: Methods and Materials (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group, 1996): 74. 88 Hilary Apfelstadt, “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire,” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 20.
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Table 4-1. General descriptions of the aesthetic merit criteria
Criterion Description Breath Control Assesses factors related to the inhalation and exhalation process, including length of musical phrasing, space between phrases and the tempo
Tone Quality Assesses the work for opportunities to develop resonance sensation and refine proper vowel formation. The criterion also examines the work for its ability stimulate the imaginations of the conductor and singers. Intonation Assesses the work for opportunities to develop the audiation level of the ensemble.
Rhythmic Integrity Assesses factors related to the application of count-singing. The criterion also examines the rhythmic structure of the work as it relates to the development of consistent tempo through physical movement and audiation. Diction Assesses the work for opportunities to develop pronunciation and enunciation skills, as well as the development of expressive intent through text declamation.
Music Literacy Assesses factors related to the development of music literacy, including the compositional construction of the work and its ability to generate literacy-based activities.
Breath Control
The most fundamental technique necessary for artistic choral singing is an actively engaged breath. Efficient airflow, breath support and breath management will provide the underpinning for beautiful singing and secondary choral music educators should select repertoire to facilitate the advancement of vocal technique related to breath control. According to James
Jordan, “one of a conductor’s most influential tools in the rehearsal ‘arsenal’ is the breath. For singers, breathing directly influences tempo, tone color, shape of phrase, ensemble dynamic, and spiritual content of the tone.”89 A choral conductor who manages to harness the power of the breath will quickly develop an outstanding choral product.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 89 James Jordan. Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 175.
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A study conducted by Kenneth H. Phillips affirmed the powerful impact of teaching breath control in the choral setting. Phillips divided a pool of forty-four students into two treatment groups, including an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group was subjected to regular training on proper breathing techniques during the eighteen-week rehearsal period, while the control group simply learned the repertoire. The results indicated significant differences between the two groups. “The subjects in the experimental group responded to training in such a way as to reflect a change in breathing from “chest” or clavicular to abdominal-diaphragmatic-costal breathing, with a corresponding improvement in vocal range, vocal intensity, and pitch accuracy.”90 The results of the study underline the significance of breath control on artistic choral singing. Evaluating choral repertoire for opportunities to develop breath control is a critical step in determining the educational value of the potential work. The assessment descriptors for the breath control criterion are found in Table 4-2.
Table 4-2. Assessment descriptors for the breath control criterion
1 2 3 4 The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process. the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 90 Kenneth H. Phillips, “The Effects of Group Breath-Control Training on the Singing Ability of Elementary Students,” Journal of Research in Music Education 33 (1985): 179.
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Choral conductors frequently address breathing techniques through a variety of isolated exercises and activities during the warm-up stage of a rehearsal. Teaching corporate breath management within the context of choral repertoire, however, can significantly enhance students’ understanding of the techniques and increase the potential for knowledge transfer.
Moreover, many leading authorities in the field have argued against the use of isolated breathing exercises. Harry Wilson noted “the procedures of breathing in singing should not precede or be separated from the act of phonation and diction. Singers who become overly breath conscious to the detriment of establishing resonance and habits of diction, seldom sing artistically and expressively.”91 Archie Jones argued “abstract breathing exercises are not particularly helpful in developing the voice.” This is not to suggest that choral music educators avoid isolated breathing exercises during the teaching process. However, selection of repertoire that facilitates the development of breath technique is a powerful tool that should not be overlooked.
An examination of the breath control criterion begins with an assessment of musical phrase lengths. Short phrase lengths will require less control over the breathing mechanism and will be more manageable for novice singers. Conversely, long phrase lengths will require greater control and present greater challenges. Many authors have cited the construction of musical phrasing as an important component in developing breath control. For example, George
Howerton noted “the study of breath control should be approached through a consideration of the phrase structure of the particular song chosen for use.”92 Harvey Grace argued “the habit of good breathing is a natural result of good phrasing.”93 Example 4-1 from Sommarpsalm by
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 91 Harry Wilson, Artistic Choral Singing (New York: G. Schirmer, 1959): 175. 92 George Howerton, Techniques and Style in Choral Singing (New York: C. Fischer, 1957): 2. 93 Harvey Grace, The Training and Conducting of Choral Societies (London: Novello and Company, 1938): 47.
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Waldemar Ahlén (1894-1982) illustrates phrase lengths that will comfortably fit the technical abilities of most novice singers.
Example 4-1. Excerpt from Sommarpsalm by Waldemar Ahlén (1894-1982)
In addition to length of the musical phrases, it is important to examine the amount of time available for inhalation. In Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal and Procedures, James
Jordan summarized inhalation as a two-step process, stating:
First, you must be able to open your body to prepare for the breath to enter the body. This is perhaps the most difficult aspect of the act of inhalation. Many conductors combine the first step of opening the body with the second step: inhalation. The resultant breath in what I refer to as a “Muppet breath” – the mouth opens but air really doesn’t enter the body nor does it fall into a deep- seated location in the body...when inhalation is activated by the physical process of opening the body first and then breathing, then air will simply and gently fall into the body.94
The multidimensional process of inhalation described by Jordan will typically take more time for novice singers to execute than for those who are highly trained. When selecting repertoire for secondary choral music education settings it is important to assess the amount of space between
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 94 James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 176.
! 71! ! musical phrases, as well as the various tempo markings to determine if there is adequate time for the inhalation process.
Repertoire that is highly rhythmical or set in a fast tempo will challenge novice singers to properly complete the inhalation process and will often result in shallow (or upper clavicular) breathing. On the other hand, repertoire with brief pauses between slow and sustained phrases will also present challenges for the developing singer. The combination of a long phrase length, moderately slow tempo and sustained articulation in Example 4-2 from Sicut cervus by Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina (ca. 1525-94) will require an advanced level of breath control for artistic choral singing.
Example 4-2. Excerpt from Sicut cervus by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (ca. 1525-1594)
Tone Quality
One of the most unique aspects of choral music education is the incredibly diverse range of sounds produced by modern ensembles. Paul Brandvik wrote “wherever you find two choral directors, you find three opinions about choral tone.”95 This diversity has emerged from two basic schools of thought that occurred simultaneously during the early part of the twentieth century: the straight-tone school of F. Melius Christiansen (St. Olaf College), and the full-bodied vibrato school of John Finley Williamson (Westminster Choir College). The ease and frequency
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 95 Paul Brandvik, “Choral Tone” in Up Front: Becoming the Complete Choral Conductor (Boston: E.C. Schirmer Music Company Inc., 1993): 147.
! 72! ! of travel in recent decades, as well as the prominence of nationally and internationally renowned choral ensembles has dramatically increased the spectrum of accepted tonal colors.
Preservice and beginning music educators are likely to be profoundly shaped by their previous choral singing experience. However, they are also likely to have experienced many diverse tonal styles that are equally effective and musically captivating. These sounds are often experienced through attending live concert performances or listening to the incredible range of professional audio recordings currently available. Selecting repertoire that will effectively advance the development of vocal tone production is critical in performance-based curriculum at the secondary level. The assessment descriptors for the tone quality criterion are found in Table
4-3.
It should be acknowledged that tone quality can (and should) be addressed in every repertory work studied and performed. Moreover, the depth and quality of choral singing can be significantly enhanced by developing tone colors that are uniquely wedded to each particular work. Can the selection of repertoire impact the development of choral tone, and if so, what
Table 4-3. The assessment descriptors for the tone quality criterion
1 2 3 4 The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation. The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
! 73! ! features of the composition bear examination? According to Brandvik, the musical style, difficulty, language, amount and rapidity of text, existence of humming, length of the work, texture, voicing, and phrase lengths all contribute to choral tone.96
Three components consistently cited by authorities as fundamental to the development of tone quality are (a) resonance sensation, (b) vowel formation and (c) imagination. Choral pedagogues repeatedly acknowledge that engagement of the resonating cavities is essential for the production of a natural and clear tone. According to Gerald Darrow, “for a majority of writers, terms such as ‘forward tone,’ ‘forward resonance,’ ‘forward placement,’ ‘focused in the mask,’ or statements which emphasize the importance of forward, nasal, or head resonance are the key factors in their concern with the physical imagery of vocal resonance.”97 Utilizing the voiced consonants m, n and ng (collectively referred to as “humming”) is the most frequently recommended technique for establishing or developing proper vocal placement.98 Moreover, authorities have cited forward resonance sensations, nasal resonance sensations, head resonance sensations, relaxation of physical structure of the resonators and the development of choral blend as values of humming.99 Selecting repertoire that will easily facilitate humming can enhance the development of tone production in the choral setting.
The degree to which choral repertoire promotes pedagogical techniques related to resonance sensation varies greatly. Repertoire containing passages with modest vocal demands, including a limited vocal range and texture, the absence of melodic or harmonic complexities, and a moderate tempo will often produce the best results. By limiting compositional
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 96 Ibid., 147. 97 Gerald F. Darrow, Four Decades of Choral Training (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1975): 31. 98 Ibid., 33. 99 Ibid., 35.!
! 74! ! complexities students may focus their attention on the placement of the sound rather than the difficulty of the music. Repertoire containing passages of unison part-writing is particularly effective for building resonance sensation in the choral ensemble. Example 4-3 from The Water is Wide arranged by Stephen Paulus (b. 1949) illustrates a unison passage that is highly effective for building resonance sensation in novice singers.
According to Edmung Jeffers, “after the hum is established, it should be turned into the vowel with the vowel keeping the forward placement of the hum.”100 As a result of being the most sustained aspect of singing, properly produced vowels play a distinct role in developing choral tone. Robert Garretson underscored the importance of vowel formation, stating “if uniform tone production and tonal blend are to be achieved, you must be cognizant of the precise differences of vowel sounds used in speaking and singing.”101 Weston Noble added that
“consonants establish rhythm – vowels establish beauty of tone. Thus, the length and quality of the vowel are of upmost importance.”102
It is important to observe the composer’s treatment of language when examining potential choral repertoire. Smallman and Wilcox argued “the quality of the tone and the singing lyric possibilities are determined largely by the way the vowels are handled.”103 For example, it will be challenging for novice singers to produce a spacious, resonant tone quality in the upper vocal register while singing closed vowels. A composer with a firm understanding of the vocal mechanism will be conscientious of the placement of open and closed vowels throughout the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 100 Edmung V. Jeffers, “Integration of Vocal Class Work with Choral Activities.” (Music Educators National Conference Yearbook 28 (1935), 298-300): 299. 101 Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993): 91. 102 Demorest, Steven. M., ed. Creating the Special World: A Collection of Lectures by Weston H. Noble. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2005): 57. 103 John Smallman and E. H. Wilcox, The Art of A Cappella Singing (Philadelphia: Oliver Ditson Company, 1933): 8.
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Example 4-3. Excerpt from the arrangement of The Water Is Wide by Stephen Paulus (b. 1949)
! 76! ! outer extremes of the vocal range. When observing a problematic passage, consider whether the extreme notes are supported by the rest of the choir or left in exposed isolation. It is also important to consider whether the dynamic level is appropriate for novice singers to produce a beautiful tone. Example 4-4 from the arrangement of The Water is Wide by Stephen Paulus demonstrates a thoughtful approach to the technical abilities of the novice singer in relation to the language.
Imagination, the final component of the tone quality criterion, is one of the most often overlooked aspects of choral music-making. Fred Waring argued “choral tone is immensely more responsible to imagination than most conductors have realized, and choral groups in the main have worked almost solely in the range of dynamics and pitch and not nearly enough in the range of drama.”104 Paul Brandvik also noted the significance of imagination and personality on choral tone:
Most choirs are a mixture of personalities - with singers who are alert and singers who are inert...Singers who are acquiescent are often afraid to take chances with new ways of producing tone; while singers with more aggressive personalities might be more apt to use their imaginations when images are suggested by the director and therefore more willing to change without fear of making a mistake. The tone, as influenced by a choir’s personality, can vary from one full of joy and sparkle to one that is pedantic and dull.105
Despite the number of authorities who have collectively argued the significance of imagination, mental imagery and attitude on choral tone, many educators fail to consider this component during the repertoire selection process.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 104 Fred Waring, “Radio: A Teacher of Music.” Music Educators Journal 30 (February 1944): 20. 105 Paul Brandvik, “Choral Tone” in Up Front: Becoming the Complete Choral Conductor (Boston: E.C. Schirmer Music Company Inc., 1993): 170.
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Example 4-4. Excerpt from the arrangement of The Water is Wide by Stephen Paulus (b. 1949)
When selecting choral repertoire for study and performance, it is important to determine if the work speaks to the collective imagination of the conductor and ensemble. This is not to suggest exposing a high school ensemble exclusively to popular and folk music because it speaks most directly to them. However, the conductor needs to determine whether an affirming, positive and challenging educational experience can be nurtured through study of the repertoire.
As Brandvik points out, “the tone of the rehearsal, in the final analysis, will be the tone of the choir.”106
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 106 Ibid., 170.
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Intonation
Selecting repertoire that will provide meaningful opportunities to develop the intonation of a choral ensemble is a difficult matter due to the delicate relationship between intonation and all other aspects of the music-making process. Intonation is commonly considered the cause of musical problems, when in reality poor tuning is rarely an isolated event devoid of contextual issues. Issues impacting intonation may include acoustics, temperature, fatigue, attitude, conducting gestures, tempo, vowels, rhythm, dynamics, breath control, range, tessitura, and many others. According to Steven Powell, “many choral directors believe that intonation relates exclusively to hearing, and that we need only tell singers a note is flat or sharp and they will be able to make the necessary adjustment. But this is not the case.” James Jordan clarifies the point further, stating that “hearing is a passive process, and we have limited ability to improve it.
Listening, however, is the ear’s primary function...while the conductor needs to listen in multifaceted ways, singers must not only understand the importance of listening but also be taught to hear as a musician hears.”107 The primary component of the intonation criterion involves the process of audiation and the assessment descriptors are found in Table 4-4.
Table 4-4. The assessment descriptors for the intonation criterion
1 2 3 4 The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to current understanding.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 107 James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 106.
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The term audiation was first coined in 1975 by Edwin E. Gordon and is essentially the process of hearing music without the presence of physical sound. In his book Learning
Sequences in Music, Gordon wrote that:
Audiation takes place when we assimilate and comprehend in our minds music that we have just heard performed or have heard performed sometime in the past. We also audiate when we assimilate and comprehend in our minds music that we may or may not have heard but are reading in notation or are composing or improvising.108
Based on his research, Gordon developed a six-stage hierarchy of audiation, ranging from momentary retention (stage one) to conscious prediction of patterns (stage six). The selection of repertoire for use in secondary choral music education should facilitate advancement through the various stages of audiation. James Jordan (who studied with Gordon) points out that “one of the shortcomings of training musicians/conductors is that there is no established hierarchical order in which we can both practice and train ourselves to listen.”109
The process of audiation has important implications on the selection of choral repertoire.
Developing intonation through audiation requires selecting repertoire that will build on the previous musical experiences of the ensemble. Gordon states that:
When you are audiating as you are listening to music, you are summarizing and generalizing from the specific music patterns you have just heard as a way to anticipate or predict what will follow. Every action becomes an interaction. What you are audiating depends on what you have already audiated. As audiation develops, the broader and deeper it becomes and thus the more it is able to reflect on itself.110
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 108 Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998): 4. 109 James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 118.!! 110 Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998): 5.
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Based on Gordon’s description, it is important to select repertoire that will provide the ensemble with many familiar elements (keys, intervals, harmonies, rhythms), as well as a few new ideas to stimulate the ability to predict musical outcomes. Given the complexity of choral music, it is easy for conductors and students to become fixated on either the smallest details of the repertoire or the larger musical picture. Jordan recommends setting specific limits on listening and focusing study on the most important areas for development.
Finally, the audiation process has a great deal in common with other sound-first music education methodologies, including those by Carl Orff (1895-1982), Zoltán Kodály (1882-1967),
Shinichi Suzuki (1898-1998) and Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950). For example, the term
“inner-hearing” in the Kodály system refers to the same process as audiation. A useful technique to develop audiation in an ensemble setting is to alternate measures between singing out loud and performing only with “inner-hearing.” Example 4-5 demonstrates this technique with an excerpt from Set Me As a Seal by René Clausen (b. 1953). The full-sized notes would be sung out loud and the smaller notes would be audiated mentally. By selecting repertoire that will facilitate the audiation process developed by Edwin Gordon, choral music educators can foster the comprehensive musicianship necessary to promote outstanding ensemble intonation.
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Example 4-5. Excerpt from Set Me As a Seal by René Clausen (b. 1953)
Rhythmic Integrity
Rhythmic integrity is one of the fundamental attributes of artistic choral singing.
Moreover, the vitality of the rhythm will significantly impact other aspects of the music-making process, including intonation, tone quality, blend, and diction. Weston Noble noted “rhythmic accuracy and stability must be the initial and most crucial rehearsal goal after that of selling the selection.”111 Selecting repertoire that will facilitate the development of rhythmic integrity is an important step towards excellence in choral singing. The assessment descriptors for the rhythmic integrity criterion are found in Table 4-5.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 111 Demorest, Steven. M., ed. Creating the Special World: A Collection of Lectures by Weston H. Noble. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2005): 49.
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Table 4-5. The assessment descriptors for the rhythmic integrity criterion
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count- rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and audiation at times. audiation.
The essential pedagogical tools for developing rhythmic integrity in the choral ensemble can be traced to Robert Shaw, the renowned American choral conductor whose rhythmic prowess shaped the entire field. It would be impossible to overstate the influence Robert Shaw had on American choral singing and the respect he earned around the world. For example, after a performance of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in 1942 for which Shaw had prepared the chorus, Arturo Toscanini famously said, “in Robert Shaw I have at last found the maestro I have been looking for.”112 With regards to rhythmic pedagogy, Thomas Wine stated that Shaw “was tenacious in his pursuit of precise rhythm in every ensemble he conducted. From attacks and releases to the placement of diphthongs and consonants, Shaw instilled a sense of rhythmic integrity with all of musicians under his direction.”113 Don L. Collins noted “it is impossible to copy Shaw’s technique. Many have tried and failed. Directors can learn from what he has done,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 112 Blocker, Robert, ed. (The Robert Shaw Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): X. 113 Thomas Wine, “Rhythmic Integrity in the Choral Rehearsal: A Bag of Tricks and More,” (ChorTeach Vol. 1, No. 3): 3.
! 83! ! however, and incorporate aspects of his choral technique into their rehearsal with positive results.”114
Generating rhythmic integrity in choral singing is not typically an issue related to rhythmic complexity. Choral music is generally much more conservative in its rhythmic intricacies than other genres. Rhythmic integrity, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with the ability to produce the same sounds at precisely the same time. According to Shaw:
The primary problem is that of feeling. Now, that is a fairly indeterminate term,” but what I am trying to say is that the “sense” of rhythm is a mighty complex thing: physical, physiological, psychological, visceral, etceteractual; and our problem as a group is not that of visual identification – two quarter-notes equal one half-note – but that of getting people to experience two quarter- notes simultaneously physically, physiologically, psychologically, viscerally and etceteractually.115
Based on his aptitude for rhythmic singing, Shaw developed a pedagogical tool called count- singing, which remains one of the most commonly utilized techniques for the development of rhythmic integrity.
In Shaw’s approach, count-singing involved softly singing the notated pitches on rhythmic “counts” (one & two & three & four &) in place of the text while maintaining a consistent tempo. The ensemble remains actively engaged throughout the duration of the notes by utilizing numbers on each beat and microbeat. Long notes that tend to lose rhythmic integrity suddenly have a sense of direction and energy. By removing the text and dynamics, Shaw found that choirs were able to develop a firm understanding of pitch and rhythm that would provide the groundwork for comprehensive musicianship. Example 4-6 from Missa Brevis Sancti Joannis de
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 114 Don L. Collins, Teaching Choral Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999): 322. 115 Blocker, Robert, ed. (The Robert Shaw Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 65.
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Deo by Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) demonstrates the realization of Shaw’s count-singing methodology.
Example 4-6. Excerpt from Missa Brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo by Franz Joseph Haydn
Maintaining a consistent tempo is central to the count-singing methodology and critical for the general development of rhythmic integrity within a choral ensemble. Current literature suggests that the ability to recognize and perform a consistent tempo is based on the ability to simultaneously hear a larger beat and its subdivision. Additionally, the inability to perform a consistent tempo is rooted in an inability to physically move in a coordinated manner to music.116
According to James Jordan, “the writings and research of Edwin Gordon have made a convincing argument that the audiation of consistent tempo is fundamental to music learning. In other words, when learning any piece of music, they must be heard and ‘inputted’ into the
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 116 James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 220.
! 85! ! hearing and the body within a consistent tempo.”117 Example 4-7 from Walk in Jerusalem by
Rollo Dilworth (b. 1970) demonstrates the qualities of a repertory work that will facilitate refinement of the physical and aural skills necessary to perform with a consistent tempo.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 117 Ibid., 211.! !
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Example 4-7. Excerpt from Walk in Jerusalem by Rollo Dilworth (b. 1970)
! !
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Diction
Singing with appropriately constructed consonants and vowels not only improves the communicative message of the music, but it can significantly enhance the tone quality, rhythmic integrity, musical phrasing and overall musicianship of the ensemble. Moreover, many of the musical nuances intended by the composer can only be achieved through proper execution of the language. Amelia Nagoski points out that “some composers are very careful about using text to heighten the expressivity of their music. For this reason, using the diction with which the various composers would have been familiar can expose a deeper level of intention and contribute to a more specific musical line, adding distinctive color to a performance.”118 Donald
Neuen also advocated for textual colors in his choral method book, stating “with the full color spectrum of an entire language, performed as effectively as great actors would speak, we can create a range of color wide enough to successfully captivate any audience. We simply have to incorporate the enunciation, projection, and passion of these great actors.”119 When selecting repertoire for use in secondary choral music education, it is important to consider the extent to which the work will facilitate the development of vocal color through pronunciation, enunciation, and expressive intent. The assessment descriptors for the diction criterion are found in Table 4-6.
The first objective in assessing the diction criterion is to determine any difficulties that may be associated with pronouncing the text. Is the work to be performed in English or in a foreign language? Is the pronunciation going to reflect national or regional nuances? How will the pronunciation impact the production of vocal tone? The approach taken by many conductors
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 118 Amelia Nagoski, in Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 220. 119 Donald Neuen, Choral Concepts (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2002): 123.
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Table 4-6. Assessment descriptors for the diction criterion
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills. work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
is that singing should reflect the natural nuances of spoken language. According to George
Howerton, “the ideal of pronunciation which should be held before every singer is that of speech which shall be dignified and natural, cultured and unaffected.”120 Leslie Woodgate similarly noted “every artist should learn to speak clearly and distinctly, and when singing, not to distort his speech because he is adding music to words.”121 It is important to examine the overall accessibility of the dialect and note any passages that may prove difficult for the ensemble. For example, singing a work in French Latin will pose a much greater challenge than singing in
Italianate Latin due to the increased complexity of the nasalized vowels.
The second component of the diction criterion is related to the precise enunciation of the text. Enunciation is one of the most powerful and yet underappreciated vehicles for communicating expressivity in music. According to Robert Shaw, “the choral art of our time has not even begun to understand and utilize text and enunciation as the consummate conjurers of musical color and timbre.”122 Fred Waring was one of the most prominent proponents of meticulous enunciation in choral singing. His performances, choral editions, and writings !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 120 George Howerton, Techniques and Style in Choral Singing (New York: C. Fischer, 1957): 20. 121 Leslie Woodgate, The Choral Conductor (London: Ascherburg, Hopwood, and Crew, 1949): 12. 122 Blocker, Robert, ed. (The Robert Shaw Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 96.
! 89! ! supported a phonetic approach to choral diction. According to Waring, “to achieve absolute clarity, we have developed a method of enunciation, the essence of which is a rough and practical system of phonetics. We break down each word into its simplest units of sound. Each of these units is called a ‘tone syllable.’ Our enunciation technique is the process of sounding these individual tone-syllables.”123 It is likely that Robert Shaw developed many of his convictions for textual clarity early in his career as a result of working for Waring. Shaw approached enunciation with the same zeal, writing that:
Musical forms prescribe relationships in Time, and as they do so they prescribe for the sounds of speech durations which may be foreign or at least “artificial” when compared to normal utterance. When, therefore, a syllable or a word, both of which are almost unexceptionably complexes of several sounds, are required to be sustained over a span of time longer than their normal period of phonation, it follows that each part of that word or syllable must be identified and placed precisely and proportionately, where it will contribute best to the syllable’s recognition and ultimate understanding.124
When examining the diction criterion, it is important to consider the complexity of the individual words, paying particular attention to complicated combinations of sounds, mixed vowels and diphthongs. Understanding the ability of the ensemble to grasp these complex issues is the key to determining the likelihood of a clearly enunciated performance. Additionally, the difficulty of enunciation will correspond directly with the speed at which the language needs to be communicated. A moderate to slow tempo will be easier for a novice choir to execute properly, while a fast tempo will cause greater difficulties.
Finally, treatment of enunciation should vary according to the language and musical style of the work. According to Wilhelm Ehmann, “the singing tradition of different epochs has
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 123 Fred Waring, Tone Syllables (Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania: Shawnee Press, Inc., 1945): 2. "#$!Blocker, Robert, ed. The Robert Shaw Reader (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004): 96.!
! 90! ! treated the relationship of consonants and vowels in a variety of ways...the treatment of language has always been influenced by the character and style of the music.”125 For example, a traditional African-American spiritual will not be enunciated in the same manner as a British part song, and contrapuntal passages will generally be more difficult to enunciate with clarity than homophonic textures. When examining potential repertoire, it is important that the music educator has a firm understanding of the musical style and its effect on enunciation.
The final component of the diction criterion is related to expressive intent. In choral singing, there is a direct connection between the music and audience due to the incorporation of text. Moreover, choral music is distinctive from instrumental music in that it requires a commitment on the part of the ensemble to communicate the text with expressive intent. Singing with accurate pronunciation and meticulous enunciation does not equate to expressive intent.
According to Donald Neuen, “the choral conductor must become as proficient in the dramatic elements of presenting language as is a professor of theater, or a professional actor on live stage.
This is a huge responsibility, yet a necessity for total choral success. This element actually brings the choral art to its highest level of personal fulfillment.”126 Kenneth Helvey points out that there is no single method for producing dramatic intent since there are “many shadings of pronunciation and quality to fit the dramatic requirements of the music.”127 In order to generate dramatic inflection, it is critical that the ensemble has a clear understanding of and comfort with the text. If the meaning of the text is not overtly obvious, or if the choir is apprehensive about expressing the text, it is the duty of the conductor to educate the ensemble so that the meaning can be appropriately communicated.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 125 Wilhelm Ehmann, Choral Directing (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publications, 1968): 112. 126 Donald Neuen, Choral Concepts (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2002): 125. 127 Kenneth W. Helvey, “Methods of Choral Tone Production,” Music Educators Journal 41 (February 1955): 56.
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Music Literacy
The ability to read music has long been identified by choral music educators as a central component of a performance-based curriculum. Regardless of this claim, in 1987 G. B. Johnson found that choral conductors in the North Central division of the American Choral Directors
Association devoted little time to developing literacy skills despite agreeing on the importance of sight-reading.128 Perhaps due to the influence of the National Standards for Music Education
(1994), music literacy has become a prominent objective in many secondary choral ensembles over the past twenty years. For example, a recent study by Steven Demorest found that 64% of all respondents used sight-reading as a factor in determining final grades.129 Created by MENC-
The National Association for Music Education, the National Standards state that proficient students in secondary choral ensembles be able to “sight-read, accurately and expressively, music with a difficulty level of 3, on a scale of 1 to 6.”130 When selecting repertoire for use in secondary choral music education, it is important to consider how music literacy will be enhanced through intensive study of the work. The assessment descriptors of the literacy criterion are found in Table 4-7.
The term literacy is difficult to define. If approached from the perspective of the individual, the term will lead to different pedagogical methods than if examined strictly from the perspective of an ensemble. James Jordan noted “for musicians to be classified as ‘literate,’ it is believed that they must generally be able to read. What is overlooked in this rather broad definition is the many subcategories that fall under the heading of literacy: reading literacy,
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 128 G. J. B. Johnson, in Steven M. Demorest, “Improving Sight-Singing Performance in the Choral Ensemble: The Effect of Individual Testing, Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Summer 1998): 183. 129 Steven M. Demorest, Building Choral Excellence (New York: Oxford, 2001): 30. 130 MENC, Performance Standards for Music: Grades 9-12, http://www.menc.org/resources/view/performance- standards-for-music-grades-9-12 (accessed April 13, 2011).
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Table 4-7. The assessment descriptors of the literacy criterion
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy. construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
writing literacy, improvisational literacy, and timbral literacy.”131 The subsets of literacy described by Jordan are critical to the development of comprehensive musicianship, which in turn facilitates the ability of the ensemble to read music.
Methodologies for teaching literacy in secondary choral music education traditionally include sight-reading within the context of programmed repertoire, as well as sequential method books. Research does not currently indicate that one methodology is more effective than the other.132 When selecting repertoire for use in teaching literacy, it is important to keep in mind that the “performance abilities” and the “reading abilities” of most choral ensembles are not equivalent. Given an appropriate rehearsal period, most choirs are capable of performing repertoire that is significantly more difficult than they can sing at sight. This is frequently achieved through a variety of choral techniques fundamentally based on rote learning. One solution suggested by Demorest is “to have more pieces in the choir folder than will eventually be performed. Some easier pieces can be used solely for reading challenges.”133
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 131 James Jordan, Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007): 130.! 132 Steven M. Demorest, Building Choral Excellence (New York: Oxford, 2001): 48.! 133 Ibid., 95.
! 93! !
Although the pedagogical approach of the conductor will ultimately determine whether any work can be successfully employed as a tool for teaching music literacy, the construction of the composition is often instrumental in determining how effectively the work can be employed to teach music literacy. For example, the presence of recurring melodic or harmonic material can provide significant opportunities to construct learning experiences related to music literacy.
In Example 4-8 from Il est bel et bon by Pierre Passereau (fl. 1509-47), the primary theme is passed to each voice in succession. By first isolating the thematic material, the ensemble will have critical support structures to grasp unto during the reading process and the likelihood of success will be increased as the remaining material is added.
Example 4-8. Excerpt from Il est bel et bon by Pierre Passereau (fl. 1509-47)
!
In addition to the holistic goal of musical reading, repertoire may also be selected to develop specific literacy-related skills. Example 4-9 from Missa brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo by
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) illustrates a work that could be used specifically to train
! 94! ! developing singers on large intervals, including the perfect fifth and major sixth. The primary thematic material found throughout the fugue which concludes the movement reinforces the pedagogical goals. When evaluating choral repertoire for study or performance, it is important to consider whether the construction of the work will facilitate the development music literacy.
! ! Example 4-9. Excerpt from Missa brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo by Franz Joseph Haydn
! ! Summary
Repertoire is the heart of choral music education and selecting repertoire specifically for technical development is critical for building a successful program. By utilizing the criteria of pedagogical merit examined in this chapter, preservice and beginning music educators will be equipped to select repertoire that will facilitate the development of the ensemble, as well as their own teaching skills. The core elements of breath, tone, intonation, rhythm, diction and literacy have been identified by leading music educators as fundamental to the choral process and will serve to provide the underpinning for artistic choral singing.
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A special note should be made regarding the difficulty of selected repertoire for use in secondary choral music education. The selection of choral repertoire should always be completed with a comprehensive knowledge of the choral ensemble for which the work is intended. While many criteria in the repertoire selection rubric can be objectively considered independent of the instructional context, the difficulty of a work is entirely dependent on the skill set of the ensemble. For pedagogical purposes, most authorities recommend selecting repertoire that is neither well-above, nor well-below the ability level of the ensemble. For example,
Gordon Lamb stated “it is best if every piece contained enough complexity to keep the singers interested through the final rehearsals, but not so complex that the ensemble cannot realistically expect to perform it with control and artistry.” By using the repertoire selection rubric to assess potential repertoire according to aesthetic and pedagogical merit first, the preservice or beginning choral conductor can identify repertoire that may prove useful in the classroom with a wide range of difficulty. Other extra-musical considerations could also be considered after concluding the rubric assessment, such as budgetary constraints, student appeal, contest requirements, and the development of concert programs.
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CHAPTER FIVE RUBRIC-BASED REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT
The repertoire selected for examination in this chapter serve as models for implementing the repertoire selection rubric. The three repertory works included reflect a broad range of repertoire difficulty encountered by beginning secondary choral music educators. Each work appears on state contest or festival lists from Texas, Iowa, North Carolina, Georgia, Indiana or
Florida. Each work also exhibits consistency in grading by the various state organizations. For example, Three Madrigals by Emma Lou Diemer is graded at “1” in Iowa (out of four grade levels, with 1 being the lowest and 4 being the highest) and at “2” in Texas (out of six grade levels). The works are presented in order from the lowest grade to the highest grade.
Three Madrigals Emma Lou Diemer (b. 1927)
Composed in 1960 for the high school choral ensembles of Arlington, Virginia, Three
Madrigals by Emma Lou Diemer has been a repertory work for secondary choral ensembles for decades. Love sought, love lost and love deceived are the primary themes of the light-hearted poetry excerpted from plays by William Shakespeare. The poetry of Three Madrigals is one of the only points of correspondence between the composition and the English madrigal of the 16th and 17th centuries upon which the set is based. Results of the repertoire selection rubric analysis reveal the highest artistic and educational value and confirm the prominent place the work holds in the repertory of novice choral ensembles.
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Textual Integrity (4)
1 2 3 4 The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity, integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance. between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting. reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting stress. stress. properly reflects textual stress.
It is difficult to argue that the poetry of William Shakespeare used in Three Madrigals could be anything less than the highest quality. The poems are among the most famous by perhaps the most important poet in literary history. The contrasting texts elicit a wide range of emotions, from joy of youthful love to the scorn of love unrequited. The figural language found in the second movement (Take, O take those lips away) provides a rich depth to the work and contrasts the frivolous poetry of the opening and closing movements. Diemer’s musical setting captures the essence of the poetry and significantly enhances the expression of the text. The composer maintains appropriate syllabic stresses throughout the work and includes a few examples of text painting. For example, in the first movement (O Mistress mine, where are you roaming?) the text “trip no further, pretty sweeting” begins with a syncopated entrance that appears to trip over the barline (m. 12).
5-1. Excerpt demonstrating subtle text painting in Three Madrigals
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Craftsmanship (3)
1 2 3 4 The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic, texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful performers. performers. understanding of the vocal mechanism.
Three Madrigals is organized as a set of three corresponding movements, each constructed in an ABA form. The composer does an excellent job of generating forward motion from one movement to the next by closing the first two movements with harmonically weak cadences. The work contains a fair amount of balance between familiar and new musical ideals.
For example, Diemer provides subtle variations in the vocal part writing, as well as the accompanying piano part to maintain performer and audience appeal with the return of each thematic section. The melody is found in various voice parts throughout the work and often features short phrases within a very conservative range. The harmonic content throughout Three
Madrigals is of greater interest and variety than the melodic and rhythmic content, although the composition maintains a highly appealing and creative musical product throughout. Diemer does an excellent job of marrying the harmonic colors with the textual meaning. For example, a minor seventh chord is employed in measure 5 to color the request to take away the sweet lips that have been “forsworn.” The textural variety achieved in Three Madrigals is highlighted by a superb blend of unison, two-part, and four-part vocal textures.
! 99! !
Predictability (4)
1 2 3 4 The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
Throughout Three Madrigals, Diemer effectively used harmony to achieve a balance between the achievement and deferment of predictable musical goals. For example, after establishing a melodic pattern in measures 7-9 of the third movement (Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more!), the composer surprisingly raised the pattern by one semitone to conclude the phrase.
Sudden changes in texture also create a sense of unpredictability. For example, in the second movement the piano accompaniment drops out in measures 8 and 9 to conclude the first phrase.
Unexpected shifts of dynamics are also common in the work, particularly from forte to mezzo- piano in the first and third movements. One of the most striking moments in the work is also one of the least predictable. The second movement begins a four-part homophonic texture for fourteen measures but culminates with a sudden shift to unison vocal part writing to announce the seal of love has been “sealed in vain.”
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Example 5-2. Excerpt demonstrating deferment of predictable musical goals
Consistency (4)
1 2 3 4 The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial passages.
One of the most impressive aspects of this work is the consistency of style and quality achieved in the three movements. Diemer’s modern approach to harmony, as well as the character and quality of the text setting, melodic content, vocal range, accompaniment, and dynamics are applied thoughtfully and consistently throughout the work. For example, the opening and the closing movements share many of the same compositional traits, reflecting the similarities found in the poetry.
Originality (3) and Validity (3)
1 2 3 4 The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical devices. devices. devices.
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1 2 3 4 The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the work is completely work is somewhat the work transcends its work transcends its the dependent on its historical dependent on its historical the historical and cultural historical and cultural and/or cultural and/or cultural significance to a significance to the fullest significance. significance. moderate degree. degree.
Although Three Madrigals does not contain highly innovative musical devices, the quality of the artistic expression makes the work highly original. The composer has captured the spirit of the poetry and produced a work that captivates the performers and audience with its frivolity and elegance. The most innovative and original aspect of Three Madrigals is the treatment of harmony. The work has been an important repertory work for the past fifty years and there is no reason to believe that its importance will diminish in the coming years. As a choral repertory work written specifically for high school ensembles the work has a high degree of validity. The success of Three Madrigals is not reliant on historical or cultural context, but rather on the artistic merit of the finely-crafted work.
Breath Control (3)
1 2 3 4 The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process. the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
The phrase structure of Three Madrigals will provide maximum opportunities to develop the breath control of the ensemble. There is a mixture of both long and short phrases used throughout the work providing a range of difficulty. For example, the opening of the second movement begins with a four-measure phrase paired with a moderately slow tempo (quarter note
! 102! ! equals 80) that will challenge any novice ensemble. The first phrase is followed immediately by two manageable phrases which are two- and three-measures in length, respectively. The second movement will be an optimum context for developing the inhalation process, with a slower tempo and ample time to draw in the breath. In contrast, the first and third movements will provide a greater challenge due to the quick tempo and minimal space for inhalation. For example, the opening phrase of the first movement is followed immediately by the second phrase with only a single eighth note for inhalation.
Example 5-3. Excerpt demonstrating the inhalation challenges in the first movement
Tone Quality (4)
1 2 3 4 The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation. The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
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Three Madrigals will provide a rich context for the development the tone production of a novice ensemble. There are significant opportunities for developing resonance sensation, particularly in the second movement. For example, the simple four-part texture at the onset of the second movement would provide a quality context for resonant humming. Additionally, the climax of the second movement features unison part writing that could easily facilitate resonance exercises. Likewise, there is a fair amount of unison part writing in the opening and closing movements that would facilitate the development of resonance. The conservative vocal ranges throughout Three Madrigals will allow for vowels to be formed without need for modification.
The range of dynamics could have a significant impact on the choral tone in this work and would need to be carefully addressed by the conductor. The contrasting styles of music, ranging from playful to serene will also facilitate the development of multiple tone colors.
Example 5-4. The climax of the second movement provides opportunities to develop resonance
Intonation (4)
1 2 3 4 The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to current understanding.
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The most challenging pedagogical aspect of Three Madrigals is related to the intonation criterion. While the voice parts are not challenging if learning by rote, the frequent changes of non-functional harmony used throughout the work will provide a challenge to any novice ensemble in regards to the development of audiation skills. There are many times in Three
Madrigals when phrases audiated in one key or mode will abruptly move to another tonal area.
Moreover, these sudden harmonic shifts are typically to distant tonal areas. For example, measures 3-6 of the first movement should be audiated in G major, followed immediately by B major in measures 7-11, and finally E-flat major in measures 12-17. A similar dramatic shift occurs in measure 23 of the third movement. After the preceding twelve measures are audiated in G major, the harmony shifts to E-flat for measures 23-26.
Rhythmic Integrity (4)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count- rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and audiation at times. audiation.
The rhythmic construction of Three Madrigals is extremely conducive to teaching consistent tempo through physical movement. The metric pulse of each movement can be internalized at both the macro and microbeat level. Moreover, the dancelike quality to the opening and closing movements will easily facilitate the incorporation of bodily movements.
For example, the 6/8 meter of the opening and closing movements will allow students to study the duple division and then move to the subdivision with six equal portions. Count-singing can
! 105! ! be easily incorporated into the second movement. Count-singing will also work for the first and third movements, however, the conductor may elect to use “1-2-3-1-2-3” rather than “1-2-3-4-5-
6” to simply the process.
Diction (3)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills. work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
The text of Three Madrigals is in English and contains only a few outdated words that may be troublesome for students to understand, such as doth, hath, mirth, blithe, bonny and forsworn. The conductor will need to decide whether a subtle shift in color will be used to reflect the British nuances of the language, but otherwise, the pronunciation of the text should be very straightforward. The work is laden with numerous combinations of sounds and diphthongs that will provide a serious challenge to the novice ensemble. For example, the text “Sigh no more, ladies” is repeated frequently throughout the third movement. The diphthongs present in the words “sigh” and “ladies,” as well as the combination of “o” and “r” in “more,” will require considerable skill development. The same issue occurs in the text “Hey nonny, hey” which also features a diphthong. The final concern with regards to the diction criterion is that the tempo of both the first and third movement will require the quick execution of the problematic sounds.
! 106! !
Example 5-5. Excerpt demonstrating problematic diphthongs and combinations of sounds
Musical Literacy (3)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy. construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
Three Madrigals provides an excellent context for the development of music literacy.
The work is constructed with several motives that can be utilized to teach specific concepts. For example, the descending scalar passages in the first movement (O Mistress mine, where are you roaming?), the movement by ascending and descending chromatic steps in the second movement
(Take, O take those lips away), and the melodic thirds outlining a major seventh in the third movement (Sigh no more ladies, sigh no more!) could all be used to develop specific literacy skills. The difficulty in “reading” the work will emerge as a result of the harmonic language described in the intonation criterion above. Given the proper approach, Three Madrigals could certainly be an effective work to teach music literacy. Table 5-1 provides a summary of the rubric-based assessment.
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Table 5-1. Repertoire Selection Rubric Summary for Three Madrigals
! ! ! ! ! The May Night (Die Mainacht) Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), Arr. Arthur Frackenpohl
Johannes Brahms wrote around two hundred solo songs, many of which feature folk poetry and are identified in sets with generic titles, such as Lieder und Gesänge (Songs and
Songs). This is the case for Die Mainacht, one of four songs published in a set entitled Vier
Gesänge (Four Songs), Op. 43 in 1868. Much of Brahms’ music, including this work, reflects a
“deep felt personal despondency about life…and have texts that express Schopenhauer’s philosophy of life pain – that existence is a task to be endured and that the only hope of joy is after death.”134 The text by Ludwig Heinrich Christoph Hölty poignantly depicts the intense pain felt by a wandering, yearning lover. The choral arrangement of Die Mainacht by Arthur
Frackenpohl has been a repertory work for high school and collegiate choral ensembles since its publication in 1962.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 134 Dennis Shrock, Choral Repertoire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 475. !
! 108! !
Text Integrity (4)
1 2 3 4 The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity, integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance. between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting. reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting stress. stress. properly reflects textual stress.
The text of Die Mainacht reflects many of the most important trends in nineteenth century poetry, including vivid descriptions of natural phenomena and emotional nuance. The detailed account of a lover wandering in the woods in search of love elicits tender emotions and the musical setting composed by Brahms intensifies the expression. The passionate poetry includes figurative rhetoric, such as the comparison of the lovers’ smile with a rosy dawn in measures 30-32. Although the musical setting is generally through-composed, it is interesting to note that Brahms foreshadows the climax of the piece by setting the text “in my eye is but one tear” in an abbreviated form in measures 24-28.
The true beauty of Die Mainacht lies in the relationship between the text and the compositional devices employed. Not only are the meter, dynamics, rhythm, and range used to perfectly reflect the deep yearning expressed in the poetry, but there are also numerous examples of text painting that directly illustrate the text. For example, Brahms depicts the cooing doves in the right hand figures of the piano accompaniment in measures 15-18. Another example occurs in measures 21-26 when a shift to minor harmonies and descending melody are used to depict the text “Yet do I turn away, Turn to shadows that are darker.”
! 109! !
5-6. Excerpt demonstrating a sudden shift to text painting in The May Night
Craftsmanship (4)
1 2 3 4 The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic, texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful performers. performers. understanding of the vocal mechanism.
While the tangible illustrations provided above represent text painting on a local level, the large-scale formal structure and craftsmanship of Die Mainacht also project the bleak atmosphere on a more global level. For example, when the poetry reflects a hopeful message the phrase structure is contracted, while the melancholy statements are expanded. The distinct
! 110! ! sections of the work are typically elided without strong cadential rhetoric. Dominant pedals, half cadences, second-inversion tonic triads and mode mixture all are employed to create the evocative mood of the yearning lover.
Brahms uses several motives to unify the work, including both melodic and harmonic figures. For example, the opening four notes in the piano accompaniment are found throughout the work in various iterations that reflect the textual expression. The arranger has done an outstanding job of taking the fluidity of the original vocal melody and mirroring it into the other choral parts. The harmonies are a natural outgrowth of the original work and the occasional use of unison part writing to emphasize the most poignant moments of the composition contribute to the overall value of the work as a repertory standard.
Predictability (3)
1 2 3 4 The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
The examples of text painting described above are indicative of the unexpected twists and turns found throughout Die Mainacht. Changes of mood are often accompanied by sudden adjustments in dynamics, harmony, vocal range and rhythm. While the work maintains a high degree of unpredictability as it unfolds, it does not create a sufficient balance between the achievement and deferment of musical resolutions in an effort to paint the luminous scene. The
! 111! ! employment of half cadences, chromaticism, and inverted tonic chords often subverts the aural expectation of tonal goals. Even the final progression leading to the conclusion of the work is clouded by the appearance of lowered sixth and seventh scale degrees.
Example 5-7. Excerpt demonstrating unexpected chord tones used at the conclusion of the work
! 112! !
Consistency (4)
1 2 3 4 The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial passages.
The choral arrangement of Die Mainacht by Arthur Frackenpohl is remarkably consistent
in its quality and the manner in which it conforms to Brahms’ original work. The voice part
writing is eloquent and the deployment of various vocal textures is perfectly suited to the ever-
changing composition. The arrangement adheres to the musical style presented in the original
work and is noticeably absent of trivial passages.
Originality (3) and Validity (4)
1 2 3 4 The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical devices. devices. devices.
1 2 3 4 The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the work is completely work is somewhat the work transcends its work transcends its the dependent on its historical dependent on its historical the historical and historical and cultural and/or cultural and/or cultural cultural significance to a significance to the fullest significance. significance. moderate degree. degree.
While Die Mainacht may not contain the most innovative musical devices for its period,
the profound artistic expression with which Brahms crafted the work gives the work a high
degree of originality. The manner in which the composer is able to portray the intense human
! 113! ! emotions through music engages the performer and audience on a deep level. The unpredictable nature of the work maintains the interest of the listener from start to finish. Although the choral arrangement includes an English translation, the work exhibits a high degree of validity and continues to be meaningful outside of the historical context in which it was composed.
Breath Control (3)
1 2 3 4 The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process. the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
While the tempo (quarter note equals 72) and the sustained legato articulation will require a solid control over the breathing mechanism, most of the phrase lengths in Die Mainacht are extremely manageable for novice singers. The majority of the phrases are either three or four measures in length. The greatest challenge will be measures 24-28 and 36-40 when Brahms elects to use a five-measure phrase with the melody placed in the upper register and intensified throughout a crescendo. Although the majority of phrases are preceded by considerable time for the inhalation process, there are a few entrances in which a catch breath will be required and novice singers may struggle. The most difficult example occurs in measure 35, just prior to the climax of the work with the extended five-measure phrase.
! 114! !
5-8. Excerpt demonstrating challenges to breath control in The May Night
Tone Quality (4)
1 2 3 4 The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation. The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
The arrangement of Die Mainacht by Arthur Frackenpohl includes two passages of unison singing (mm. 3-6 and 30-35) that would provide excellent opportunities to develop resonance sensation through humming. The expressive, legato musical style present throughout the work would also allow for many opportunities to develop resonance through four-part singing. Most of the part-writing is in a very comfortable range that will allow students to explore their vocal technique with ease. The English translation by Richard Griffith and its
! 115! ! setting by Frackenpohl will generally facilitate beautifully shaped vowels by novice ensembles.
There are only a few instances where the text may hinder the tone quality. For example, in measure 21 the word “turn” occurs at the climax of the musical phrase and is placed in the upper register of all voices. The meaning of the text will appeal to the singers in the ensemble and the dynamic range of emotional expressions will provide opportunities to explore a wide range of vocal colors.
Intonation (2)
1 2 3 4 The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to current understanding.
With regard to the development of audiation skills, Die Mainacht will provide a substantial challenge for most novice choirs due to the chromaticism found in each vocal part.
Nearly every musical phrase includes chromatic inflections that will need to be addressed throughout the learning process and the work will provide many opportunities to develop specific aural skills. For example, one particular focus could be the leading-tone function of chromaticism, as is the case in measures 23-24.
! 116! !
Example 5-9. Excerpt demonstrating the employment of chromaticism found through the work
Rhythmic Integrity (4)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count- rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and audiation at times. audiation.
The rhythmic structure of Die Mainacht is very conducive to teaching consistent tempo through physical movement. The underlying accompaniment often provides the subdivision of the rhythmic construction found in the voice parts. For example, in measures 15-19 the accompaniment includes sustained eighth note pulses over which the women sing primarily quarter notes. The primarily homophonic texture and simple rhythmic patterns in the voice parts facilitate the use of count-singing. The work also contains a few challenges, including measures
30-44 where Brahms has scored the accompaniment in a triple division of the meter against the duple division in the voices.
! 117! !
Example 5-10. Excerpt demonstrating underlying eighth note pulse in mm. 15-19
Diction (3)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills. work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
The English translation of the original text will be immediately gratifying to the novice ensemble. However, the text also contains several problematic words that include combinations of sounds and diphthongs that will require pedagogical attention. For example, the words
“warbles” in measure nine and “darker” in measure 25 are particularly difficult to enunciate with clarity and precision. The diphthongs present in the words such as “vale” (m. 13) “light” (m. 19) and “eye” (m. 25) will also require considerable skill development. The moderately slow tempo and lyrical musical style of the work will give greater exposure to the problematic words and should be addressed accordingly. The cognitive understanding of the text is within the grasp of developing singers. However, helping them to overcome their own vulnerability enough to project the expressive intent of the work will be a significant hurdle.
! 118! !
Music Literacy (2)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy. construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
Die Mainacht provides a fair context for the development of music literacy and will provide moderate opportunities to develop literacy related activities. The through-composed construction of the work features little repetition of melodic motives. Novice ensembles will have great difficulty “reading” the work as a result of the chromaticism described in the intonation criterion above. The conductor will need to be very specific with regards to literacy goals in this work. For example, the opening melody could be used to facilitate exercises related to ascending and descending melodic thirds. Many of the voice parts containing ascending and descending chromaticism could be isolated prior to attempting to read the work. For example, the alto line in measure 15-19 would provide chromatic movement in both directions.
5-2. Repertoire Selection Rubric Summary for The May Night
! 119! !
Exultate Deo Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725)
Though best known as the leading composer of the seventeenth century Neapolitan operatic school, Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) also held several church positions throughout his career, including choirmaster of San Maria Maggiore in Rome for an extended period. The four-voice motet Exultate Deo was composed for the church around 1707. The work is written in the Renaissance style of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina with notable Baroque influences, such as the formal structure and functional harmonies. The text is taken from the Mass Proper for the Eleventh Sunday after Pentecost and is an excerpt from Psalm 80. In recent years,
Exultate Deo has become one of the most frequently performed works from the period and is currently found on the graded repertoire lists of numerous high school music festivals.
Textual Integrity (4)
1 2 3 4 The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of inappropriate or lacks appropriate. There is an appropriate and the highest integrity, integrity. There is an inconsistent relationship meaningful. There is a meaningful and full of obvious disconnect between the text and consistent relationship affective significance. between the text and musical setting. The between the text and There is a significant musical setting. The musical setting reflects musical setting. The relationship between the musical setting does not proper textual stress at musical setting mostly text and musical setting. reflect proper textual times. reflects proper textual The musical setting stress. stress. properly reflects textual stress.
Unlike other frequently performed Renaissance settings of Psalm 80, Scarlatti used only the opening statement (“Rejoice greatly to God our helper, shout for joy to the God of Jacob.”) for his setting of Exultate Deo. The “Alleluia” that would have been sung prior to the Psalm verse in the traditional liturgy was inserted at the end of the opening section of the work. The joyous text celebrates the Resurrection of Christ and notably omits the portion of the Psalm text
! 120! ! which calls the musicians to take up their instruments in praise of God. The musical setting of the text perfectly reflects the exuberant praises through buoyant and melismatic part-writing.
The natural inflection of the text is precisely reflected at times, but also lacks appropriate strong and weak functions in specific sections. For example, the melismatic passages on the penultimate syllable of “Exultate” are followed by a brief concluding note for the final, unaccented syllable. In contrast, the final, unaccented syllable of the word “Alleluia” is placed on strong or accented beats throughout measures 37-62. The inconsistency of proper text stress is an interesting aspect of the work, as Baroque composers traditionally paid close attention to such details. The composer does a remarkable job of reflecting the subtle nuances of the text through variations in melodic motives, rhythmic patterns and meter. For example, for the text
“Jubilate Deo Jacob” the meter changes to 3/2 and the dotted rhythms so prominent in the opening section are replaced by a smoothly flowing musical style.
Example 5-11. Excerpt demonstrating improper text stress found in Exultate Deo
! 121! !
Craftsmanship (4)
1 2 3 4 The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a The work has a structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal distinguishable formal distinctive formal melodic, harmonic and structure. The work structure. The work structure. The work rhythmic appeal. There is inconsistently maintains consistently maintains maintains the highest little or no variation in melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and degree of melodic, texture. The vocal part rhythmic appeal. The rhythmic appeal. The harmonic and rhythmic writing exhibits a lack of texture of the work is texture of the work is appeal. The work concern for the varied at times. The varied effectively. The presents unique and performers. vocal part writing vocal part writing contrasting textures. The demonstrates a thoughtful demonstrates a thoughtful vocal part writing approach for the approach for the demonstrates a masterful performers. performers. understanding of the vocal mechanism.
The formal structure of Scarlatti’s Exultate Deo is one of the key attributes that distinguish it from the late Renaissance compositions on which the work is modeled. The structure of the work is achieved through the designation “Da segno al fine” at the conclusion of the third section (measure 83). This “da segno aria” construction was a common alternative to the popular “da capo arias” in eighteenth century operas. The work has several subsections that are defined by strong cadential rhetoric. For example, the opening section features a half cadence in G major (mm. 14-15), followed by an imperfect authentic cadence in C major (mm.
35-36).
The contrapuntal texture features three primary melodic motives which are used as points of imitation and found in all of the voice parts. The second and third motives are much shorter in length than the opening motive. The functional harmony is uncomplicated and the limited chromaticism is utilized for secondary dominant functionality. The brevity of the melodic motives and the functional harmony are two important distinguishing features that place the work in the Baroque era and juxtaposes the late Renaissance church works. The juxtaposition of
! 122! ! the dotted rhythm in the head motive against the smooth accompanying voices creates a dance- like quality and clearly delineates the most important material in the choral texture.
Example 5-12. Excerpt demonstrating strong cadential rhetoric found throughout the work
Predictability (3)
1 2 3 4 The work is entirely The work is The work is reasonably The work is sufficiently predictable, with every insufficiently balanced well-balanced between balanced between musical tendency being between predictable and predictable and predictable and obtained in a direct and unpredictable musical unpredictable musical unpredictable musical obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Most of the outcomes. Some of the Conversely, the work is musical tendencies are musical tendencies are musical tendencies are entirely unpredictable obtained in a direct obtained in a direct obtained in a direct and fails to accomplish manner, and/or the work manner. Conversely, the manner. Conversely, the any predictable musical fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish work fails to accomplish goal. of the predictable most of the predictable some of the predictable musical goals. musical goals. musical goals.
! 123! !
Exultate Deo maintains an adequate balance between predictable and unpredictable musical outcomes. While most of the harmonic progressions transgress in a direct fashion toward logical conclusions, the individual voice parts assume motivic or accompanimental roles in an ever-changing and unpredictable manner. For example, the opening motive is presented first in the soprano voice (S), followed by alto (A), tenor (T) and bass (B), while the second entry of the same motivic material is presented A-T-S-B (mm. 15-17). A unique and unpredictable moment occurs in measure 63, when Scarlatti briefly shifts the tonality to A minor for the text
Jubilate Deo Jacob (“shout for joy to the God of Jacob”) and removes any dotted rhythmic figure from the head motive. The minor harmonies, smooth rhythmic motion, and nearly homophonic texture make for a striking contrast with the opening two sections.
Example 5-13. Except demonstrating a striking and unexpected shift to A minor
! 124! !
Consistency (3)
1 2 3 4 The work rarely The work inconsistently The work demonstrates The work consistently demonstrates the technical demonstrates the with relative consistency demonstrates the skill of the composer with technical skill of the the technical skill of the technical skill of the regards to style and composer with regards to composer with regards to composer with regards quality. The work style and quality. The style and quality. The to style and quality. The frequently lapses into work contains noticeable work contains only slight work is noticeably trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. lapses of trivial passages. absent of trivial passages.
While Scarlatti’s Exultate Deo may not maintain all of the characteristics of the prima prattica style on which it is based, the consistency of aesthetic quality achieved throughout the work is notable. The only characteristic of the work that stands out as a momentary lapse in quality is the syllabic text stresses in measures 37-62. This issue was discussed in the textual integrity criterion above.
Originality (3) and Validity (3)
1 2 3 4 The work has an inferior The work has a modest The work has a The work has a highly artistic expression and artistic expression and distinguished artistic distinctive artistic contains cliché or trite contains marginally expression and contains expression and contains musical devices. innovative musical some innovative musical many innovative musical devices. devices. devices.
1 2 3 4 The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of the The aesthetic value of The aesthetic value of the work is completely work is somewhat the work transcends its work transcends its the dependent on its historical dependent on its historical the historical and historical and cultural and/or cultural and/or cultural cultural significance to a significance to the fullest significance. significance. moderate degree. degree.
Although Scarlatti does not employ compositional techniques that are highly innovative for the period, Exultate Deo stands out as the most prominent of his 110 motets due in large part
! 125! ! to the cumulative quality of the aesthetic expression. More specifically, the marriage of musical devices and text uniquely capture the joyful spirit associated with the Resurrection. The melodic motives and contrasting sections of the work are appealing to both the performer and audience.
The success of the motet is not reliant on historical or cultural context, but rather on the artistic merit of the finely-crafted work.
Breath Control (3)
1 2 3 4 The work presents The work presents The work presents The work presents musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is musical phrasing that is not of an appropriate occasionally of an generally of an of an appropriate length length for the technical appropriate length for the appropriate length for the for the technical abilities abilities of the ensemble. technical abilities of the technical abilities of the of the ensemble. The The space between the ensemble. The space ensemble. The space space between the phrases and the tempo do between the phrases and between the phrases and phrases and the tempo not allow adequate time the tempo occasionally the tempo generally allow adequate time for for the inhalation process. allows adequate time for allows adequate time for the inhalation process. the inhalation process. the inhalation process.
The phrase structure of Exultate Deo will provide adequate opportunities to develop breath control. A mixture of both long and short phrases throughout the work and most of the longer phrases will require a staggered corporate approach. For example, the men’s vocal parts in measures 6-12 will require both sections to stagger breathing to accommodate the length and tessitura of the phrase. The longest phrases are balanced by much shorter and more accessible phrases in subsequent sections. For example, the statements of “Alleluia” in the second section generally are only two or three measures in length. Each musical phrase is typically preceded by a quarter note rest, either printed in the score or implied by the text and phrasing. The amount of time allotted for the inhalation process is adequate given the moderately quick tempo and the length of phrases.
! 126! !
Tone Quality (3)
1 2 3 4 The work does not The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents present opportunities to presents opportunities to opportunities to develop numerous opportunities develop resonance develop resonance resonance sensation and to develop resonance sensation and refine sensation and refine refine proper vowel sensation and refine proper vowel formation. proper vowel formation. formation. The work will proper vowel formation. The work will not The work will stimulate stimulate the imaginations The work will stimulate stimulate the the imaginations of the of the conductor and the imaginations of the imaginations of the conductor and singers to singers to a high degree. conductor and singers to conductor and singers. some degree. the highest degree.
Though lacking passages that will facilitate the development of resonance sensation through humming, Exultate Deo will provide a good context for developing tone quality through the study of Latin vowels. Examining the five Latin vowels is a highly effective method for developing tone color and quality in novice ensembles due to the limited scope and overall purity of the sounds. Furthermore, the moderately conservative vocal ranges will allow for pure vowels to be formed without need for modification. The implementation of dynamics is at the discretion of the conductor and will have an impact on the tone colors achieved in this work.
Example 5-14. Excerpt demonstrating the conservative vocal ranges found throughout the work
! 127! !
Intonation (4)
1 2 3 4 The work is of no The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with pedagogical value with regards to the process of regards to the process regards to the process of regards to the process of audiation. The work is of audiation. The work audiation. The work meets audiation. The work meets either severely above or is slightly above or the current audiation level and/or slightly exceeds the below the current below the current of the ensemble but will current audiation level of audiation level of the audiation level of the not challenge current the ensemble, providing a ensemble. ensemble. understanding. stimulating challenge to current understanding.
Exultate Deo is an excellent work for novice choirs to facilitate the development of audiation. The work presents a fair balance of fundamental and advanced melodic, harmonic and rhythmic elements that will encourage a wide range of musical understanding. The conjunct motion of the melody is often balanced with a few melodic intervals that challenge the singer and help develop audiation. For example, the opening motive begins with the interval of an ascending perfect fourth, followed closely by conjunct motion, and concluding with a descending major third. The bass vocal part in particular could be used to effectively fine tune melodic intervals. The diatonic harmonies and subtle use of chromaticism will be immediately accessible for most choirs, but the independence of the voice parts will require considerable training.
Example 5-15. Example demonstrating the conjunct motion found in Exultate Deo
! 128! !
Rhythmic Integrity (4)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for the application context for the context for the application optimal context for the of count-singing. The application of count- of count-singing. The application of count- rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic rhythmic structure of the singing. The rhythmic work is not conducive to structure of the work is work is mostly conducive structure of the work is the development of somewhat conducive to to the development of highly conducive to the consistent tempo through the development of consistent tempo through development of physical movement and consistent tempo through physical movement and consistent tempo through audiation at times. physical movement and audiation. physical movement and audiation at times. audiation.
Scarlatti’s setting of Exultate Deo presents the perfect scenario for developing rhythmic precision through the implementation of count-singing. The independent voice parts and linear, melodic writing will keep students engaged throughout the count-singing process. The work also presents an outstanding context for the development of consistent rhythm through physical movement. For example, the metric pulse can be established at the whole note, half note, and quarter note levels in the first section of the work. Additionally, the change from duple meter to triple meter in measure 63 adds pedagogical value to the work.
Diction (3)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently The work provides an context for developing provides a meaningful provides a meaningful optimal context for pronunciation and context for developing context for developing developing pronunciation enunciation skills. The pronunciation and pronunciation and and enunciation skills. work also fails to provide enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The The work also provides opportunities to develop work provides some work also provides significant opportunities expressive intent through opportunities to develop sufficient opportunities to to develop expressive text declamation. expressive intent through develop expressive intent intent through text text declamation. through text declamation. declamation.
It would be important to address the translation of the sacred Latin text of Scarlatti’s
Exultate Deo early in the rehearsal process to encourage a connection to the joyful text. The
! 129! ! text will not be immediately gratifying to novice singers unless time is spent communicating the meaning and nature of the text. The work will likely be performed using traditional Italianate
Latin, as the work was composed by a Catholic composer living in Rome. This is also the most common application in high school music due to the accessibility of the language. The lack of combination vowels or diphthongs will allow the educator to focus on other pedagogical goals of properly executed pronunciation, such as vowel formation or tone color. The sustained melismatic passages of the work will present the greatest difficulty in clearly articulating the text. Pedagogical training will need to be provided to maintain uniformity of vowels over the duration of the melismatic passages. Once students have a firm understanding of the text, most singers will not struggle to produce the expressive intent of the work.
Music Literacy (3)
1 2 3 4 The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an context for developing context for developing context for developing optimal context for music literacy. The music literacy. The music literacy. The developing music literacy. construction of the work construction of the work construction of the work The construction of the provides relatively few provides some provides many opportunities work provides ample opportunities to generate opportunities to generate to generate literacy related opportunities to generate literacy related activities. literacy related activities. activities. literacy related activities.
Exultate Deo provides a good context for the development of music literacy, particularly with regard to developing independent musicians. The prima prattica musical style will present a challenge to most novice choirs who are not accustomed to singing an independent musical style. The thematic material presented in the work generally begins with a head motive that could facilitate exercises related to musical literacy. However, variations of the thematic material following the head motive are used throughout the work, so teaching students the motivic material of one voice part will not translate to their own parts. Considering musical
! 130! ! literacy, the true value of the work lies in the ability of the work to develop rhythmic precision and aural awareness through count-singing and the implementation of solfège.
5-3. Repertoire Selection Rubric Summary for Exultate Deo
Conclusion
Selecting quality repertoire for use with secondary-level choral ensembles is a difficult and multifaceted undertaking regardless of expertise or experience. The process is often clouded by a number of variables including both musical and extra-musical considerations. The selection of repertoire is further undermined by the lack of resources available to preservice and beginning choral conductors. The repertoire selection rubric presented in this document and the rubric- based assessments modeled in this chapter provide a new approach to selecting music for a choral ensemble.
The process modeled in this chapter is a time intensive task. The practice of carefully surveying twelve distinct criteria related to the aesthetic quality and pedagogical value and then assigning value to each can take considerable time. However, experts in the field of music education have consistently argued that the selection of repertoire is the most important aspect of
! 131! ! building and sustaining a choral program. Moreover, the improper selection of repertoire can have a detrimental impact on students and the program. It is critical for preservice and beginning choral conductors to have a repertoire selection regiment that facilitates the evaluation of music in a consistent and prescribed manner, rather than simply selecting works based on personal affection.
Today, choral conductors are inundated with publications of inferior musical compositions, arrangements and adaptations. Major publishing companies frequently provide educators with promotional materials loaded with the latest popular music fads and contemporary adaptations of traditional music. Instead of taking the time to locate and systematically evaluate works that are aesthetically and pedagogically valuable, secondary choral conductors frequently succumb to the latest publications due to the simplicity of the process and the popularity of such lighter fare with students and audiences alike. The truth is that many of the most significant composers of each historical era have composed choral repertoire that is both accessible and meaningful to high school students. For example, Three Madrigals by
Emma Lou Diemer was composed as a part of the Contemporary Music Project (CMP) of the
1960s. Funded by the Ford Foundation, the project placed composers and performers in school settings in an effort to make connections between students and music. To sustain and improve the caliber of choral music education in the twenty-first century, preservice and beginning teachers need meaningful resources to aid the repertoire selection process. By utilizing the repertoire selection rubric described in this document, preservice and beginning choral music educators can approach repertoire selection with confidence and purpose.
! 132! !
APPENDIX A REPERTOIRE SELECTION RUBRIC
(The rubric is found on the next two pages to facilitate reproduction)
! 133! !
REPERTOIRE SELECTION RUBRIC Criteria of Aesthetic Merit
1 2 3 4 The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is The subject matter is of the inappropriate or lacks integrity. appropriate. There is an appropriate and meaningful. highest integrity, meaningful There is an obvious disconnect inconsistent relationship There is a consistent and full of affective between the text and musical between the text and musical relationship between the text significance. There is a setting. The musical setting setting. The musical setting and musical setting. The significant relationship does not reflect proper textual reflects proper textual stress at musical setting mostly reflects between the text and musical stress. times. proper textual stress. setting. The musical setting properly reflects textual stress. Textual Integrity
The work lacks a formal The work has a mostly The work has a distinguishable The work has a distinctive structure. The work lacks distinguishable formal formal structure. The work formal structure. The work melodic, harmonic and structure. The work consistently maintains maintains the highest degree of rhythmic appeal. There is little inconsistently maintains melodic, harmonic and melodic, harmonic and or no variation in texture. The melodic, harmonic and rhythmic appeal. The texture rhythmic appeal. The work vocal part writing exhibits a rhythmic appeal. The texture of the work is varied presents unique and lack of concern for the of the work is varied at times. effectively. The vocal part contrasting textures. The vocal performers. The vocal part writing writing demonstrates a part writing demonstrates a
Craftsmanship demonstrates a thoughtful thoughtful approach for the masterful understanding of the approach for the performers. performers. vocal mechanism.
The work is entirely The work is insufficiently The work is reasonably well- The work is sufficiently predictable, with every musical balanced between predictable balanced between predictable balanced between predictable tendency being obtained in a and unpredictable musical and unpredictable musical and unpredictable musical direct and obvious manner. outcomes. Most of the musical outcomes. Most of the musical outcomes. Some of the musical Conversely, the work is tendencies are obtained in a tendencies are obtained in a tendencies are obtained in a entirely unpredictable and fails direct manner, and/or the work direct manner. Conversely, the direct manner. Conversely, the to accomplish any predictable fails to accomplish most of the work fails to accomplish most work fails to accomplish some
Predictability musical goal. predictable musical goals. of the predictable musical of the predictable musical goals. goals.
The work rarely demonstrates The work inconsistently The work demonstrates with The work consistently the technical skill of the demonstrates the technical skill relative consistency the demonstrates the technical skill composer with regards to style of the composer with regards technical skill of the composer of the composer with regards and quality. The work to style and quality. The work with regards to style and to style and quality. The work frequently lapses into trivial contains noticeable lapses of quality. The work contains is noticeably absent of trivial passages. trivial passages only slight lapses of trivial passages. Consistency passages.
The work has an inferior The work has a modest artistic The work has a distinguished The work has a highly artistic expression and contains expression and contains artistic expression and contains distinctive artistic expression cliché or trite musical devices. marginally innovative musical some innovative musical and contains many innovative devices. devices. musical devices. Originality
The aesthetic value of the work The aesthetic value of the work The aesthetic value of the work The aesthetic value of the work is completely dependent on its is somewhat dependent on its transcends its the historical and transcends its the historical and historical and/or cultural historical and/or cultural cultural significance to a cultural significance to the significance. significance. moderate degree. fullest degree. Validity
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REPERTOIRE SELECTION RUBRIC Criteria of Pedagogical Merit
1 2 3 4 The work presents musical The work presents musical The work presents musical The work presents musical phrasing that is not of an phrasing that is occasionally of phrasing that is generally of an phrasing that is of an appropriate length for the an appropriate length for the appropriate length for the appropriate length for the technical abilities of the technical abilities of the technical abilities of the technical abilities of the ensemble. The space between ensemble. The space between ensemble. The space between ensemble. The space between the phrases and the tempo do the phrases and the tempo the phrases and the tempo the phrases and the tempo not allow adequate time for the occasionally allows adequate generally allows adequate time allow adequate time for the Breath Control inhalation process. time for the inhalation process. for the inhalation process. inhalation process.
The work does not present The work occasionally The work presents several The work presents numerous opportunities to develop presents opportunities to opportunities to develop opportunities to develop resonance sensation and refine develop resonance sensation resonance sensation and refine resonance sensation and refine proper vowel formation. The and refine proper vowel proper vowel formation. The proper vowel formation. The work will not stimulate the formation. The work will work will stimulate the work will stimulate the imaginations of the conductor stimulate the imaginations of imaginations of the conductor imaginations of the conductor
Tone Quality and singers. the conductor and singers to and singers to a high degree. and singers to the highest some degree. degree.
The work is of no pedagogical The work is of some The work is of moderate The work is of significant value with regards to the pedagogical value with regards pedagogical value with regards pedagogical value with regards process of audiation. The to the process of audiation. to the process of audiation. to the process of audiation. work is either severely above The work is slightly above or The work meets the current The work meets and/or slightly or below the current audiation below the current audiation audiation level of the ensemble exceeds the current audiation level of the ensemble. level of the ensemble. but will not challenge current level of the ensemble,
Intonation understanding. providing a stimulating challenge to current understanding.
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an optimal context for the application of context for the application of context for the application of context for the application of count-singing. The rhythmic count-singing. The rhythmic count-singing. The rhythmic count-singing. The rhythmic structure of the work is not structure of the work is structure of the work is mostly structure of the work is highly conducive to the development somewhat conducive to the conducive to the development conducive to the development of consistent tempo through development of consistent of consistent tempo through of consistent tempo through physical movement and tempo through physical physical movement and physical movement and audiation at times. movement and audiation at audiation. audiation.
Rhythmic Integrity times.
The work provides a poor The work inconsistently The work consistently provides The work provides an optimal context for developing provides a meaningful context a meaningful context for context for developing pronunciation and enunciation for developing pronunciation developing pronunciation and pronunciation and enunciation skills. The work also fails to and enunciation skills. The enunciation skills. The work skills. The work also provides provide opportunities to work provides some also provides sufficient significant opportunities to
Diction develop expressive intent opportunities to develop opportunities to develop develop expressive intent through text declamation. expressive intent through text expressive intent through text through text declamation. declamation. declamation.
The work provides a poor The work provides a fair The work provides a good The work provides an optimal context for developing music context for developing music context for developing music context for developing music literacy. The construction of literacy. The construction of literacy. The construction of literacy. The construction of the work provides relatively the work provides some the work provides many the work provides ample few opportunities to generate opportunities to generate opportunities to generate opportunities to generate Literacy literacy related activities. literacy related activities. literacy related activities. literacy related activities.
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APPENDIX B QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REPERTOIRE ASSESSMENT
Textual Integrity: Subject Matter and Rhetoric (a) Does the text elicit an emotional reaction? (b) Does the text feature figurative language or sound devices to create vivid imagery? (c) Is the word choice vague and repetitive, or is it focused and impressive?
Textual Integrity: Reflection of Proper Textual Stress (a) Are the syllables of the words given appropriate strong and weak functions? (b) Do significant words receive important or interesting treatment?
Textual Integrity: Relationship between Text and Music (a) What compositional devices are used to reflect the text? (b) Does the musical style fit the subject matter and rhetorical style of the text? (c) Do the compositional decisions of key, meter, tempo, dynamic, rhythm, range, and texture work together to enhance the textual expression?
Craftsmanship: Musical Form (a) Where does the composer transition from one section of the work to another? (b) How are the transitions between sections articulated? How strongly? (c) Is there adequate balance between contrasting and repetitive musical ideas?
Craftsmanship: Melodic, Harmonic and Rhythmic Appeal (a) Where is the melodic content located? Does it move between various voice parts? (b) How effectively does the composer match the melodic content to the style of the work? (c) Do the phrase lengths, articulations, range, tessitura, and dynamic contrasts contribute to the melodic appeal of the work? (d) Do the harmonies progress in a logical and genuine manner that is appropriate for the style of the work? (e) Is the quality of the harmonic language consistent throughout the work? (f) Does the harmony enhance the setting of the text in a meaningful way? (g) Does the rhythm enhance the nuances of the text?
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(h) Does the composer effectively vary the rhythmic patterns to maintain appeal? (i) Are there overly complicated rhythmic passages that will dominate the musical fabric?
Craftsmanship: Textural Variation (a) Does the composer sufficiently vary the texture throughout the work?
Craftsmanship: Vocal Part Writing (a) Do the inner voices have interesting parts or do they simply fill out harmonies? (b) Are there melodic intervals that will require excessive amounts of rehearsal time and training? (c) Do the voice parts generally remain within the comfortable vocal range? (d) Does the composer sufficiently vary the tessitura of the vocal parts?
Predictability (a) Does the work contain unanticipated twists and turns in the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic fabric? (b) Does the work contain sudden shifts of dynamic, articulation, texture, tessitura or scoring? (c) Does the composer achieve a balance between the achievement and deferment of predictable musical goals?
Consistency (a) Does the composition contain characteristics that conform to a particular musical style? (b) Does the composer maintain the style throughout the duration of the work, or are there specific aspects of the work that do not conform to the style characteristics? (c) Are there momentary lapses of quality that result in trivial passages?
Originality (a) Does the work stand out as a distinctive artistic expression in the given style period? (b) Does the work contain innovative musical devices within the framework of its historical context? (c) Does the work have the ability to capture and maintain the interest of the performer and audience?
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Validity (a) Does the work exhibit a high degree of authenticity within its historical or cultural context? (b) Does the work have aesthetic value aside from its historic relevance or the significance of the composer?
Breath Control (a) What is the general length of musical phrases? Are there any phrases that stand out as either extremely long or short? (b) How much time is generally allowed for the inhalation process? Are there any entrances that may be problematic due to a lack of time to breath? (c) What effect will tempo have on the inhalation process?
Tone Quality (a) Does the work contain passages that will facilitate the development of resonance sensation through the use of voiced consonants m, n, and ng? (b) Does the work contain passages of unison part writing or significantly reduced difficulty? (c) How will the composer’s setting of the language impact the production of properly shaped vowels? If there are problematic passages, are the extreme notes supported by the rest of the choir? (d) How will the desired dynamic levels influence the choral tone? (e) Will the work speak to the collective imagination of the conductor and ensemble? (f) Will the work help facilitate an affirming, positive and challenging educational experience?
Intonation (a) Does the work contain passages that will facilitate the development of audiation? (b) Does the work meet and/or slightly exceed the current audiation level of the ensemble?
Rhythmic Integrity (a) Does the work provide an adequate context for the implementation of count-singing? (b) Is the rhythmic structure of the work conducive to the development of consistent tempo through physical movement?
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Diction: Pronunciation (a) Is the work to be performed in English or in a foreign language? (b) Is the pronunciation going to reflect national or regional nuances? (c) How will the pronunciation impact the production of vocal tone? (d) What is the general accessibility level of the dialect and are there any passages that may prove difficult for the ensemble?
Diction: Enunciation (a) What is the general level of complexity associated with the individual words? (b) How many words contain combinations of sounds, mixed vowels and/or diphthongs? (c) How will the tempo impact the clear enunciation of the text? (d) How will the musical style of the work influence the enunciation?
Diction: Expressive Intent (a) Is the meaning of the text within the cognitive understanding of the ensemble? (b) Will the choir be able to communicate the text without apprehension?
Music Literacy (a) Given the current literacy level of the ensemble, does the work present an optimal context for further development of music literacy? (b) Does the construction of the work provide opportunities to develop exercises related to music literacy?
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APPENDIX C DIRECTORY OF DISTINGUISHED CHORAL REPERTOIRE LISTS ! ! Books and Journal Articles
Collins, Don L. Teaching Choral Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999.
DeVenney, David P. American Choral Music since 1920: An Annotated Guide. Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf Press, 1988.
Lamb, Gordon H. Choral Techniques. 3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988.
Miller, Kenneth E. Handbook of Choral Music Selection, Score Preparation and Writing. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1979.
Shrock, Dennis. Choral Repertoire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Wyatt, Larry D. “Selected Repertoire for the High School Choral Ensemble.” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education Vol. 8, 1 (Fall-Winter) 1989: 15-19.
Internet Resources
American Choral Directors Association Repertoire and Standards Committee Access on-line at: http://acda.org/repertoire
Choral Net Repertoire Resources Access on-line at: http://www.choralnet.org/list/resource#
International Federation for Choral Music “Musica” International Database Access on-line at: http://www.musicanet.org/en/index.php
State Contest and Festival Required Repertoire Lists
Iowa High School Music Association State Large Group Festival Required List Access on-line at: http://ihsma.org/large_group.shtml
Florida Vocal Association District and State Music Performance Assessment Access on-line at: http://fva.net/musiclist.html
Kansas State High School Activities Association Large Group Music Festival Required List Access on-line at: http://www.kansaschoral.com/docs/Stat_List.pdf
Texas Music Educators Association – UIL Prescribed Music List Access on-line at: http://www.utexas.edu/uil/pml/browse
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Apfelstadt, Hilary. “First Things First: Selecting Repertoire.” Music Educators Journal 87 (2000): 19-22.
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Brunner, David L. “Choral Repertoire: A Director’s Checklist.” Music Educators Journal 79 (1992): 29-32.
______. “Choral Music that Matters: A Composer’s Perspective.” Choral Journal 36 (3), 29-31.
Busch, Brian. The Complete Choral Conductor: Gesture and Method. New York: Schirmer Books, 1984.
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Collins, Don L. Teaching Choral Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1999.
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Dahlman, Henry N. “The Effect of Choral Program Size, Teacher Experience, and Teacher Education Level on the Selection of High School Music Literature.” D.M.A. diss., University of Missouri - Kansas City, 1991.
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Davis, John L. “A Study of Choral Repertoire in Selected High Schools and Factors Affecting Its Selection.” Ed.D. diss., Columbia University, 1970.
Davison, Archibald. Choral Conducting. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968.
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Demorest, Steven M., Building Choral Excellence. New York: Oxford, 2001.
Devore, Deborah M. “Choral Music Repertoire Selection in the Ohio Music Education Association Large Group High School Contests.” Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1989.
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Diddle, Laura D. “The Repertoire Selection Practices and Skills of Beginning Choral Educators.” Ph.D. diss., University of South Carolina, 2005.
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______. “The Repertoire Selection Practices of Public High School Choral Directors in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia.” Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1998.
Garretson, Robert L. Conducting Choral Music. 7th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1993.
Garnett, Liz. Choral Conducting and the Construction of Meaning. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2009.
Gilbert, Henry F. “Originality” The Musical Quarterly 5 (1), 1-9.
Glenn, Carole, ed. In Quest of Answers: Interviews with American Choral Conductors. Chapel Hills, NC: Hinshaw Music, Inc., 1991.
Gordon, Edwin E. Learning Sequences in Music. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998.
Gordon, Lewis. Choral Director’s Rehearsal and Performance Guide. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, 1989.
Grace, Harvey. The Training and Conducting of Choral Societies. London: Novello and Company, 1938.
Green, Elizabeth A. H. The Modern Conductor. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997.
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Hart, Steven. “Evolution of Thought and Recurrent Ideas in Choral Conducting Books and Secondary Music Education Texts Published in English from 1939 to 1995.” Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado, 1996.
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Hoffer, Charles R. Teaching Music in the Secondary Schools. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2001.
Howerton, George. Techniques and Style in Choral Singing. New York: C. Fischer, 1957.
Hunsaker, Tracy Caldwell. “Processes and Criteria of Nationally Recognized High School Choral Directors for the Selection of Performance Literature.” Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2007.
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Jones, William D. “An Index of Choral Music Performed During National Conventions of the American Choral Directors Association (1960-1987).” Ph.D. diss., The Florida State University, 1988.
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______. Evoking Sound: The Choral Rehearsal Techniques and Procedures, Vol. 1. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007.
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Kaplan, Abraham. Choral Conducting. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1985.
Lamb, Gordon H. Choral Techniques. 3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Publishers, 1988.
______. “Selection of Music for the High School Choir.” Choral Journal 12 (3), 12-14.
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______. Twentieth Century Choral Music: An Annotated Bibliography of Music Suitable for Use By High School Choirs. Metuchen, NJ, & London: Scarecrow Press, 1982.
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Wyatt, Larry D. “Selected Repertoire for the High School Choral Ensemble.” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 8 (1989): 15-19.
______. “A Study of Five Recommended Lists of Repertoire for the High School Choral Ensemble.” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 7 (1988): 24-26.
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