San Diego Natural History Museum Whalers Museum Whalers Handbook Jmorris

San Diego Natural History Museum Whalers Museum Whalers Handbook jmorris

Prepared by: Janet M. Morris Director of Volunteer/Intern Services

Revisions compiled by: Jane Mygatt September 2015

SECTION 1: VOLUNTEER BASICS 1

SECTION 2: MARINE MAMMALS AND THEIR ADAPTATIONS 5

SECTION 3: EASTERN PACIFIC GRAY WHALE 13

SECTION 4: RORQUALS 25

SECTION 5: ODONTOCETES (TOOTHED WHALES) 35

SECTION 6: PINNIPEDS – SEALS, SEA LIONS, AND WALRUSES 45

SECTION 7: BIRDING ON THE HORNBLOWER 49

SECTION 8: PROPS USED FOR PRESENTATIONS 58

SECTION 9: THE ART OF INTERPRETATION 62

SECTION 10: FACTS YOU SHOULD KNOW 64

SECTION 11: GENERAL INFORMATION 70

SECTION 12: ON BOARD THE HORNBLOWER, CRUISE INFO AND MORE 76

SECTION 13: GLOSSARY 80

SECTION 14: BOOKS, WEB RESOURCES AND CREDITS 81

Section 1: Volunteer Basics

Welcome! We are pleased to have you as a volunteer whaler for the San Diego Natural History Museum. As a museum whaler you are carrying on a long tradition of whale watching here in southern California. Our first trips were offered to the public in 1957 led by pioneer whale watching naturalist Ray Gilmore, an employee of the US Fish & Wildlife Service and a research associate of the San Diego Natural History Museum. Ray’s whale-watching trips were well known over the years and his trips integrated science and education with a lot of fun. We are sure that Ray would be very pleased with the San Diego Natural History Museum’s continued involvement in offering fun and educational whale watching experiences to the public through our connection with Hornblower Cruises and Events. This is also a great opportunity to connect the public with the San Diego Natural History Museum.

The whaler training program consists of course readings from this manual, guest lectures, sample presentations and a lot of in-class practice delivering presentations. Our most experienced whalers teach several course sections, while local experts that do research on or work closely with marine mammals and birds, present other sections. There will be a short mid-term and final examination to assess your understanding of the information contained within these pages.

This manual provides much of the information on the marine life you will see. It also provides information on your responsibilities as a naturalist on the Hornblower Whale and Dolphin Watching adventure cruises. We hope you will enjoy your experience and help impart enthusiasm and knowledge about California’s marine life. Your Role and Responsibilities as a Museum Whaler The primary responsibility of a museum whaler is to provide natural history information about the marine life sighted during the trip, especially the Eastern Pacific gray whale. The crew is responsible for all aspects of the vessel’s operation, including passenger safety. Please follow the instructions of the captain and the first mate at all times.

In addition to providing information to visitors, remember that you will be working with other volunteers, so it is important to be a responsible and supportive co-worker. Arriving on time and taking equal responsibility for working the line, engaging visitors, setting up materials and giving presentations at the end of the cruise will ensure that you and your fellow volunteers have an enjoyable time. We will go into more detail as the course proceeds, but while on duty you should remember to:

 Arrive early and get your boarding pass (booth opens at 8:30 am)  Work the line  Get on board as soon as possible

 Meet in the A/V room to get organized as a group  Mingle with the passengers

Waiting in Line to Board A large part of being a whaler involves connecting with the passengers and providing information on gray whale migration as they wait in line. We call this “working the line.” Arrive at least 30 minutes before the cruise leaves. While passengers are waiting in line to board, use your whale information cards and gray whale migration map to educate.

Once on board Once you board, head to the designated A/V room where you will find the museum supplies that include:

 Blue box  Photos, books, etc.  Logbook – please sign in  Whale models and other supplies

While the passengers are boarding and the boat is cruising through the harbor and San Diego Bay, mingle with the passengers and introduce yourselves. Please DO NOT talk while the captain or first mate is talking. This is especially important during the talk on boat safety. Instead, follow their lead and point out sites or show pictures or visual aids that support their narration.

At the beginning of the cruise, one of the whalers should provide the names of the whalers on board to the captain so that he can introduce you by name.

During the Cruise During the cruise the whaler’s role is to assist the crew in locating the whales and engaging the passengers in conversation about what they are seeing. Point out birds, fish, dolphins, jellies, sea lions, and any other marine life you see. You will be learning about these animals so that you can help identify and have a couple of interesting stories to share.

Keep in mind that you are sharing interpretive duties, so you do not need to say everything yourself. Don’t worry about repeating information that the captain or first mate has already covered. Just add something new. Please refer to the materials you received during your training session for specific details.

In the Wheelhouse The wheelhouse is the captain’s territory and new federal regulations do not allow uncertified personnel access without the captain’s explicit permission. You are allowed in the wheelhouse to retrieve or return the museum specimens (biofacts) found in the black box.

Generally speaking, the captain and/or first mate will provide the narration during the cruise through the San Diego Bay, indicating points of interest along the way. Some captains are open to having a whaler provide some narration so if you feel comfortable on the PA, please ask the captain if you can talk.

On the Way Back The museum provides several teaching specimens (biofacts) to assist in interpretation. These specimens are used during the cruise as we return to port. In general, please retrieve the biofacts when the boat reaches buoy #1 and return them when the boat reaches the bait dock. The timing may change based on sea conditions, so please be flexible.

Participating in Giving Presentations All whalers are expected to participate in giving presentations. Generally, presentations are given on the lower level towards the bow. At times, seas are rough and passengers may be sick where presentations are normally given. It is important to be flexible.

Please keep control of the biofacts at all times. It is okay to let passengers carefully touch the baleen and the vertebrae, but remind them to be gentle and use only a 2 finger touch. And please use the microphone. If you are soft spoken, passengers cannot necessarily hear you.

The whalers are responsible for giving presentations on:

 Gray whale migration (mostly while working the line)  Barnacles and whale lice  Baleen and gray whale feeding behavior  Lumbar vertebrae and their role in muscle attachment  San Diego Natural History Museum exhibits of interest

The following biofacts are available for your use during the formal presentation:

 Gray whale skin with an adult barnacle (preserved in resin)  Gray whale lice (preserved in resin)  Gray whale lumbar vertebrae (juvenile and calf)  Cast of human lumbar vertebra for comparison  Section of gray whale baleen (approximately 15 individual plates)  Amphipods (preserved in resin) are an example of the family, not the specific species that are the main food source for the Eastern Pacific Gray whale

Being a Responsible Volunteer There are four things you absolutely must do to participate as a museum whaler:

 Always sign up for the cruise well in advance by adding your name to the Volgistics calendar  If you are unable to make the cruise, please remove your name from the calendar as soon as possible, but no less than 5 days in advance. This gives other whalers an opportunity to sign up for that cruise  Notify the director of volunteer/intern services ([email protected]) of the changes to your contact information  Always log your hours in Volgistics

If You Can’t Meet Your Commitment

 First check the calendar and see how many other volunteers are signed up; if you are the only one, find a substitute. If there are others, please notify at least one of the other volunteers that you will not be on board. Remember, you work as a team. Be considerate of your teammates!  Last minute changes sometimes happen, we understand, but we encourage you to solve scheduling problems ahead of time  We send a schedule to the Hornblower every Thursday night so if you are signed up, they are expecting you  If you have an emergency the day you are scheduled to work, please notify one of the other whalers signed up for the cruise; unfortunately, the ticket booth does not pass along messages. Notifying the director of volunteer/intern services does not meet your obligation of notification. Emails are missed. Phone calls are better.

Passenger Safety is the Hornblower Crew’s Responsibility The San Diego Natural History Museum is not liable for passengers. The Hornblower crew is responsible for onboard safety. If a passenger comes to you with injury, seasickness or any other safety concern, please direct them to the captain or a crewmember. The captain will make announcements at the beginning of the cruise about safety, first aid and the location of all life jackets. If you have any concerns about a passenger, please find a crewmember or talk to the captain. DO NOT give the passengers anything—not even a sick bag. You’ll regret it. The sick passenger will expect you to help them for the rest of cruise.

If there is any emergency while onboard, the crew will consider you passengers. You are not there to help them. Please do not interfere; follow their directions.

Section 2: Marine Mammals and their Adaptations Class Mammalia (Mammals) All mammals, including marine mammals, are warm-blooded, have (or have traces of) hair or fur, breathe air through lungs, bear live young and nurse their young with milk produced by mammary glands. Dolphins and whales (cetaceans) and manatees (sirenians) live their entire lives in the water, whereas seals, sea lions and walruses (pinnipeds) are semi-aquatic, spending part of their time in the ocean feeding, and part of the time on land to breed, mate and molt.

Three groups, or orders, of marine mammals evolved independently for life in the ocean.

Order Cetacea (Cetaceans) whales, dolphins and porpoises Suborder Mysticeti (Mysticetes) the baleen whales Family Eschrichtiidae: Gray whales (Section 3) Family Balaenopteridae: Rorquals (Section 4) Family Balaenidae: Bowhead and right whales (rare in our region) Family Neobalaenidae: Pigmy right whales (southern hemisphere only) Suborder Odontoceti (Odonotocetes) the toothed whales (Section 5)

Order Sirenia (Sirenians) the dugongs and manatees, or sea cows (not in our region)

Order Carnivora (Carnivores) Suborder Pinnipedia (Pinnipeds) the seals, sea lions and walrus (Section 6) Adaptations Marine mammals are united more by their shared use of a similar environment than by common evolutionary descent. While cetaceans, sirenians and pinnipeds have different evolutionary origins, they have evolved similar physical and physiological adaptations to life in the ocean. All have well- developed paddle shaped limbs, a streamlined body and the ability to dive underwater for extended periods of time. Physiologically, marine mammals differ from land mammals in that they can conserve Bottlenose dolphins. http://www.starseeds.net/photo/ oxygen and withstand increased water flipnicklinbottlenosedolphinsh-1?context=user pressure during a deep dive.

Swimming Adaptations Fusiform or streamlined shape reduces drag, which decreases energy consumption.

Limbs are modified in the following ways:

 In pinnipeds the front and hind limbs have been modified into fin-like structures (flippers).  In cetaceans and sirenians the hind limbs are absent (there is only a vestigial pelvis) and their tails are modified into flukes for propulsion.

 The forelimbs, modified into flippers, function to stabilize the body and aid in turns. Only humpback whales use their flippers for swimming.

Hair/fur reduction in the cetaceans and sirenians reduces frictional resistance, making swimming long distances more efficient.

Thermoregulation Blubber serves as insulation, energy storage and “dampening” for streamlining.

Thick layer of fur in pinnipeds and sea otters provides insulation.

On occasion we see ‘rafts’ of sea lions with their pectoral flippers extended out of the water to regulate Raft of sea lions: Photo Diane Ako their body temperatures. Diving Physiology Marine mammals excel in their adaptability to rapid changes of external conditions, as they move from the water surface to depths of several 100’ to several 1000’ below, and back up again. During a dive they have to deal with lack of oxygen and increased water pressure. This “Dive Response” is accomplished in several ways:

 More oxygen is stored in the blood and tissues than in land mammals. An Elephant Seal, one of the “champion divers”, has 3 times the blood volume of a human; 1.5 times the

hemoglobin concentration; and 10 times as much myoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells, which transports oxygen. Myoglobin is a similar protein storing oxygen in muscles.  Oxygen is NOT stored in the lungs, which collapse during deep dives. Residual air is pushed into the reinforced upper airway spaces, and there is no gas exchange in the lungs. This prevents the formation of nitrogen bubbles (the “Bends”) when ascending.  Oxygen is conserved during a dive. The heart rate is slowed down, blood vessels are constricted and blood is directed only to the heart and brain, bypassing the digestive organs and muscles. How does the animal keep functioning? Muscles (needed for swimming) have their own oxygen supply in myoglobin. The elevated concentration of this protein is the most consistent hallmark of all deep divers.  The shutdown of digestive functions during a dive is compensated by higher than normal performance during breathing intervals at the surface.  When the oxygen supply is exhausted, muscle cells can still function by anaerobic respiration (“anaerobic” = without oxygen), producing lactate instead of CO2 as the end product. This process creates an “oxygen debt,” because the lactate has to be removed by using more oxygen when the animal comes back to the surface to breathe.

Mysticetes and Baleen

Baleen whales are the toothless whales, characterized by having baleen plates for filtering food from water. Living species of Mysticeti have tooth buds only during the embryonic phase, which are later reabsorbed by the time they are born. The evolution of the Mysticetes, as evidenced by the fossil record, was a gradual one that involved the transition from toothed, to teeth along with baleen, and finally to strictly baleen.

Baleen whales are generally larger than toothed whales, and females are larger than males. Baleen whales have two blowholes, surrounded by a fleshy ridge that keeps water away while the whale breathes.

Baleen whales are not known to echolocate, but all baleen whales use sound for communication.

Baleen whales are carnivorous filter-feeders; they consume vast numbers of small organisms. Baleen whales typically seek out fish or zooplankton, swim through it, either open-mouthed or gulping, and filter the prey from the water using their baleen. Gray whales are bottom feeders, scooping up sediment from the ocean floor and filtering it for small crustaceans. For more information on feeding strategies see the next page and page 65. Gray whale. Photo: Jim Borrowman, Straitwatch Mysticetes In Our Area The mysticetes in San Diego area can include: blue whales, fin whales, humpbacks, gray whales, and minke whales. The blue whale is the largest animal on earth followed by the fin whale. The minke whale is the smallest baleen whale. The humpback, with its long pectoral fins, is about the same size as the gray whale (shown on the bottom). This collage shows the relative differences in size.

Minke whale

Humpback whale Blue whale

Gray whale Fin whale

Size comparison of the mysticetes in our area. The gray whale averages 45 feet long. Unlike the other whales in this picture, the gray whale is not a rorqual.

Baleen Baleen is a strong, yet flexible material made out of keratin, a protein that is the same material that makes up human hair and fingernails. Baleen allows baleen whales to take advantage of the most abundant food sources in the ocean: small schooling fish, krill and even smaller zooplankton. Baleen consists of several hundred individual plates that hang down from the upper jaw in two racks, one on each side of the mouth. The suborder’s scientific name, Mysticeti, comes from the Greek word for “moustache”. The inner surface of the baleen features a dense fringed mat of hair, which serves as a strainer.

A whale's baleen plates play the most important role in its filter-feeding process. In order to feed, a baleen whale opens its mouth widely and takes in large volumes of water, together with dense shoals of prey. It then partly shuts its mouth and presses its tongue against its upper jaw, forcing the water to pass out sideways through the baleen, thus straining out the prey that it can then swallow. Feeding Strategies The three main families of Mysticetes use different feeding techniques.

Balaenidae (bowhead and right whale) are Skimmers. Blue whale gulp or lunge feeding They swim slowly with their mouth slightly open, filtering out tiny plankton from a steady flow of water.

Balaenopteridae (Rorquals) are Lunge Feeders, or Gulpers, characterized by a large number of throat grooves. They lunge at a swarm of krill or small fish at great speed, open their jaws wide, letting the throat pleats expand accordion-style, and take in a huge volume of water and prey in one gulp.

Gray Whales are mainly Bottom Feeders. On their main feeding grounds in the Arctic they swim on their side (mostly the right side), taking in large amounts of sediment rich in benthic (bottom dwelling) prey like amphipods and tube worms. They squeeze out the mud through their rather coarse baleen, and swallow the food.

During migration, gray whales have also been observed to use the other techniques, feeding on small fish or plankton.

Gray whale skimming for krill off Monterey. Photo: Daniel Blanchetta Gray whale bottom feeding.

Other Marine Life You May See Kelp Forests On most Hornblower trips you may see the kelp beds that grow just offshore from Point Loma. It is a vast expanse of what people often refer to as a plant, but is actually a form of brown macroalgae (Chromalveolates). You may come across individual pieces of kelp floating in the water.

Giant Kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is Southern California’s most important seaweed, forming giant underwater beds that reach up to the surface from as far down as 90 feet. Giant kelp is Giant kelp (internet image) from: considered the fastest growing organism, capable http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/kelplives.html of increasing in length 1 to 2 feet per day.

Macrocystis has long stem-like stipes that rise to the surface from a large mound-like holdfast anchored in the sand or rocks. Along their length, the stipe holds many broad, wrinkled blades, each with an air- filled bladder, or float, at the base. The floats keep the blade upright.

Sometimes you will see a different, rather striking species of kelp floating at the surface, the Elkhorn Kelp or Bullwhip (Pelagophycus sp.). It has a single gas-filled float the size of a tennis, or baseball, with two antler-like extensions that bear long, broad blades.

Kelp favors nutrient-rich, cool, clear water conditions through which sunlight penetrates easily. They use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into the carbohydrates that provide them nutrients through the process of photosynthesis. Kelp grows most successfully in regions of upwelling (regions where the ocean layers overturn, bringing cool, nutrient-rich bottom waters to the surface) and regions with continuously cold, high-nutrient waters.

Kelp serves many functions within the marine ecosystem, including: food, shelter, attaching surface, nursery, and hunting grounds for predators. Kelp forests are the ‘producers,’ and are grazed upon by sea urchins and some snails. Filter feeders, larval stages of many different species, and scavengers (hermit crabs, anemones, certain kinds of worms, snails and fish, take shelter in the kelp bed. Sea stars, lobsters, octopus and fish, in turn, prey upon these organisms.

Historic kelp beds in Southern California have been reduced by more than 80 percent during the past 100 years. Though natural disturbances, such as heavy storms and El Niño events have taken their toll, the kelp beds have not been able to recover due to human impacts from storm water and other pollution, sedimentation from coastal development and over-fishing of the predators that balance out kelp-grazing sea urchins.

Source: Mann, K.H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science 182: 975-981.

Ocean Sunfish— Mola mola Family: Molidae

The ocean sunfish or Mola mola, is the heaviest known bony fish in the world. It has an average adult weight of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). The species is native to tropical and temperate waters around the globe. It resembles a fish head with a tail, and its main body is flattened laterally.

Ocean sunfish live on a diet consisting mainly of jellies. Females can produce more eggs than any other known vertebrate. Sunfish fry resemble miniature pufferfish, with large pectoral fins, a tail fin, and body spines uncharacteristic of adult sunfish. Mola mola. Photo: Per-Ola Norman. http://blog.nature.org/science/2014/04/02/ Adult ocean sunfish are vulnerable to few natural predators, but sea lions, killer whales, and sharks will consume them. Among humans, sunfish are considered a delicacy in some parts of the world and are frequently caught in gillnets.

In the course of its evolution, the caudal fin (tail) of the sunfish disappeared, to be replaced by a lumpy pseudotail. Without a true tail to provide thrust for forward motion and equipped with only small pectoral fins, the ocean sunfish relies on its long, thin dorsal and anal fins for propulsion, driving itself forward by moving these fins from side to side.

Sunfish are native to the temperate and tropical waters of every ocean in the world. Contrary to the perception that sunfish spend much of their time basking at the surface, adult sunfish actually spend a large portion of their lives submerged at depths greater than 200 m (660 ft). Surface basking behavior, in which a sunfish swims on its side, presenting its largest profile to the sun, may be a method of "thermally recharging" following dives into deeper, colder water.

Sources: "Mola mola program - Preliminary results". Large Pelagics Research Lab. January 2006. Archived from the original on 2015-07-20. "Ocean sunfish". Monterey Bay Aquarium. Retrieved 2015-07-20. Rowan, Juliet. (November 24, 2006). "Tropical sunfish visitor as big as a car". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 2015-07-20. "Strange tail of the sunfish". The Natural History Museum. Retrieved 2015-07-20. Thys, Tierney. "Molidae Descriptions and Life History". OceanSunfish.org. Retrieved 2015-07-20. Thys, Tierney (2003-11-30). "Tracking Ocean Sunfish, Mola mola with Pop-Up Satellite Archival Tags in California Waters". OceanSunfish.org. Retrieved 2015-07-20.

NOTES

Section 3: Eastern Pacific Gray Whale Source: Marine Mammals of the World

Classification Class: Mammalia Order: Cetacea Suborder: Mysticeti Family: Eschrichtiidae Species: Eschrichtius robustus

Image: Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society

Gray Whale Migration The gray whale undertake one of the longest annual migrations of any mammal, traveling some 5,000– 6,000 miles from its northern feeding grounds and travel during the winter months, to the warm waters of the lagoons on the Pacific side of Baja California to give birth and mate. With changing ice conditions, gray whales have been found feeding farther north, which can increase the length of their migration. Only humpback whales make similar extensive migrations. The gray whale is the sole species in the family Eschrichtiidae, although recent genetic evidence has suggested that it is closely related to the Balaenopteridae (the rorquals). Whalers called the gray whale the “devil fish” for its ferocity, yet today the species is known for its curious approaches to boats, and in some areas, it is the focus of a major whale-watching industry. Once found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, the gray whale became extinct in the Atlantic a few hundred years ago and now occurs only in the North Pacific. There are no Southern populations, and no evidence exists that gray whales ever lived south of the equator. The family and generic names refer to the Danish zoology professor Daniel Eschricht; robustus means “strong” or “oaken” in Latin.

Description The gray whale has a large body with mottled gray coloration (calves are darker than adults). The head is narrow and triangular when seen from above. The mouth appears slightly arched and contains 130 to 180 creamy or yellowish baleen plates per side. The baleen is approximately 10 inches (25.4 cm) long, with coarse bristles on the inner fringe. Instead of the many ventral pleats of rorqual whales, the gray whale has two to five deep longitudinal creases along the underside of the head. Gray whales have no dorsal fin, but rather a hump followed by 6 to 12 bumps, or “knuckles,” along the top of the caudal

peduncle. Barnacles and whale lice grow in various places on the body and are usually most obvious on the head. The broad mottled flukes are frequently raised during a deep dive. The gray whale’s blow can be either columnar or heart-shaped. Range and Habitat Gray whales occur most frequently in shallow coastal waters. Two populations of gray whales exist in the Eastern and Western North Pacific. The Eastern population (often called the California stock) migrates from summer feeding grounds in the Bering, Chukchi, and Western Beaufort Seas to its winter breeding and calving areas off the coast of Baja California. Much of this migration is along the coast and can be easily observed between November and April. In winter, concentrations of gray whales, notably females with newborn calves, utilize lagoons on the Baja California peninsula. Most Eastern Pacific gray whales migrate in spring to the Bering Sea and farther north, some summer in lower latitudes off British Columbia, Alaska, and California.

In the Western North Pacific, a small remnant population (known as the Korean stock or Western Pacific gray whale) spends the summer in the Sea of Okhotsk, where a feeding ground has recently been identified off Northeastern Sakhalin Island. The migratory destination of this population in winter is unknown, but most of these whales probably pass through the Sea of Japan and may breed and calve in tropical waters off Southern China. In recent years, NOAA researchers have found some Western Pacific Gray whales in the lagoons of Baja. The historical range of the now-extinct North Atlantic population is unclear but appears to have included coastal waters of Europe and Iceland, as well as the eastern coast of North America. Similar Species The humpback whale, which occurs throughout the North Pacific, is black rather than gray, with a dorsal fin (although in a few animals this is so small as to be almost absent) and very long flippers. The sperm whale occurs throughout the gray whale’s range. It lacks the gray whale’s mottled coloration and abundant barnacles and whale lice, and is less likely to inhabit coastal waters.

Sperm whale Humpback whale

North Pacific right whale Bowhead whale The ranges of both the North Pacific right whale and the bowhead may overlap with the gray whale in high-latitude feeding areas; however, both these species are black and more rotund, with a strongly bowed mouth line, a smooth back, and no knuckles on the dorsal ridge.

Behavior Gray whales are typical of the mysticetes in that they do not form lasting family associations. They frequently travel alone or in small groups, although large aggregations can occur on both feeding and breeding grounds. Migrating gray whales move steadily in one direction, breathing and diving in predictable patterns. Radio tracking studies have shown that swim speeds increase as the northbound whales approach their summer feeding grounds. Breaching is relatively common in this species, although its function is unclear. Gray whales also regularly spyhop (raising its head out of the water as the whale at right) and can exhibit considerable curiosity toward boats.

Reproduction Photo Courtesy of Joe McKenna Both breeding and calving are strongly seasonal. Females calve at intervals of two or three years. The gestation period is estimated to last 12 to 13 months, with some evidence that there is no fetal growth during the last month of pregnancy. Calves are born in winter and become independent by seven to nine months old, prior to the fall migration south. Most mating occurs in warm waters during winter, where groups consisting of a single female and multiple males are often observed. These groups, in combination with the relatively large size of the male testes, suggest that sperm competition is an important feature of the gray whale’s breeding behavior. Food and Foraging The gray whale’s main prey is benthic amphipods, which they filter from the ocean sediment in the shallow shelf of the Arctic seas. Foraging whales often leave long trails of mud in their wake on the ocean bottom. However, one of the reasons that gray whales have survived as a species is their ability to take advantage of other available food sources. Gray whales have been observed skimming the water surface for krill, and feeding along the rocky headlands on swarming mysids (small shrimp-like organisms).

Primary food source for the gray whale in the arctic is the amphipod Ampelisca macrocephala http://zooclub.ru/photo/ampelisca_macrocephala/sim_7081

Photo of krill, believed to be the main food of blue whales, Meganyctiphanes norvegica by Øystein Paulsen - MAR-ECO. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/

Status and Conservation Gray whales were heavily exploited in the North Pacific beginning in the 19th century, and the status of two extant populations differs greatly. The eastern population has been a model of stock recovery since its protection in 1937 and is now so large that it was removed from the U.S. government’s list of endangered species in 1994. [Estimated population as of 2014 is 20,000 per NOAA.] The apparent starvation of many eastern Gray Whales in the late 1990s suggests that the population has met or exceeded the “carrying capacity” of this environment1. The population is the target of a small aboriginal hunt off the Chukotka Peninsula in Russia.

The protected western North Pacific population is one of the most critically endangered whale stocks in the world, with perhaps only 150 individuals remaining. Considered extinct as recently as the 1970s, subsequent surveys found the remnant population, which feeds in the Sea of Okhotsk. The Western Pacific gray whale was hunted commercially by Korea as late as 1966, and surviving animals continue to be threatened by entanglement in fishing gear, oil and gas exploration on their feeding grounds off Sakhalin Island, and even occasional exploitation by Japanese fishermen. If Western Pacific gray whales rely on coastal areas for calving (as perhaps they do in Southern China), they may also be in danger from development and other threats. The North Atlantic population appears to have been in existence as recently as the 17th century. Whether early, unrecorded coastal whaling was wholly responsible for or merely hastened the extinction of an already declining population remains unknown.

Source: Guide to Marine Mammals of the World; National Audubon Society; Alfred Knopf, 2002. History of the Eastern Pacific Gray Whale Population 1855 Charles Scammon discovers Mexican lagoon, “Ojo de Liebre,” where gray whales spend the winter and give birth. Heavy hunting of whales, including mothers with calves, in all four Mexican breeding lagoons.

1870 Gray Whale population down to about 4,000; hunting is no longer profitable. Population recovers somewhat.

1914 Norwegian factory ships resume hunting in Magdalena.

1937 International treaty for protection of whales, but hunt continues by Norway, Russia, Japan and America.

1946 New international treaty for protection of gray whales, sightings from Scripps in La Jolla.

1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act gives the gray whale protection.

1973 Endangered Species Act, gray whale declared an endangered species.

1994 Removed from Endangered Species List. Population estimated at 18,000.

2014 Estimate is 20,000, according the NOAA research studies.

1 The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment.

Baleen Whale Senses Hearing

 Baleen whales have well-developed hearing, which is valuable in the poorly lit ocean environment where vision is less dependable. Portions of the baleen whale brain dedicated to hearing suggest this sense is excellent.  Baleen whales probably hear very well in the low frequency ranges but may lack the ability to hear high frequency sounds. Baleen whales react to noises such as boat engines and cameras clicking Photo Courtesy of Leslie Rapp underwater.  Baleen whales have a small external ear opening on each side of the head. Each opening leads to a narrow auditory canal that is completely closed by a waxy substance and reduced to a strand of fibrous connective tissue. The effectiveness of sound reception and hearing through the ear canal is unknown. The middle and inner ear follow the basic mammalian ear structure. More research is needed to determine the exact mechanism for sound reception in baleen whales.  A foam substance that contains air surrounds the ear bones. Air stops sound waves traveling through water and living tissues. Many scientists believe that this foam acoustically isolates the ears, enabling a whale to tell from which direction a sound comes.

Eyesight

 Because the ocean is often dim, baleen whales have adaptations for vision in low-light conditions. o The baleen whale eye is flattened from front to back, and the cornea is less curved. This lowers the refractive index and allows better vision in low-light conditions. o The tapetum lucidum, a reflective layer behind the retina, reflects light back to the retina a second time. This takes advantage of what light exists at depth.  Baleen whales’ eyes are constantly bathed in water. There are no tear ducts, but glands at the outer cornea and eyelids secrete an oily substance that lubricates and cleans the eyes.  Baleen whales are nearsighted in air.  Retinas of baleen whales’ eyes contain mostly rods, cells that gather more low intensity light. Cone cells, which are responsible for color vision, are much less abundant. Tactile

Baleen whales have sensitive skin, especially on the head and flukes.

Taste

The sense of taste has not been well studied in baleen whales. Nerves and the area of the brain concerned with taste are present. There are taste buds on the base of the tongue, but their importance is unknown.

Smell

Olfactory nerves and bulbs are present in baleen whales during the fetal stage, but they are greatly reduced in the adult brain. Scientists have yet to discover whether such nerves and bulbs are functional.

Feeding

Although other whales may occasionally sample the ocean floor for foraging, the gray whale is the only baleen whale known to regularly forage from the ocean floor. It rolls onto its right side (though some individuals are “left-handed” and roll to the left) and sucks up sediment containing benthic amphipods from the sea floor; the water and silt are sieved out through the baleen with the help of the tongue. Consequently, the plates on the right side are usually shorter and more worn than those on the left. The right side of the whale’s head is often scarred for the same reason.

In addition to bottom feeding, the gray whale is also capable of feeding on pelagic prey by surface skimming and engulfing. Sometimes in the Baja lagoons they will orient themselves against a tidal current or rip and allow the water to funnel planktonic food items to them.

Thus with three modes of feeding, benthic suction, engulfing, and skimming, the gray whale has perhaps a greater range of foraging techniques than any of the other great whales. This diversity may lend the gray whale greater dietary flexibility, lessening its reliance on any single prey item, and consequently providing it with greater resilience with regard to changes in its food resources. Whale “Numbers” to Remember Please remember when conveying the below information, use ranges of numbers. There are always individual variations just like in humans.

Adult Gray Whale  Length: up to 50 ft.; average is 45 ft.  Weight: up to 45 tons; average 35 tons  Width of fluke: ~9 ft.

Gray Whale Calf  Length: 14–16 ft.  Weight: 1500–2000 pounds

Migration is impacted by weather conditions; therefore, these figures are averages  5,000–6,000 miles one way, 10,000—12,000 miles round trip (changes in ice melt may increase length of migration as whales feed farther north)  Cruising speed: 3–4 knots per hour (5 knots is 5.8 mph)  Distance traveled per day: 80–100 miles  Duration of trip, one way: 2–2½ months

Reproduction  Sexual maturity reached at 5-11 years; males when they are just over 36 ft. long; females when they are around 38 ft. long  Gestation: 12–13.5 months  1 calf every 2-3 years  Milk contains approximately 50% fat, and calves drinks approximately 50 gallons a day

 Nurses for 9 months, weight almost doubles and grows to about 23 ft. long during that time

Diving and Feeding  Typical dive depths up to 200 ft.  Average dive lasts 5 minutes, maximum 20 minutes  Blow (spout) after dive is 15 ft. high, 100 gallons of moist air  Baleen used in feeding process; 130–180 plates on each side, 10 inches long  Feeding grounds, Bering Sea: 165 ft. deep, Chukchi Sea: 225 ft. deep  Amount of food consumed while in the feeding grounds: 2000–4000 lbs. per day depending on the weight of the whale.Photo Courtesy of Diane Cullins (Whales consume about 6% of their body weight a day.)

Age Estimated at 60–70 years

Estimated Population 20,000 (NOAA data from 2014)

Other Whales, for Comparison  Sperm whales dive 3000 ft. deep for up to an hour (they feed on squid)  Right whales have 205–270 baleen plates, 12 ft. long (preferred by whale hunters because their baleen was prized, they were coastal and easy to catch, and they floated when dead)  Blue whale, the largest whale (and largest known animal), for comparison o Length: Up to 110 ft. in the Southern Hemisphere; average is 85 ft. in the Northern Hemisphere o Weight: Up to 150 tons; average is 120 tons

Barnacles and Whale Lice Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Subphylum: Crustacea

Many baleen whales, including gray whales, have large colonies of small invertebrates that coexist commensally with whales. Commensalism is an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm. Barnacles, and whale lice (in particular), have often been called parasites. There is no conclusive evidence that these A gray whale barnacle surrounded by whale lice. organisms cause any harm to whales, and no we longer refer to them as parasites.

Barnacles and whale lice are small crustaceans, related to shrimp and lobsters. Barnacles spend the majority of their lives on whales, while whale lice spend their entire lives on whales. These crustaceans have a very different life cycle and mode of living, but both take advantage of life on the mobile gray whale.

Gray whale barnacle (Cryptolepas rhachianecti) Gray whale barnacles have evolved a life cycle that is closely tied to the gray whale migration. The barnacles reproduce when the whales are in the warmer southern waters off the coast of Mexico, when the whales are inside the secure and calm lagoons. By reproducing inside the enclosed lagoons, the free-swimming barnacle larvae have thousands of times more opportunity to successfully locate a viable host animal.

Barnacles are hermaphrodites (producing both eggs and sperm), and can mate with any nearby barnacle. The eggs are brooded inside the mantle of the barnacle for a short period of time. The eggs develop into a larva, called a Nauplius. These nauplii are released into the lagoons where they are free swimmers and become part of the planktonic soup.

The free swimming nauplii have three pairs of segmented appendages on their head, which they use for swimming and feeding, a single “nauplius eye” and an armor-like carapace. During a period of 8–14 days they go through several molts, and then they turn into the Cypris larval stage, which is enclosed in a bivalve shell, and stops feeding. The cypris larva attaches itself to the skin of a whale by means of a cement produced on its first pair of antennae.

The attached cypris now metamorphoses into a juvenile barnacle: it secretes the calcareous (containing calcium carbonate) plates typical of adult barnacles and rotates its body so that its six pairs of feathery legs (called cirri) emerge through an opening between plates, catching food particles.

Whale Lice—Cyamid Amphipods (Cyamus spp) Whale Lice are Crustaceans (not insects!) in the order of Amphipoda, the same taxonomic group that includes the “Amphipods”, which are the main prey of gray whales. Whale lice are much more widely distributed among whales and even dolphins than barnacles. Most belong to the genus Cyamus; some are host-specific.

Cyamus scammoni and Cyamus keesleri are specific to gray whales, (see photo on next page). Cyamus scammoni is the largest and most abundant. Whale lice are scavengers and feed on the flaking skin found around barnacles, slits, folds and wounds. They appear to clean up dead skin rather than cause any irritation. Since whale lice are mobile (not attached like a barnacle) they are probably transferred between the whales as they touch, e.g. during mating or nursing young.

Unlike barnacles, who release free swimming larvae into the ocean, whale lice females brood their young in a pouch-like structure on the underside of their bodies. The young whale lice, only about 0.5mm in length but already resembling an adult, develop in a brood pouch, crawling in and out, until they finally leave after 2–3 months. This assures the young whale lice of their natural habitat (whale skin).

In Cyamus scammoni there is sexual dimorphism, the females rarely get over a half-inch in length, whereas males can be over an inch long.

Marsupium Gills  Marsupium 

Source: marinebio.net (left to right) Cyamus scammoni (female ventral view showing brood pouch (marsupium), C. scammoni (male dorsal view), C. scammoni (male ventral view), and C. kessleri.

NOTES

Section 4: Rorquals Class: Mammalia Order: Cetacea Suborder: Mysticeti Family: Balaenopteridae

Rorquals are one of four families of mysticetes, the baleen whales, which include the blue whale, humpback whale, fin whale, Bryde's whale, sei whale, and minke whale. They are characterized by a variable number of throat grooves, or pleats, that extend from the chin to the navel. Mysticetes evolved a unique feature, baleen, in order to take advantage of the most abundant food sources in the ocean; small schooling fish and zooplankton. Baleen is an elaborate filtration system in the mouth. During feeding, the pleats expand like an accordion, allowing the whale to take in huge amounts of food-rich water.

Note: All information in this section is from the American Cetacean Society. Blue Whale— Balaenoptera musculus The blue whale is the largest animal ever known to have lived. On land, an animal the size of a blue whale would be crushed by its own weight without the support of large heavy bones. Because its body is supported by water, as a sea animal, the need for heavy bones to support its weight disappeared. This, plus the availability of a large food supply, has made it possible for the blue whale to reach such an enormous size. The blue whale makes deep and rumbling sounds that can be felt as much as heard. These low- frequency sounds travel long distances through water, allowing blue whales to communicate with each other over hundreds of miles of ocean.

Physical Description The blue whale has a huge body, long, somewhat tapered, and streamlined, with the head making up less than one-fourth of its total body length. Its rostrum (upper part of the head) is very broad and flat and almost U-shaped, with a single ridge that extends just forward of the blowholes to the tip of the snout. Its blowholes are contained in a large, raised "splash guard", and the blow is tall and straight and over 20 feet (6 meters) high. Its body is smooth and relatively free of parasites, but a few barnacles attach themselves to the edge of the fluke and occasionally to the tips of the flippers and to the dorsal fin. There are 55-68 ventral grooves, or pleats, extending from the lower jaw to near the navel.

Color The blue whale is a mottled blue-gray color that appears aquamarine underwater. The mottling pattern is highly variable and can be used to identify individuals. The underside of its flippers may be a lighter color or white, while the underside of the fluke is dark. The blue whale acquires microorganisms called diatoms in the cold waters of the Antarctic and North Pacific and North Atlantic, which give the underside of its body a yellowish green caste.

Fins and Fluke The dorsal (top) fin is small and triangular, or falcate (curved) in shape, and is located three-fourths of the way back on the body. The fin measures only one foot (30 cm) at its highest point, though its size and shape are highly variable. Flippers are tapered and relatively short, about 12% of the total body length. The flukes are broad and triangular; the rear edge is smooth with a slight median notch.

Length and Weight Surface characteristics In the Northern Hemisphere maximum length 98 ft. (average between 75-80 ft). In the Southern Hemisphere they average between 90-100 feet. Blue whales can weigh over 100 tons (99,800 kg). Females are larger than males of the same age, the largest perhaps weighing as much as 150 tons (136,000 kg).

Feeding Blue whales are thought to feed almost exclusively on krill. During the summer feeding season blue whales probably consume 4 tons or more each day. There are 260-400 baleen plates per side that are black with a coarse inner fringe. The plates measure about 20 inches (51 cm) in length toward the front of the mouth and about 40 inches (102 cm) at the rear. They feed by lunging into prey schools.

Mating and Breeding Recent research indicates that blue whales reach sexual maturity between the ages of 6–10 years, or when males average about 74 feet (23 m) and females are about 79 feet (24 m). Calves are born at intervals of 2 to 3 years, and gestation takes approximately 11-12 months. Calves are 23–27 feet (7–8.2 m) long at birth and 3 tons (2,722 kg). Calves nurse for 7 to 8 months and are weaned when they reach 52 feet (16 m) in length. At that time they weigh about 23 tons (20,900 kg). During the nursing period, calves consume 100 gallons (379 liters) of the fat-rich mother's milk each day, gain 200 pounds a day, or 8 pounds an hour, and grow 1.5 inches in length a day.

Distribution and Migration Blue whales may be found in all oceans of the world. They migrate to tropical-to-temperate waters during winter months to mate and give birth to calves. They can feed throughout their range, in polar, temperate, or even tropical waters. During the summer months, blue whales can feed off the coast of California.

Natural History Though they may be found singly or in small groups, it is more common to see blue whales in pairs. They are sometimes seen in larger groups and loosely defined concentrations of 50–60 have been observed. They are fast, strong swimmers, capable of reaching 30 mph (48.3 km/hr.) when alarmed, but they usually cruise along at about 12 mph (19.3 km/hr.).

Status Because of their enormous size and speed, blue whales were safe from early whalers, who could not pursue them in open boats with hand harpoons. But in 1868 a Norwegian, Sven Foyn, revolutionized the whaling industry with the invention of the exploding harpoon gun and by using steam and diesel powered factory ships and catcher boats. He also perfected the technique of inflating dead whales with air so they wouldn't sink after being harpooned. The whaling industry began to focus on blue whales after 1900. A single 90-foot blue whale could yield up to 120 barrels of oil, and thousands of blue whales

were killed. The slaughter peaked in 1931 when over 29,000 were killed in one season. After that, blue whales became so scarce that the whalers turned to other species. Belatedly, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) banned all hunting of blue whales in 1966 and gave them worldwide protection. Recovery has been extremely slow, and only in the last few years have there been signs that their numbers may be increasing. Pre-whaling population estimates were more than 350,000 blue whales, but up to 99% of blue whales were killed during whaling efforts. Presently, there are an estimated 5–10,000 blue whales in the Southern Hemisphere, and only around 3–4,000 in the Northern Hemisphere. Fin Whale— Balaenoptera physalus The fin, or finback whale is second only to the blue whale in size and weight. Among the fastest of the great whales, it is capable of bursts of speed of up to 23 mph (37 km/hr) leading to its description as the "greyhound of the oceans." Its most unusual characteristic is the asymmetrical coloring of the lower jaw, which is white or creamy yellow on the right side, and mottled black on the left side. Fin whales are found in all oceans of the world, though they seem to prefer temperate and polar waters to tropical seas.

Physical Description The fin whale is long, sleek, and streamlined, with a V-shaped head, which is flat on top. A single ridge extends from the blowhole to the tip of the rostrum (upper jaw). There is a series of 50–100 pleats or grooves on the underside of its body extending from under the lower jaw to the navel.

Color The fin whale is light gray to brownish-black on its back and sides. Two lighter "colored" chevrons begin midline behind the blowholes and slant down the sides towards the fluke (tail) before turning and ending right behind the eye. The underside of its body, flippers, and fluke are white. The lower jaw is gray or black on the left side and creamy white on the right side. This asymmetrical coloration extends to the baleen plates as well, and is reversed on the tongue.

Fins and Fluke The fin whale has a prominent, slightly falcate (curved) dorsal fin located far back on its body. Its flippers are small and tapered, and its fluke is wide, pointed at the tips, and notched in the center.

Length and Weight Adults measure up to 79 feet (24 m) in the northern hemisphere, and 89 feet (26.8 m) in the southern hemisphere. Females are slightly larger than males. Weight for both sexes is between 50–70 tons (45,360–63,500 kg). Surface characteristics

Feeding Fin whales feed mainly on krill and schooling fish. They have been observed circling schools of fish at high speed, rolling the fish into compact balls then turning on their right side to engulf the fish. Their color pattern, including their asymmetrical jaw color, may somehow aid in the capture of such prey. They can consume up to 2 tons (1,814 kg) of food a day. There are anywhere from 262–473 baleen

plates, and the baleen on the left side of the mouth has alternating bands of creamy-yellow and blue- gray color. On the right side, the forward 1/3 section of the plates are a creamy-yellow. The plates can measure up to 30 inches (76 cm) in length and 12 inches (30 cm) in width.

Mating and Breeding Adult males reach sexual maturity at about 6–10 years of age. As in some other whales, sexual maturity is reached before physical maturity. Females usually give birth to a single calf every two or three years and gestation is approximately 11–12 months. Length at birth is 14–20 feet (4.3–6.0 m) and weight is 2 tons (1,814 kg). Calves nurse for 6–8 months and are weaned when they are 30–40 feet (9–12 m) in length.

Distribution and Migration Fin whales are found in all oceans of the world. They may migrate to subtropical waters for mating and calving during the winter months and to the colder areas of the Arctic and Antarctic for feeding during the summer months; although recent evidence suggests that during winter, fin whales may be dispersed in deep ocean waters.

Natural History Fin whales are found most often alone, but groups of 3–7 individuals are common, and associations of larger numbers or concentrations may occur in some areas at times. Because their powerful sounds can carry vast distances, fin whales may stay in touch with each other over long distances. The fin whale's blow is tall and shaped like an inverted cone, and the dive sequence is 5–8 blows, approximately 70 seconds apart before a long dive. They rarely raise their flukes as they begin their dive, which can be as deep as 1,800 feet (550 m).

Status The fin whale's speed, plus the fact that they prefer the vastness of the open sea, gave them almost complete protection from the early whalers. With modern whaling methods, however, finback whales became easy victims. As blue whale populations became depleted, the whaling industry turned to the smaller, still abundant fin whales as a replacement. Between 1935 and 1965, as many as 30,000 fin whales were slaughtered each year. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) placed them under full protection in 1966 beginning with the North Pacific population. Precise estimates are unavailable today, but it is thought that present populations are about 40,000 in the northern hemisphere and 15,000– 20,000 in the southern hemisphere, just a small percentage of the original population levels.

Minke Whale— Balaenoptera acutorostrata The minke (pronounced mink-ey) whale, like all the rorquals, the minke is a fast swimmer, capable of reaching speeds of 18–24 knots (16–21 mph). The minke can be curious, and has been known to approach ships, even at times keeping up with moving vessels. Often, however, minkes spend relatively little time at the surface. It may be hard to see a minke at sea because its blow is rarely visible and it tends to disappear quickly after exhaling. Since it is relatively small, it may be hidden in a choppy sea. Minke distribution is widespread, ranging from sub-tropical to polar waters.

Physical Description The minke whale is the smallest member of the rorqual family. One of its most distinctive features is the narrow, triangular rostrum (upper jaw), which is proportionally shorter than in other rorquals. A single ridge extends from the tip of the rostrum to the blowhole. The minke has 280 to 300 yellowish-white baleen plates, usually no more than 11 inches in length. Its body is slender and streamlined. Like all rorquals, the minke has a series of 50 to 70 ventral grooves, or pleats, that expand during feeding.

Color The minke is counter-shaded-black to dark gray on top, white below. Some minkes have a light-colored chevron on the back behind the head. Two areas of lighter gray appear on each side: one behind the flippers and another below and forward of the dorsal fin. Distinctive to minke whales outside of the Antarctic is a white band on each flipper. The band is usually absent in Antarctic minkes, although some show an irregular banding pattern.

Fins and Fluke The dorsal fin of the minke is tall and falcate (curved), and is located two-thirds of the way back on the body. Its flippers are slender and pointed at the tips. Flukes are broad, up to one-fourth of the body length, pointed at the tips, and notched in the center.

Length and Weight Adult males average about 26 feet (8 m), while adult females average 27 feet (8.2 m). Both males and females weigh about 10 Surface characteristics tons. Both sexes are slightly larger in the southern hemisphere.

Feeding Minke whales feed primarily on krill in the southern hemisphere and on small schooling fish (capelin, cod, herring, pollock) or krill in the northern hemisphere. They will also eat copepods (small crustaceans) in certain areas.

Mating and Breeding Sexual maturity is reached at 7 or 8 years in the northern hemisphere. Breeding peaks in summer months. The gestation period is 10–11 months, and calving is thought to occur once every two years on average. Calves are 10 feet (3 m) at birth and weigh 1,000 lbs (450 kg). Minke calves nurse for approximately 6 months.

Distribution and Migration Minkes are among the most widely distributed of all the baleen whales. They occur in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, from tropical to polar waters. Generally, they inhabit warmer waters during winter and travel north to colder regions in summer, with some animals migrating as far as the ice edge. Minkes are frequently observed in coastal or shelf waters, though during winter migration, North Atlantic minke’s may pass through deep water east and northeast of the Lesser Antilles.

Natural History Minkes tend to be solitary animals, though sometimes they are seen traveling in pairs or in small groups of 4 to 6. In the Polar Regions, where food is concentrated, it is common to find larger aggregations of feeding animals in an area. They appear to segregate by age and sex more than other baleen whales. Females remain close to shore, while males are farther out to sea. Some minkes migrate long distances, but others may move only within a restricted area. In some regions, minkes may be found year-round. Their life span is believed to be about 50 years. Killer whales are known to prey on minkes, especially in parts of the Southern Hemisphere. The taxonomy of minke whales is currently in question, and soon there may be three species of minke whales: the Antarctic minke whale (relatively large and lacking a flipper stripe), the dwarf minke (smaller than Antarctic, has a flipper stripe, lives in tropical southern hemisphere waters), and the true minke whale (flipper stripe present, lives in the northern hemisphere).

Status Only in recent decades have whalers taken minke whales to any extent; they were thought to be too small to be a worthwhile catch. But as the larger whale species became depleted, the whalers began to hunt the minke as a replacement. Since the late 1960s and 1970s, Japan, Russia (which has now ceased whaling), and (to some extent) Norway have focused their whaling efforts on minke whales. Scientists are still examining the populations of minke whales in areas where they are harvested, and have discovered that the largest numbers of minke whales are found in the Southern Hemisphere. It is thought that minke populations have increased as they started to eat the food that was previously eaten by the now-depleted large whale species. The present population worldwide is believed to be over a million animals.

Humpback Whale— Megaptera novaeangliae Perhaps the most familiar of the great whales, the humpback whale is best known for its acrobatic displays and its haunting songs. The shape and color pattern on the humpback whale's dorsal fin and flukes are as individual in each animal as are fingerprints in humans. The discovery of this interesting fact changed the course of cetacean research forever, and the new form of research known as "photo- identification," in which individuals are identified, catalogued, and monitored, has led to valuable information on population sizes, migration, sexual maturity, and behavior patterns.

Physical Description The head of a humpback whale is broad and rounded when viewed from above, but slim in profile. The body is not as streamlined as other rorquals, but is quite round, narrowing to a slender peduncle (tail stock). The top of the head and lower jaw has rounded, bump-like knobs, each containing at least one stiff hair. The purpose of these hairs is not known, though they may allow the whale to detect movement in nearby waters. There are between 20– 50 ventral grooves that extend slightly beyond the navel.

Color The body is black on the dorsal (upper) side, and mottled black and white on the ventral (under) side. This color pattern extends to the flukes. When the humpback whale "sounds" (goes into a long or deep dive) it usually throws its flukes upward, exposing the black and white patterned underside. This pattern is distinctive to each whale. The flippers range from all white to all black dorsally, but are usually white ventrally.

Fins and Fluke About 2/3 of the way back on the body is an irregularly shaped dorsal fin. Its flippers are very long, between 1/4 and 1/3 the length of its body, and have large knobs on the leading edge. The flukes (tail), which can be 18 feet (5.5 m) wide, is serrated and pointed at the tips.

Length and Weight Adult males measure 40–48 feet (12.2–14.6 m); adult females measure 45–50 feet (13.7–15.2 m). They weigh 25 to 40 tons (22,680– Surface characteristics 36,287 kg).

Feeding Humpback whales feed on krill and various kinds of small fish. Each whale eats up to 1.5 tons (1,361 kg) of food a day. There are 270–400 fringed baleen plates, which are black and measure about 30 inches (76 cm) in length.

Mating and Breeding Humpback whales reach sexual maturity at 6–10 years of age or when males reach the length of 35 feet (11.6 m) and females reach 40 feet (12 m). Each female typically bears a calf every 2–3 years and the gestation period is 12 months. A humpback whale calf is between 10–15 feet (3–4.5 m) long at birth,

and weighs up to 1 ton (907 kg). It nurses frequently on the mother's rich milk, which has a 45% to 60% fat content. The calf is weaned to solid food when it is about a year old.

Distribution and Migration Found in all of the world’s oceans, most populations of humpback whales follow a regular migration route, summering in the temperate and polar waters for feeding, and wintering in tropical waters for mating and calving. In the Arabian Sea, a year round non-migratory population of humpbacks appears not to follow this general rule.

Natural History At least 3 different species of barnacles are commonly found on both the flippers and the body of the humpback whale. It is also home for a species of whale lice, Cyamus boopis.

Humpback whales are active, acrobatic whales. They can throw themselves completely out of the water (breaching), and swim on their backs with both flippers in the air. They also engage in "tail lobbing" (raising their huge flukes out of the water and then slapping it on the surface) and "flipper slapping" (using their flippers to slap the water). It is possible that these behaviors are important in communication between humpbacks.

Perhaps the most interesting behavior of humpback whales is their "singing." Scientists have discovered that humpback whales sing long, complex "songs". Whales in the North American Atlantic population sing the same song, and all the whales in the North American Pacific population sing the same song. However, the songs of each of these populations and of those in other areas of the world are uniquely different. A typical song lasts from 10–20 minutes, is repeated continuously for hours at a time, and changes gradually from year to year. Singing whales are males, and the songs may be a part of mating behavior.

Status Humpback whales were easy targets for early whalers because they are relatively slow swimmers, and their feeding, mating and calving grounds are close to shore. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) gave them worldwide protection status in 1966, but there were large illegal kills by the Soviets until the 1970's. It is believed they number about 30,000–40,000 at present, or about 30–35% of the original population.

NOTES

Section 5: Odontocetes (Toothed Whales) Source: American Cetacean Society

Class: Mammalia Order: Cetacea Suborder: Odontoceti Family: Delphinidae Subfamily: Delphininae

Species: Delphinus delphis – short-beaked common dolphin Delphinus capensis – long-beaked common dolphin Tursiops truncatus – bottlenose dolphin Lagenorhynchus obliquidens – Pacific white-sided dolphin Grampus griseus – Risso’s dolphin

The Odontocetes, or toothed whales, includes the sperm whale, beaked whales, river dolphins, Belugas and Narwhals, porpoises and ocean dolphins. Worldwide, there are about 10 families, 40 genera, and at least 70 species. In the waters around San Diego, there are five species of dolphins that are all members of the Delphinidae, the largest and most diverse cetacean family, known as the “ocean dolphins”. Ocean dolphins include six subfamilies, 17 genera, and at least 33 species. The five species in our area are part of the large subfamily Delphininae.

General Characteristics  The presence of teeth (vs. baleen)  A single blowhole on the top of their head  A fatty organ, called a melon, which is used to focus sound waves for echolocation Basic Anatomy and Behavior Source: www.tmmsn.org All Delphinidae (ocean dolphins) have undifferentiated conical teeth, though the number and size differ among species. The dolphins off San Diego (subfamily Delphininae) have a curved dorsal fin near the center of the back, and the flukes are cleaved on the rear margin by a notch. The length of the beak is variable; the bottlenose and the two species of common dolphins have distinctive beaks, while the Pacific white-sided and Risso’s dolphins have little to no beak at all. The ocean dolphins in our area primarily eat fish, along with a smaller number of squid and small crustaceans, and some species specialize in eating squid. Ocean dolphins travel in pods, which may number from just a few, to hundreds of individuals in some species. Pods can have a loose social structure, with individuals frequently joining or leaving, and sometimes culminate in megapods of thousands of dolphins traveling and foraging together. Individuals communicate by sound, producing low-frequency whistles, and they also produce high- frequency broadband clicks of 80-220 kHz, which are primarily used for echolocation. Gestation lasts from 10 to 12 months, and results in the birth of a single calf.

Dolphins in Our Region Short-and Long-beaked Common Dolphin—Delphinus delphis and D. capensis The common dolphin throughout history has often been recorded in art and literature. It was recently proposed that two forms of this species, the short- and long-beaked common dolphin, represent two distinct species.

Physical Description Common dolphins are colorful, with a complex crisscross or hourglass color pattern on the side; the long-beaked common dolphin being more muted in color. When looking at the profile of the two common dolphin species, the short-beaked common dolphin has a more rounded melon that meets the beak at a sharp angle, as compared to the long-beaked common dolphin that has a flatter melon that meets the beak at a more gradual angle.

Color Color patterns on the common dolphin are the most elaborate of any cetacean. The back is dark gray-to- black from the top of the head to the tail dipping to a V on the sides below the dorsal fin. The flanks are light gray behind the dorsal fin and yellowish-tan forward of the dorsal fin, forming an hourglass pattern. Its belly is white. There are large dark circles around the eyes connected by a dark line that runs across the head behind the beak and a black stripe runs from the jaw to the flipper.

Fins and Fluke The dorsal fin is triangular-to-falcate (curved). It is pointed and located near the middle of the back and is black-to-light gray in color with a black border. The flippers are long and thin and slightly curved or pointed depending on geographical location. Flukes are thin and pointed at the tips with a slight notch in the center.

Length and Weight Common dolphins can reach lengths of 7.5-8.5 feet (2.3-2.6 m) and weigh as much as 297 lb. (135 kg). The short-beaked common dolphin is relatively heavier, and has a larger dorsal fin and flippers than the long-beaked common dolphin.

Feeding The common dolphin feeds on squid and small schooling fish. In some parts of the world, common dolphins feed at night on the deep scattering layer, which moves towards the water's surface during that time. Common dolphins have been seen working together to herd fish into tight balls. Like many other dolphin species, the common dolphin will sometimes take advantage of human fishing activities (such as trawling), feeding on fish escaping from the nets or discarded by the fishermen.

Mating and Breeding Sexual maturity is reached at 3 to 4 years of age or when they reach 6 to 7 feet in length (1.8 to 2.1 m). Calves are 30 to 34 inches at birth (76 to 86 cm); gestation period is 10 to 11 months.

Distribution and Migration The common dolphin is found in all tropical and warm-temperate waters. The long-beaked common dolphin is found more in coastal waters; the short-beaked common dolphin is found in offshore waters

and is the species that occurs frequently in the eastern tropical Pacific. Both long-beaked and short- beaked common dolphins occur in the Southern California Bight.

Natural History Common dolphins are often found in large pods of hundreds or even thousands. They are extremely active, fast moving, and engage in spectacular aerial behavior. They are noted for riding bow and stern waves of boats, often changing course to bow ride the pressure waves of fast-moving vessels and even large whales. Common dolphins can be frequently seen in association with other marine mammal species.

Status Traditionally, hundreds of thousands of common dolphins have been taken incidentally, along with spinner and pantropical spotted dolphins, in purse seine nets used during tuna fishing operations in the eastern tropical Pacific although these numbers may be improving. Common dolphins also may be caught accidentally in other fishing gear, such as midwater trawls. Turkish and Russian fisherman used to catch large numbers of common dolphins in the Black Sea for meat (to be used for fish meal) and oil. The fishery stopped after the common dolphin numbers became severely depleted (and still is): there are several reports suggesting that the Turkish fishery may have resumed. Many common dolphins are taken in a Japanese small cetacean fishery directly caught in the Mediterranean. Some common dolphins may be taken in Peru for human consumption.

Bottlenose Dolphin—Tursiops truncatus The bottlenose dolphin is perhaps one of the most well known cetaceans, because of its widespread use in marine parks and research facilities. This is the dolphin most frequently seen along the shores of the United States.

Description This is a relatively robust dolphin with a usually short and stubby beak - hence the name "bottlenose". The bottlenose dolphin (like the beluga) has more flexibility in its neck than other oceanic dolphins, because 5 of the 7 neck vertebrae are not fused together as in the other oceanic dolphins. There are 18- 26 pairs of sharp, conical teeth in each side of its jaw.

Color The color of the bottlenose dolphin varies considerably, but generally this dolphin is light gray to slate gray on the upper part of the body shading to lighter sides and pale, pinkish gray on the belly.

Fins and Fluke The dorsal fin is high and falcate (curved) and located near the middle of the back. The flukes are broad and curved with a deep median notch. The flippers are of moderate length and pointed.

Length and Weight Adult length is from 8-12 feet (2.5-3.8 m). These dolphins may weigh as much as 1,430 pounds (650 kg) off Great Britain, though most are much smaller in other parts of the world. Males are significantly larger than females.

Feeding Feeding behaviors are diverse, primarily involving individual prey capture, but sometimes involving coordinated efforts to catch food, feeding in association with human fishing, and chasing fish into mudbanks. An adult bottlenose dolphin may consume 15-30 pounds (8-15 kg) of food each day.

Bottlenose dolphins eat a wide variety of food, including primarily fishes, and sometimes squid, and crustaceans.

Mating and Breeding Males reach sexual maturity at about 10 years. Females reach sexual maturity at about 5-10 years. The gestation period is 12 months. Calving can take place year-round with peaks in some areas during spring and fall. Calves nurse for over a year (12-18 months), and stay with their mothers for 3-6 years learning how to catch fish and other important tasks.

Distribution and Migration Bottlenose dolphins are found worldwide in temperate and tropical waters, absent only from 45 degrees poleward in either hemisphere. They are frequently seen in harbors, bays, lagoons, estuaries, and river mouths. There appear to be two ecotypes: a coastal form and an offshore form. Population density appears to be higher nearshore.

Natural History Based on a number of studies of nearshore populations, bottlenose dolphins seem to live in relatively open societies. Mother and calf bonds and some other associations may be strong, but individuals may be seen from day-to-day with a variety of different associates. Group size is often less than 20 nearshore; offshore groups of several hundred have been seen. Much of what we know of the general biology of dolphins comes from studies of bottlenose dolphins, both in captivity and in the wild.

Status The Marine Mammal Protection Act protects bottlenose dolphins in U.S. waters. Bottlenose dolphins are still generally plentiful in numbers, but are near depletion in some areas. Both incidental and direct exploitation of bottlenose dolphins are known to occur, generally at low to moderate levels. The largest direct kills have traditionally been in the Black Sea, where Russian and Turkish hunters apparently have reduced local populations. Bottlenose dolphins are accidentally caught in a variety of fishing gear, including gill nets, purse seiners used to catch tuna, and shrimp trawls. These dolphins also are occasional victims of harpoon and drive fisheries. Bottlenose dolphins are vulnerable to pollution, habitat alteration, boat collisions, and human disturbance (such as boating). Several die-offs of bottlenose dolphins have occurred. Dolphins with disease symptoms appeared to have elevated levels of PCB's, leading researchers to conclude that pollutants may be playing a role in these events. Preliminary evidence from other studies shows the links between contaminant residues in tissues and impaired immune system function.

Pacific White-sided Dolphin—Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Pacific White-sided dolphins come in two forms: the Atlantic white-sided and the Pacific white-sided. Somewhat similar in appearance, the Atlantic species is larger and more robust than its Pacific counterpart. Both species are avid bow-riders and acrobatic jumpers.

Physical Description The Pacific white-sided dolphin has a short, rounded, thick beak containing 23 to 32 small, rounded slightly curved teeth in each side of the upper and lower jaws. This dolphin is energetic and quite active and is frequently seen leaping, belly flopping, and somersaulting. It is a strong, fast swimmer and enthusiastic bow rider, often staying with moving vessels for extended periods.

Color The Pacific white-sided dolphin has a black back and its sides are light gray with thin, white stripes that extend from above the eye along the sides, widening towards the tail; its belly is white. It has a black beak and lips and a black ring around each eye.

Fins and Fluke Its dorsal fin is tall and sharply hooked, and is located at the center of the back. The leading edge is black and the rear portion is light gray. Its flippers are small and curved and rounded at the tips. Its flukes are notched in the center.

Length and Weight These dolphins reach a length of 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to 2.4 m) and can weigh 300 pounds (150 kg).

Feeding Pacific white-sided dolphins eat squid and small schooling fish such as anchovies, herring, sardines, and hake. It is believed they feed largely at night.

Mating and Breeding Sexual maturity for both sexes is reached when they are 6 feet in length (1.8 m), but this can vary according to geographical location. Length at birth is 31 to 37 inches (80 to 95 cm); gestation period is estimated to be 9 to 12 months.

Distribution and Migration The Pacific white-sided dolphin inhabits temperate, coastal waters in the North Pacific, avoiding both tropical or Arctic waters. Its range extends from Amchitka Island in the Aleutians, to the Gulf of Alaska south along the coast of North America to the tip of Baja California. It is also found off the coast of Asia from the Kuril Islands to Japan. It is abundant in Japanese waters with estimates of 30,000 to 50,000 in that area.

Natural History Pacific white-sided dolphins are often found in large pods of 90 to 100. The pods are made up of animals of both sexes and all ages. They are often seen accompanying other dolphins and large whales. They are considered residents in some parts of their range, notably Monterey Bay and off southern California and northwestern Baja California, and may be joined by transient groups from other areas.

Status This species is no longer commercially hunted in the United States. Some are taken for food in Japan's coastal fishery. They are difficult to catch, however, and the numbers taken are not a threat to the total population in Japanese waters. A few have been captured for display in aquariums, and unknown numbers have been accidentally killed in drift and gill nets. Population figures are unknown.

Risso’s Dolphin—Grampus griseus Risso's dolphins, also known as Grampus, are one of the larger members of the dolphin family. They are usually an offshore dolphin whose inshore appearance is uncommon. In numerous instances though, groups have moved into inshore areas where they have been seen repeatedly over a fixed period of time. Despite this, they are seen with some regularity in Monterey Bay, California, and off British Columbia. They have distinctive body markings and they have only 7 or fewer pairs of teeth in the front of the lower jaw, and typically none in the upper jaw.

Physical Description This is a relatively robust dolphin with a rounded head, similar in shape to the more familiar pilot whale. They have an unusual external vertical crease in the melon (the organ in the rounded head used to direct sonar clicks) that runs from the front of the forehead to the mouth.

Color Adult Risso's dolphins are usually dark gray with extensive white scarring. The scars can be scratches, splotches, or circular marks and, in some animals, can be so extensive that the entire body appears to be white. This scarring may come from bites from other Risso's dolphins, squid bites, or parasites. As calves, their bodies are a uniform light gray, which then darkens to a brownish-gray in juveniles. Risso's dolphins also have a white anchor-shaped patch, similar to pilot whales, on their ventral/chest area (from throat to stomach).

Fins and Fluke The dorsal fin is tall, falcate (curved) and located near the middle of the back. The flukes are broad and curved with a deep median notch. The flippers are relatively long and thin, and pointed almost straight back. The tailstock, or peduncle, is very slender.

Length and Weight Length is typically 10 feet (3 m), although animals have been recorded up to 12.5 feet (3.8 m). Like most dolphins, males are typically slightly larger than females. Weight averages about 650 pounds (300 kg), and large individuals may weigh up to 1100 pounds (500 kg).

Feeding Because of the offshore distribution of this species, primary prey appears to be squid, although they have also been known to feed on a number of fish species. While the size of their squid prey is unknown, squid beaks from species that grow up to 12 feet in length have been found in the stomachs of stranded Risso's dolphins.

Mating and Breeding While the age at which these animals reach sexual maturity is not known, it appears to occur when the dolphins are approximately 8.5 to 9.2 feet in length (2.6-2.8 m) in both sexes, and probably less than 13 years of age. Little is known about calving and breeding, but evidence from the North Atlantic Ocean indicates a summer calving season. Estimated gestation is 13-14 months. Calves are generally 4 to 5 feet long (1.2 - 1.5 m) at birth.

Distribution and Migration Risso's dolphins tend to prefer offshore habitats worldwide in the warm temperate and tropical waters of both hemispheres. They are not known to enter true polar waters, and northern-most records are Newfoundland and the Shetlands (Atlantic), and the Gulf of Alaska (Pacific), while southern ranges are Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and New Zealand. General migrations are not known, although some individuals may shift to cooler waters during the more productive summer season. Regional variation in movement may be related to local environmental changes, especially warm water occurrence, and shift in prey abundance.

Natural History Typical groups of Risso's dolphins are 3-30 animals, although "super-pods" of up to several thousand together have been noted. However, recent studies indicate that groups may be stable, and may consist of related individuals (especially females), although this has yet to be confirmed. They typically travel side by side, and are fairly active. Observations of leaping, spy hopping, fluke slapping, and flipper slapping are common. They are long-lived animals that live an estimated twenty years minimum and possibly up to twice that long. Risso's dolphins also form traveling pods at sea with other dolphin species, and hybrids between Risso's dolphins and bottlenose dolphins have been recorded both in captivity and in the wild.

Status While formerly thought to be rare; this impression probably resulted from the typically offshore distribution. In fact, the species is probably abundant throughout its range, although no exact numbers are known. 13,000–30,000 animals are estimated to occur off of central and northern California. In a few parts of the world, Risso's dolphins are killed for human consumption; until recently, they were commonly found in the open market in Taiwan, and they are part of Japanese drive fisheries for dolphins. In Sri Lanka, they are one of the primary species taken in a gill net and harpoon fishery that may have grown out of selling accidentally netted dolphins. In most areas of the world, however, they are not currently under major threat from direct killing, but may be susceptible to accidental fishing gear entanglement and pollution from coastal development. Dolphins and Echolocation Hearing and echolocation from: The Dolphin Institute (http://www.dolphin-institute.org/ )

The underwater world is filled with sound, providing information on such diverse things as vocalizing schoolmates, shoaling water, and prey locations. In response to the advantages of perceiving and interpreting underwater sounds, the dolphin’s hearing and sound production systems have undergone extensive modifications. The external ears have disappeared, resulting in a more streamlined body shape better suited to rapid swimming. New sound pathways to the inner ear have evolved, including the broad area around the sides of the dolphin’s head and the fat-filled spaces of the lower jaw.

Each of the two inner ears is isolated acoustically from the other, enabling the dolphin to precisely locate the sources of underwater sound. Hearing is remarkably acute throughout a broad range of frequencies, and the dolphin is capable of distinguishing small differences in the frequency (pitch) of sounds. One of the types of sounds produced by dolphins is the whistle, a narrow-band continuous sound that varies in its frequency. Individual dolphins tend to have unique whistle sounds, called “signatures,” and can be easily recognized by other members of its group.

Additionally, the inner ear has been modified to allow for the perception of high-frequency sounds, reaching some ten times or more above the upper limit of adult human hearing. The ability to sense

these high-frequency sounds is vital for the dolphin’s echolocation sense and allows the dolphin to detect very small objects. A series of very short duration, high-intensity, broad-band clicks containing frequencies as high as 120-kHz are projected in a narrow beam from the region of the dolphin’s melon and broadcast in front of the dolphin into the adjoining waters. When the clicks strike an object, echoes are returned and sensed by the dolphin through its special pathways for hearing.

Recent research suggests that these echoes may preserve the spatial structure or shape of the reflecting object and be interpreted by higher center of the dolphin’s brain as an image of the object. This echolocation sense seems to be closely integrated with the dolphin’s visual sense, allowing it to easily relate things heard to things seen.

www2.Hawaii.edu

NOTES

Section 6: Pinnipeds – Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses Sources: Marine Mammal Center and Guide to Marine Mammals of the World

Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Odobenidae (walruses) Family: Otariidae (fur seals and sea lions) Family: Phocidae (true seals)

The term “pinniped” is derived from the Latin pinnipes for “wing- or fin-footed.” The name refers to the family’s modified appendages, which have a fin-like appearance.

All pinnipeds have relatively large bodies adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. The forelimbs and hindlimbs have been modified into paddle- or fin-like structures. Most of these animals live in the ocean but are able to come on land for long periods of time. Millions of years ago, the ancestors of pinnipeds lived on land. These were probably weasel or bear-like animals that spent more and more time in the ocean, and eventually adapted to this marine environment.

There are three families of pinnipeds and each of them is a little different. The Phocidae are the true seals. There are many different kinds of true seals, but you can always recognize them by looking at their ears and flippers. True seals have ear holes, but no external ear flaps. They also have small flippers and move on land by flopping along on their bellies. At sea, they move their rear flippers sideways like a fish’s tail to power themselves along.

The Otariidae includes sea lions and fur seals. You can also Seal on top; Sea Lion on bottom recognize these animals by their flippers and ears. Unlike true Photo Courtesy of Judy Lawrence seals, they have external ear flaps. Their flippers are large, and on land, they are able to bring all four flippers underneath their bodies, and walk on them. In the water, they swim using their front flippers like oars. Fur seals have longer flippers and thicker coats than sea lions.

The only living representative of the Odobenidae is the walrus (L). They have a combination of the traits found in seals and sea lions; like seals they have no external ears, but like sea lions they can rotate their hind flippers forward. Both males and females have tusks and vacuum-like mouths for sucking up shellfish from the ocean floor. Males

have air sacs in their neck that they can inflate to allow them to float as if they were wearing life preservers. They have a bell-like call. Walruses are one of the largest pinnipeds, with males reaching over 3,000 pounds (1,500 kg). They live in the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, in the arctic region. Walruses are protected under U.S. and Canadian laws, but limited hunting by the Inuit people is allowed. Harbor Seal—Phoca vitulina Latin derivation for calf-like seal

Description Harbor seals have spotted coats in a variety of shades from silver-gray to black or dark brown. They reach 5-6 feet (1.7–1.9 m) in length and weigh up to 300 pounds (140 kg). Males are slightly larger than females.

Range and Habitat Harbor seals are found north of the equator in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the northeast Photo Courtesy of Judy Lawrence Pacific, they range from Alaska to Baja California, Mexico. They favor near-shore coastal waters and are often seen at sandy beaches, mudflats, bays, and estuaries.

Mating and Breeding In California, harbor seal pups are born in March and April and weigh about 30 pounds at birth. If born prematurely, harbor seals retain a whitish lanugo coat (which is usually lost before birth). A pup can swim at birth, and will sometimes ride on its mother’s back when tired. Pups make a bleating noise that sounds like “maaaa.” After about four weeks, the pups are weaned. Adult females usually mate and give birth every year. They may live 25 to 30 years.

Behavior Harbor seals spend about half their time on land and half in water, and they sometimes sleep in the water. They can dive to 1,500 feet (457 m) for up to 40 minutes, although their average dive lasts three to seven minutes and is typically shallow. They are opportunistic feeders, eating sole, flounder, sculpin, hake, cod, herring, octopus, and squid.

While harbor seals swim safely in the surf, they will often curiously watch humans walking on beaches. However, they are wary of people while on land, and will rush into the water if approached too closely or disturbed. In fact, if disturbed too often, they have been known to abandon favorite haul-out sites or their pups.

Status The total harbor seal population in the eastern north Pacific is estimated to be 330,000, and in California the estimated population was 40,000 in 1997. They are usually found in small groups, but sometimes occur in numbers of up to 500.

California Sea Lion—Zalophus californianus Derives from the Greek words za =”intensive," and lophus = "crest”, referring to the protruding sagittal crest of the males, which distinguishes members of the genus.

Description California sea lions are known for their intelligence, playfulness, and noisy barking. Their color ranges from chocolate brown in males to a lighter, golden brown in females. Males may reach 1,000 lbs. (more often 850 lbs., or 390 kg) and seven feet (2.1 m) in length. Females grow to 220 lbs. (110 kg) and up to six feet (1.8 m) in length. They have a “dog- like” face, and at around five years of age, males develop a bony bump on top of their skull called a Photo Courtesy of Joe Dutra sagittal crest. The top of a male’s head often gets lighter with age. The trained “seals” in zoos and aquariums are usually California sea lions.

Range and Habitat California sea lions are found from Vancouver Island, British Columbia to the southern tip of Baja California in Mexico. They breed mainly on offshore islands, ranging from southern California’s Channel Islands south to Mexico, although a few pups have been born on Año Nuevo and the Farallon Islands in central California. There is a distinct population of California sea lions at the Galapagos Islands. A third population in the Sea of Japan became extinct, probably during World War II.

Behavior California sea lions are very social animals, and groups often rest closely packed together at favored haul-out sites on land, or float together on the ocean’s surface in “rafts.” They are sometimes seen porpoising (alternating rising about the water and under it), or jumping out of the water, presumably to speed up their swimming. Sea lions have also been seen “surfing” breaking waves. California sea lions are opportunistic eaters, feeding on squid, octopus, herring, rockfish, mackerel, and small sharks. Natural predators are Orcas (killer whales) and great white sharks.

Mating and Breeding Most pups are born in June or July and weigh 13–20 lbs (6–9 kg). They nurse for at least five to six months and sometimes over a year. Mothers recognize pups on crowded rookeries through smell, sight, and vocalizations. Pups also learn to recognize the vocalizations of their mothers. Breeding takes place a few weeks after birth. Males patrol territories and bark almost continuously during the breeding season.

Status The population of sea lions is growing steadily, and they can be seen in many coastal spots such as La Jolla Cove or PIER 39 in San Francisco. The current population is approximately 200,000.

NOTES

Section 7: Birding on the Hornblower Sources: Sibley Field Guide to Birds of Western North America, Stan Walens, speaker for Whaler class, and Phil Unitt, SDNHM Curator of Birds & Mammals. A field guide to birds is kept on the boat.

There are some great birding opportunities while cruising on the Hornblower. In the harbor, many familiar species of coastal and marsh birds can be observed, such as herons, egrets and the ubiquitous gulls and brown pelicans. As we go further out to sea, you can see the less familiar sea birds, such as shearwaters, auklets, murres, and boobies. Identifying birds while on a boat is challenging and fun. The key to identifying seabirds is watching their flight patterns and behaviors. Bring binoculars, necessary for observing details. Wading Birds Herons and egrets have curved necks and straight, dagger-like bills used to capture prey in quick strikes. Feeds on fish, and often seen around the bait docks and on fishing boats.

Snowy egret (Egretta thula) (L) L 24”, WS 41” They have black legs and yellow feet in breeding season (February–July). Great egrets are larger and have black feet.

Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) (R) L 46”, WS 72” Great Blue Herons are found along the shores, ponds, lagoons, and bays. They feed on small mammals, fish, and other prey. The large size and gray color make this heron unmistakable. Jaegers Jaegers are predatory gulls that come to land only to nest. Jaegers prey on other birds, or steal food from other seabirds (kleptoparasitism) by chasing them, and forcing them to give up captured prey. Jaegers can be seen within a few miles of land during fall and winter, they are usually solitary. Jaegers are fast fliers, and the agile Parasitic Jaeger performs stunning acrobatics when chasing terns.

Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) (R) L 16.5”, WS 46” Dark gray-brown body, white wing patches. Adults have long tapered central tail feathers and a dark cap.

Diving Ducks Diving ducks feed by diving underwater. Their legs are placed far back on the body and many require a running start to take off from the water. Diet is variable and includes underwater plants, shellfish and fish. In San Diego, diving ducks are present late fall through early spring.

Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) (R) L 20”, WS 30”; The prominent bright orange bill is distinctive; with white on back of head. They are found near pilings searching for shellfish, mainly mussels.

Other diving ducks include the Bufflehead and the Greater Scaup. The male Bufflehead has a white patch on face and back of head. The Greater Scaup in flight has a white band on inner part of upper wings. Grebes and Loons Grebes and loons are small to large-sized waterbirds. Grebes and loons have similarities, although grebes are smaller, with relatively longer necks, shorter wings, and short tail feathers. Like loons, they have legs set far back on their body, and are excellent swimmers and divers, but ungainly on land. Loons spend virtually their entire lives on the water, and are rarely seen on land, except when nesting. They are present in San Diego during fall and winter.

Western Grebe (Aechmophorus accidentalis) (R) L 25”, WS 24” These birds have straight yellow bill, long and graceful black and white neck. They feed on small fish near piers, pilings, and around kelp beds. Notice dark gray back, black head, flat back.

Pacific Loon (Gavia pacifica) (L) L25”, WS 36” These loons have a sharply contrasting straight border on neck and are the most abundant loon on the ocean. Other loons are the red-throated loon, which flies with its head lower than back, and the Common loon, with giant feet that it lets hang when flying.

Gulls Gulls are adept at swimming, walking, and flying. Identifying gulls is challenging because they molt yearly and have a number of plumages in the first three years of life. All of the larger gulls are born dark, and lighten as they mature. Gulls are surface feeders; they do not dive underwater for food. They are omnivorous, feeding on food they capture, glean, or scavenge. Gulls have a buoyant, parachute-like arching wing position as they fly. There are 3 common gulls in our area: California gull, Heermann’s gull, and Western gull (adult plumages shown).

Western Gull (Larus occidentalis)(R) L 25” WS 58” This is a large stocky gull with, white head and body and a heavy bill that is thick-tipped. They are black on upper edge of wing, with very dark upper wing and a dark- back. They follow boats, stealing fish, and also prey upon small seabirds.

Heermann’s Gull (Larus heermanni) (L) L 19”, WS 51” This gull is easiest to identify. The first winter birds are chocolate brown; adults are dark grey with a white head. Adults have black feet and black- tipped red bill. They chase other birds to steal food. They are seen in fall and winter.

California Gull (Larus californicus) (R) L 21”, WS54” This gull is smaller than Western gull, with a smaller bill. The back is medium gray with black wing tips. Adults have a red and black tip on the bill. They are seen in fall and winter.

Shearwaters Shearwaters are long-winged seabirds and members of a larger group known as tubenoses. They have tubular nostrils located on top of the bills that excrete excess salts. Shearwaters spend their lives over the open ocean, coming to land only when nesting. Shearwaters are amazing flyers, and fly with stiff wingbeats and long arcing glides. They forage for small animals and carrion mainly at the water’s surface

Black-vented Shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) (L) L 14” WS 34” Dark on upper body, white below. Black under tail. Most common shearwater off San Diego, usually within a few miles from shore. They fly with 5–6 snappy wingbeats then a glide. Photo Courtesy of Brad Weinert 51

Terns Terns are distributed worldwide and are normally found near the sea, rivers, or wetlands. Terns are generally smaller and more slender than gulls, and have relatively long, pointed wings and straight pointed bills. Most feed exclusively on small fish, captured by plunging headfirst into the water from flight. Subtle differences in wing color separate one species from another.

Elegant Tern (Sterna elegans) L17” WS 34” These terns are smaller than the Royal terns found in the bay. They are more common further out of the bay. They have a slender downturned bill. Other terns you might see are the Forster’s tern with translucent wings and the Caspian tern which is larger than the Elegant Tern with a distinctive red bill. Alcids Alcids are oceanic birds that come on land only to nest. Alcids have very short tails and necks, pointed bills, and simple black and white plumage patterns. All use their wings to “fly” underwater in pursuit of prey. Alcids are more adapted to swimming under water than flying in air, though they fly thousands of miles. Flight in the air is fast and direct with very rapid, buzzing wingbeats. Most species require a long running start to become airborne.

Examples of Alcids include the Cassin’s Auklet (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) as seen above, the Scripp’s Murrelet (Synthliboramphus hypoleucus) which is very skittish, and the Common Murre (Uria aalge) which can dive 250 feet and stay underwater for 6–8 minutes.

Pelicans Pelicans are large birds with long bills and large pouches. They hunt for fish with spectacular twisting plunge-dives from the air. Flight is relaxed with graceful gliding, and they are often seen flying in lines just above the water.

Brown Pelican (Palecanus occidentalis) (R) L 51”, WS 79” These pelicans are gray brown or silvery in color. They are common along the coast. Boobies and Cormorants Boobies are tropical and subtropical birds with long pointed wings and pointed bills. Like pelicans, they plunge-dive, going 30-40 feet into the water after fish. Boobies can be seen flying near pods of feeding dolphins, gliding in search of fish or roosting on buoys.

Brown booby (Sula leucogaster) (R) L 30”; WS 57”.The adults of this species have contrasting dark brown body and clean white underside. The juveniles are uniformly dull brown. All ages are uniformly dark above.

Cormorant feathers rapidly become saturated on contact with water, therefore they only enter the water to feed and bathe. They dive from the surface and propel themselves with their feet. After fishing, cormorants go ashore and are frequently seen holding their wings out in the sun to dry.

Brandt’s Cormorant (Phalacrocorax Double-crested cormorant penicillatus) (Phalacrorax auritis) L 34”, WS 48” Brown chin area. Neck is L 33”, WS 52”. Orange chin area. Flies with nearly straight in flight. Common in ocean crook in its neck. Stays close to bay. waters. Flies low over the water in lines.

Identifying Birds by Behavior Watching a bird’s behaviors is one way to begin identification of the bird. For accurate identification, appearance and size also need to be taken into account.

Plunge Diver —Pelicans and Terns These birds will fly above the ocean, sometimes quite high, and then fall from the sky. It will appear that they have been shot! But don’t worry, they are just after fish. The Brown Pelican is often seen in large flocks either just above water surface or higher in the air, often gliding for long periods of time on large, “fingered” wings; wing-beats are slow and ‘measured.’

Underwater Swimmers—Cormorants and Surf Scoters Cormorants are mostly seen singly, flying low above the water surface on rapid wing-beats without gliding intervals. They can be seen in larger flocks and also higher in the sky—many in the bay, particularly at bait docks where they swim around diving for fish or sit upright, with wings stretched out to dry them. When they dive into the water they can swim for long distances. If you see one disappear look carefully, it will pop up somewhere else.

Surface Scavengers—Gulls and Shearwaters These birds float on the surface or fly low and pick up any food that is readily available, including human refuse. If you see birds following fishing boats, it’s most likely gulls and shearwaters. The shearwater is known for flying with 506 snappy wingbeats and then gliding.

Kleptoparasites—Heermann’s Gull Yes, you have it correct, klepto for kleptomaniac and parasite meaning they live off other animals. Heermann’s gulls stay close to the Brown Pelican to snatch food away, even retrieving the food from the pelican’s pouch.

Interesting Tidbits on the Birds You’ll See Western Gulls and KFC Interesting note from Phil Unitt, Curator of Birds & Mammals:

Western gulls have a huge colony on the south Coronado Island. Scientists were mystified to find chicken bones all over the island. The chicken bones were traced back to Kentucky Fried Chicken. The gulls were scavenging local KFC restaurants and taking the chicken pieces back to the island to feast on the finger licking good chicken. Or should we say, “Claw licking good?”

Snowy Egret’s Feeding Behavior The Snowy Egret can be found in tidepools searching for food. The bird will move its feet and disturb the bottom of the pool to release the prey and then gobble them up. It resembles dancing.

Snowy Egrets can also be spotted closely following clam diggers waiting for whatever comes up when the diggers pull up the clam gun (a hollow tube that is inserted in the sand).

Great Blue Heron’s Love the Navy Subs Look carefully in the eucalyptus trees in the Navy’s submarine barge opposite the bait dock. A large nesting colony of Great Blue Herons can be seen.

Cormorants Cormorants swim low in the water often with just their necks and heads visible. After diving, a Cormorant spends long periods standing with its wings outstretched to allow them to dry, since they are not fully waterproofed – they do not have oil producing glands like many other seabirds.

NOTES

Section 8: Props Used for Presentations We use a number of props in our presentations that help create a picture of some important aspects of gray whale natural history. In addition to photographs, we have museum specimens to illustrate in more detail the amazing adaptations that have occurred during the long evolutionary history of cetaceans.

Practice and perfect your presentation with the intent of keeping it brief, only about 2 minutes per topic. The personality, enthusiasm and presentation style you impart will be unique to every whaler.

The props we use throughout the cruise include:

Laminated National Geographic migration map (optional map you can purchase) To discuss the migratory route of the Eastern Pacific Gray Whale, for use while working the line

Photograph booklets and gray whale models There are a number of photographs on whales and birds that you can use throughout the cruise. In addition, there are models of gray whales to show while cruising through the harbor

Lumbar vertebrae From a gray whale juvenile and calf, and plastic model of a human vertebra for comparison and laminated images of skeletons

Barnacle and whale lice In resin and laminated images showing details and life cycles

Baleen and Amphipod Segment of 15 plates and amphipod in resin and laminated images showing baleen, gray whales feeding and amphipods.

Rope The rope is marked to show the difference in size between an adult and a calf. Ask any children in the audience to help you unwind the rope. Please be sure to rewind. Points to Mention in your Presentation Gray Whale Migration  Gray whales spend their summer in the Arctic, feeding and building up their blubber  When the ice forms, they migrate south along the coast all the way to the lagoons in Baja California, Mexico, where they mate and give birth  In the spring, whales return to the Arctic feeding grounds  Pregnant females are the first to arrive in the lagoons, and mothers with calves are the last to leave  Gray whales travel to San Ignacio Lagoon, Scammon’s Lagoon and Magdalina Bay  The yearly round-trip is 10,000–12,000 miles, one of the longest migrations of any mammal  Migration one way takes 2–2 ½ months  During the southbound migration (peak in January) we see whales relatively close to shore, just outside the kelp  During the northbound migration (peak in March) whales travel farther offshore, near the 9-mile bank

 To spot a whale, look for the spout: a plume of water vapor, visible from far away, which indicates a whale has come up to breathe  Not all gray whales make the long migration every year; some juveniles don’t come so far south; some gray whales have even been observed spending the winter off northern Alaska

Vertebrae  The lumbar vertebrae are from a juvenile and calf. Point out the prominent projection on the top of the bone—this is called a neural spine, or spinous process. The spinal cord runs through the opening just below the neural spine. Explain that the transverse processes are the attachment points for the large muscles that provide the power to move the tail up and down for swimming. Compare to the human adult-sized vertebra.  Two vertebrae from the lumbar region (middle back) of a gray whale juvenile and calf  The laminated picture of a gray whale skeleton shows the lumbar area in red  For comparison, we have a plastic model of a human vertebra to contrast size and length of the processes  The gray whale vertebra is not only much larger than the human one, it has prominent processes, where muscles are attached  Whales do not have hind legs, but they have a long and powerful tail for propulsion  The muscles that extend from the back to the tail are attached to these transverse processes and are responsible for the powerful up-and-down motions of their tail  The large vertebra appears heavy, because of its size, but the bones of whales are porous and less dense than the bones of land mammals  Heavy bones are not needed, as whales do not support the weight of their bodies on land  Lighter, more porous bones, are adaptations that make whales more buoyant in water  Having lighter bones helps the whales swim and float at the water surface with less effort

FYI: Gray whales and humans both have 7 cervical (neck) verterbrae. Gray whales have a total of 56 vertebrae vs. 33 in humans.

Barnacles and Whale Lice Use the barnacles and whale lice to discuss the life cycles and unique characteristics of these organisms that spend most, if not all, of their lives on the bodies of whales.

Barnacles (For review, see page 20)

 The gray whale barnacle (Cryptolepas rhachianecti) is species specific, meaning it will attach and develop only on gray whales  Gray whale barnacles reproduce when the whales are in the warm lagoons of Baja California  There is a free-swimming larval stage (nauplius), where they feed and molt several times before metamorphosing into a second larval stage (cyprid)  During the brief second larval stage, the larvae seek out and attach to a whale and permanently cement themselves into the skin  The larvae attach with cement glands in their modified antennae  Within twelve hours after attachment, the barnacle builds a shell made of several plates  The adult barnacle will stay positioned with its head down and feed on plankton and organic debris that is “swept” into their mouth with their feather-like legs

Whale Lice (For review, see page 19)

 Whale Lice (Cyamid spp.) are crustaceans (related to shrimp and lobsters), not insects  Gray whales are host to 3 species of whale lice, two of which are specific to the gray whale  Whale lice have direct development, there are no larval stages, young are born looking exactly like miniature adult whale lice  Female whale lice have a brood pouch that hold their young  Whale lice are passed from the mother whale to offspring through body contact  Whale lice are mostly found around barnacles, skin folds, ventral grooves, the blowhole, eyes, wounds and genital slit  Whale lice have sharp hooks on their lower 3 pairs of legs, which they use to hold on to the whale’s skin or around the barnacles  Whale lice are not parasites, rather they feed on dead skin around barnacles and wounds

Baleen and Feeding Strategies (For review see page 65)

Use the baleen to explain in detail how it is attached inside the animal’s mouth; show an example of an amphipod, and describe how gray whales feed. (For review, see page 14)

 Gray whales, like all baleen whales, have no teeth; instead, they have baleen, which hangs down from the upper palate of the whale’s mouth  Our specimen has 15 plates; an adult gray whale has a total of 130–180 on either side  Baleen is made of keratin, the same substance as in our fingernails and hair  The fringed part is on the inside  Baleen plates act as a filtering mechanism, somewhat like a colander used for pasta  All species of baleen whales, with the exception of the gray whale, take in huge amounts of water containing food items (plankton, krill and/or small fish), push out the water through the baleen with their tongues, and retain the food particles  Gray whales are unique: they are bottom feeders  In the Arctic, there are crustaceans called amphipods that live in the ocean sediment  To feed, gray whales turn on one side, scoops up the sediment, filters it out through their baleen, retaining the amphipods, and using their large tongue, scrapes the prey off the baleen and then swallows them  While summer feeding in the Arctic, a 35-ton whale can consume 4,200 lbs of food per day, or 6% of its body weight daily  Our amphipod specimen is a typical species of amphipod but not the one gray whales feed on

Sample Script on Museum We are volunteer whalers for the San Diego Natural History Museum, and would like to take the opportunity to tell you about a few of the exhibits. The museum is located in Balboa Park at the corner of Park Boulevard and Village Place just south of the zoo.

If you’d like to learn more about whales and marine mammals, our museum is a great place to start. In Fossil Mysteries, there are examples of an ancient baleen whale which looked similar to the modern- day gray whale. There are casts of other marine animals, such as the extinct Megalodon, which was

the largest predatory shark of all time (at 40 feet), and an extinct sea cow that used to live off the coast of San Diego.

Coast to Cactus, takes you through the diverse habitats of Southern California and highlights some of the plants and animals that live here. You will find a full size gray whale skull on exhibit.

On the first level there is a full size fin whale skull, the second largest whale after the blue whale. While you are visiting, don’t miss the SKULLS exhibit on the third floor where you can see how a dolphin skull compares to a human skull.

We hope to see you at the Museum soon.

Basics to cover:

 Our location  What whale-related things you can see  Fossil Mysteries  Coast to Cactus  Current traveling exhibit Suggestions for Engaging Visitors Don’t be shy—these folks are on a 3½-hour cruise and only see the whales for about ½ hour. Approach children and families. They are the easiest to engage.

Introduce yourself immediately:

“Hi, I’m ______, a volunteer naturalist from the San Diego Natural History Museum. We’re here to help you enjoy your cruise and answer your questions about the marine life you will see.”

Ask them questions to get the ball rolling: “First time seeing whales?” “Are you from out of town or do you live here in San Diego?” “Do you know how far these whales travel on their annual migration?” “Do you know how the whales feed?”

Add any interesting facts you remember from your training. Don’t be afraid to say, “I don’t know, that’s a great question.”

Section 9: The Art of Interpretation Interpretation is not just knowing the facts but also presenting the information in an engaging way and reading your audience so you can guide your talk in the correct direction. This is a brief introduction to a method that was first developed by the National Park Service.

“Interpretation serves a Purpose, it is Organized, Enjoyable, Thematic, Relevant and You Make the Difference in how audiences respond.”... Wren Smith, Certified Interpretive Guide. Interpretation Serves a Purpose The information presented should support the goals of the whaler program: educating people about the wonders of the ocean environment. Interpretation Is Organized Organizing your presentation increases the chances that your audience will retain some of what you present. An organized talk is easier to comprehend and allows the audience to enjoy listening.

 Introduction—Lays foundation and lets audience know what to expect  Body—Contains the main points to support the theme (five or fewer key points)  Conclusion—Provides closure and reinforces the theme Interpretation Is Enjoyable People participate in interpretive programs because they want to, not because they have to but because they expect to enjoy themselves. Interpretation Is Thematic People tend to remember themes but forget strings of facts. The theme expresses the dominant concept, makes you wonder, has intrigue and answers the question “So what?” Interpretation Is Relevant People respond better to things that directly relate to their knowledge and experiences as individuals or as human beings. You can create bridges from the unfamiliar to the familiar.

 Reference the self (Think of the last time you… How many of you have…)  Connect with something within the audience’s frame of reference.  Use universal concepts (family, shelter, food, love, life, death, survival)  Use metaphors, similes, analogies and comparisons. You Make the Difference Your passion and individual style can make the difference in how audiences respond. Some Ways to Spice up Your Presentations

Interesting Tidbits about the Gray Whale  During the feeding season a gray whale typically consumes about 6% of its body weight daily  The fat content of gray whale milk is 40 – 50%. Cow’s milk is about 4 – 5% fat. Beluga milk has 736 calories/cup (92 calories/ounce).

 A gray whale pregnancy lasts about 2 months longer than a human pregnancy, but by the time it’s born, a calf weighs about 187 times as much as a typical human baby (1,500 lbs. versus 8 lbs.).  During its lifetime of 50–60 years, the total distance covered during migration by a gray whale may be 600,000 miles. This is greater than a trip to the moon and back or equal to 24 trips around the world (at the equator). Or 170 trips from San Diego to Boston. Interesting Tidbits about Blue Whales  Believed to be the largest animal ever to have inhabited the earth  It’s heart is as large as a Volkswagen beetle  A child can call through the blue whale’s aorta  Blue whales can consume up to 4 tons of food per day  During the nursing period, blue whale calves consume 100 gallons (379 liters) of the fat-rich mother's milk each day, gain 200 pounds a day, or 8 pounds an hour, and grow 1.5 inches in length a day.

Sample Story Script: Migration We’ve already mentioned that the gray whales undertake one the longest migration of any mammal on earth. Do you wonder why? In fact several species of whales are long distance migrators.

As we’ve said, the gray whales spend the summer feeding in the rich, productive waters of the arctic. Why not just stay there all year? These areas in winter have little food and are cold and dark for many months. And they also ice completely over, cutting the whales off from the surface where they must breathe. So the whales swim southward to the lagoons of Baja California, where the days are sunny and the water is 30 degrees warmer than in the arctic. But you might ask why do they swim so far? Nobody knows for sure, but it’s interesting to note that the whales must constantly swim to stay afloat. So if their summer home freezes over in winter and they have to swim constantly anyway, they might as well swim to a place such as the lagoons where it is an ideal location to mate and give birth.

That leads us to one last question. If the lagoons are such great places, why not stay there year round? The answer, quite simply, is that there is not enough food in the lagoons to sustain the whales. They consume about 6%–8% of their body weight per day.

Section 10: Facts You Should Know You’ve encountered much of this information in other parts of this manual. You’ve heard much more in the lectures. All the information you should know by the end of the class. Whales in General  Whales belong to a group of related animals called cetaceans. Other members of this group are dolphins and porpoises  There are two basic groups of cetaceans: o Those with teeth (odontocetes) o Those with baleen plates instead of teeth (mysticetes)  Moby Dick (a sperm whale) was an odontocete; other members of this group include orcas (killer whales) and dolphins  Gray whales are mysticetes  Other baleen whales now seen regularly in Southern California waters are blue, fin, minke and humpback whales  At a maximum length of about 100 ft., the largest animal on earth is the blue whale Eastern Pacific Gray Whale  Gray whales are baleen whales  They are 35–49 ft. and typically weigh between 34–40 tons  Gray whales, like other mysticetes, use baleen plates to filter their food; However, unlike other baleen whales, they usually feed on the bottom, taking in mouthfuls of sediment and straining out small crustaceans, called amphipods, and tubeworms  Gray whales undertake what may be one of the longest migrations of any mammal on earth; They spend summers feeding in the Arctic, and starting in fall travel to lagoons on the Pacific side of Baja California to give birth and mate during the winter months  The round trip is between 10,000 and 12,000 miles long and each leg of the journey takes about 2–2 ½ months  Gray whales were once close to extinction; Through protection offered by the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammal Protection Act, their numbers have increased to around 19,000 animals according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) counts from 2014; In 1994, they were taken off the Endangered Species List Rorquals  All rorquals are baleen whales, but not all baleen whales are rorquals  The gray whale is not a rorqual  The 4 species most often seen in our area are: o Blue whale (Not only the largest of all baleen whales, but the largest animal that ever lived) o Fin whale (The fastest of the baleen whales [“Greyhound of the Sea”] can swim bursts of up to 25 knots) o Humpback whale (Best known for their powerful displays of breaching, spyhopping, tail and flipper slapping, and the haunting songs of males) o Minke whale (The smallest of the rorquals, the “elusive whale” with only a faint blow)

 All rorquals are characterized by throat grooves or pleats (There are typically 50–100 throat grooves which allow them to greatly expand the lower part of their mouth for lunge or gulp feeding; Feeding is further explained under whale feeding strategies below)  Rorquals make seasonal movements (They follow food sources; though they do not do a coastal migration like gray whales, therefore, sightings are less predictable)

Minke whale

Humpback whale Blue whale

Gray whale Fin whale

Size comparison of the mysticetes in our area. The gray whale averages 45 feet long. Unlike the other whales in this picture, the gray whale is not a rorqual.

Whale Feeding Strategies  All baleen whales use their baleen plates to strain their food  Three different techniques: o “Skimmers” (Right and Bowhead whales swim with their mouth open, filtering out food) o “Gulpers,” also called Lunge Feeding, the whales expand their throat grooves accordion style; Rorquals lunge against swarms of krill or fish, take in huge amounts of water, contract the throat grooves, pushing out the water, retaining and swallowing the food; Lunge feeders we typically see are blue whales, fin whales, and humpbacks off the coast of San Diego o “Bottom Feeders” gray whales feed at the ocean bottom. They take in sediment containing prey items, and filter out through the baleen.

“Bubble Net Feeding” is a special strategy used by humpback whales. It is a form of lunge feeding, done individually, or cooperatively as a group.

Food Preferences

 Blue whales: krill  Other rorquals: krill and also small schooling fish  Gray whales: the most versatile, mostly feed on amphipods and tube worms at ocean bottom, but also can skim for krill, and lunge feed on mysids (small shrimp-like crustaceans) in the water column

Dolphins  Dolphins belong to the odontocetes, toothed whales  The 4 species most often seen in our area are: o Common dolphin, often encountered in huge pods, will bow ride o Pacific white-sided dolphin, also seen in large pods . Falcate dorsal fin with a white wash . No pronounced beak o Bottlenose dolphin, somewhat larger than the first two species . Individuals trained by Navy seen in bay . Offshore bottlenose dolphins are larger and further offshore than coastal bottlenose o Risso’s dolphin, the largest of the four species . High dark dorsal fin, blunt snout, characteristic scratches . Seen around 9-mile bank  Dolphins feed on squid and fish  Very sophisticated special sense of echolocation for orientation and finding food  Highly social, use sound and touch to communicate  Difference between dolphins and porpoises: o The only true difference is the shape of their teeth: Dolphins have conical teeth; Porpoises have spade-like (flat) teeth o Generally, porpoises are small and don’t have a pronounced beak (this is also true of some dolphins) o No porpoises in our immediate area o Vaquita in Sea of Cortez is the most endangered porpoise Seals and Sea Lions (Pinnipeds) Main Differences between Sea Lions and Seals

California Sea Lion Harbor Seals

 Outer Ear flaps  No outer ear flaps  Long front and hind flippers  Short flippers  Can rotate hind flippers forward to walk  Hind flippers cannot rotate forward on land Move on land with undulating motion of the body  Swim with rowing motion with front  Swim with sideways motion with rear flippers end and hind flippers

 On Hornblower cruises we mostly see California sea lions: o On the buoys o Swimming; they “porpoise”, looking almost like dolphins o At the bait dock  Sexually mature male California sea lions are more than 3 times as heavy as females and have a distinctive lighter colored sagittal crest on their head  All 3 species of pinnipeds (California sea lions, harbor seals, and elephant seals) in our area have breeding colonies on the Los Coronados Islands, Mexico  Pupping season for harbor seals and elephant seals is in the winter; for California sea lions June– July  Pinnipeds feed on different kinds of fish and squid Seabirds Review Section 7 beginning on page 49, you should be able to identify:

 Great blue heron (seen on the bait docks) large gray bird with long legs  Snowy egret (seen on the bait docks) solid white bird with black legs and yellow feet  Brown pelican (can be seen anywhere) large soaring, gray-brown bird with large bill  Differences between a double-crested cormorant and a Brandt’s cormorant (mostly Brandt’s cormorant out to sea); double-crested cormorants have orange around bill and chin; Brandt’s cormorants have brown around the chin  Western gull (large gull, most common gull in winter)  Differences between a tern and a gull (terns are almost all white, red/orange tapered bill)  Surf scoter (black duck sitting on the water in the harbor; males with bright orange bill, and white patch on back of head)  Recognize the flight pattern of a shearwater (series of wing flaps, then a glide)

A large group of birds flying about and sitting on the water in one spot often indicates the presence of fish, and maybe dolphins.

Know all the Points to Mention in your Presentation (See page 58) The topics are:

 Gray whale migration (See page 13)  Vertebrae (See page 59)  Barnacles and Whale Lice (See page 19)  Baleen and Feeding Strategies (See page 65)  San Diego Natural History Museum Sample Script (See page 60) FYI only—Some Questions We Have Been Asked in Past Seasons Do whales sleep? Some scientists believe that whales "catnap" so that at least part of their brain is aware of what is going on around them. Since whales and dolphins have to breathe consciously (humans are "unconscious" breathers—we breathe even in our sleep), they also have to wake up to take a breath. Some scientists have postulated that dolphins and whales sleep with half a brain—half their brain rests while the other half stays alert. Recently, though, other researchers have come to doubt this. Source: Gulf of Marine Aquarium

What is the closest living relative to the whale? Hippos are the closest living relatives of whales, but they are not the ancestors of whales. Hippos are large and semi-aquatic, but their ancestors were small and terrestrial, as were the ancestors of whales. The ancient relatives of hippos, called anthracotheres, were not large or aquatic. Hippos likely evolved from a group of anthracotheres about 15 million years ago. Anthracotherium magnum, the hippo’s ancestor © Dmitry Bogdanov - [email protected] Source: Understanding Evolution. 2014. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved: 9 December 2014 (http://evolution.berkeley.edu/)

How many vertebrae does a gray whale have in comparison to a human? The vertebral formula for the gray whale, based on a skeleton in the British Museum consists of 7 cervical, 14 thoracic, 14 lumbar, and 21 caudal for a total of 56 vertebrae. Typically, these vary somewhat from one individual to another.

Source: [email protected]

A human has 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, plus the sacrum (5 fused vertebrae) and the coccyx (4 fused vertebrae) for a total of 33 vertebrae. The coccyx is analogous to the caudal vertebrae in whales.

How do gray whales get fresh water if they live in an ocean full of salt water? Gray whales and all other whales get fresh water (drinking water) from their food. They will also get some of their drinking water from ocean water they swallow. The kidneys of whales are extremely well developed, and are able, to some extent, to filter out the salt from the water.

Source: oceanlink.island.net

Do whales eat while in their winter breeding grounds? Not much. During the months in the lagoons of Baja California, gray whales survive mostly on fat reserves built up in the summer feeding grounds. They can feed on krill and mysids during migration, if the opportunity is available. Southbound Pregnant Female Do gray whales lose a lot of weight while migrating? A 30-ton whale will expend so much energy on the migration to the Baja lagoons that it may lose fully Photo: courtesy of Wayne Perryman eight tons of blubber. By early summer, most gray whales are back at their northern feeding grounds. Over the next five months they will gain back an estimated 16 to 30 percent of their total body weight. Source: http://www.learner.org/jnorth/search/GWhaleNotes3.htm Northbound Cow and Calf

Cow and calfPho tonorthbounds courtesy of Wayne Perryman

NOTES

Section 11: General Information TheNAT Basic Contact Information

Janet M. Morris Director of Volunteer/Intern Services [email protected] 619.255.0245

Beth Redmond-Jones Senior Director of Public Programs [email protected] 619. 255. 0205 Using Volgistics Volgistics allows volunteers to view and manage schedules; sign-up for vacant schedule openings; print schedules; receive news and messages from the volunteer office; log volunteer hours, check service records; print service reports, and change passwords.

To Access Volgistics

Go to https://www.volgistics.com/ex/portal.dll/?FROM=146834. You can also find a link at sdnhm.org/sdnatvolunteers or on the museum’s website at sdnat.org/volunteers

The first time you login, your temporary password is welcome.

Once you enter your temporary password you will be asked to change it. Make it something you will not forget and don’t worry about something complicated. It can be as simple as “password.” Do not use special characters.

Scheduling Cruises Use the My Schedule tab to sign up for an opening in the schedule.

Click any Help Wanted link and then click Schedule Me. It will ask you to confirm your choice. Once you do, it’s now viewable on the calendar. You’ll notice at the bottom of the screen is a Printable View. This could come in handy. Sign ups are on a first come-first served basis. If you don’t see Help Wanted there are no more openings. You may remove yourself from the schedule up to 4 days prior to your shift. If it is after 4 fours, you will need to contact the Director of Volunteer/Intern Services to remove you from the calendar. You should also notify at least one other person who has signed up for that day. Note that you can see who else has signed up once you click on the Help Wanted sign.

Logging Hours Logging your hours is simple. Go to Time Sheet or click on Post Your Hours at the Home screen.

Only the assignments that you are eligible for will show in the “Which assignment did you serve in?” field. Enter the number of hours and the roundtrip miles if you wish to keep track. Click Continue. It will ask you to confirm.

Mail Tab The Mail Tab can be used to view emails we have sent you. We will also send them to your personal email but this way you don’t have to search through all your emails to find the ones related to your volunteer work.

My Service History This tab can be used to review your hours.

Sightings Log Instructions/Guidelines

*Please Print Clearly!

Gray Whales  Count whales only once – not the same whale seen multiple times  Record northbound or southbound movement  When counting moms and calves, count each pair once – don’t count the individual animals

Behavior  Check the behaviors seen during cruise  Specify details (ie. which species of whale fluked)

Dolphins ·  No Ranges  Estimate ~ for every one seen at surface multiple x5

Museum Whalers Yahoo Group The Museum Whalers Yahoo Group has links to useful information and photos from whale trips.

Accessing the Yahoo Group

1. Go to http://groups.yahoo.com/ a. Make sure you use “groups.yahoo.com” and not just “yahoo.com.” It makes it much easier to find the group. b. You cannot find the group by searching for it. It is a private group and can only be accessed by signing in as sdnhmwhalers  Click on SIGN IN (located to the right of the Yahoo! Groups logo)  Yahoo ID = SDNHMwhaler1  Password = molamola1 (note it is case sensitive)  Groups Home at the top of the screen  Click on the words Whalers_Hornblower_Cruises  You are now on our home page

Resources in the Yahoo Group

 Under MORE you will find LINKS.  Under PHOTOS are lots of fun things from previous years.

NOTES

Section 12: On Board the Hornblower, Cruise Info and More Day of the Cruise What to Wear Dress warmly, but in layers. It might be beautiful in San Diego but when you’re on the water, temperatures drop. Sunscreen, lip balm, a hat, and gloves are good ideas. Always wear your name badge and carry your volunteer photo ID. Museum whalers wear yellow windbreakers with our logo prominently displayed on the back. One extra large windbreaker is stored on board. You may borrow the jacket for the cruise but please do not take it home.

Checking on the Weather If you have any doubt about the weather and boating conditions, call Hornblower Whale & Dolphin Adventure Cruises at 619.238.5464 after 8 AM to make sure they are going that day. Trips are cancelled only when thick fog impacts visibility, or seas are rough. Trips are generally not cancelled for light rain. Unfortunately, you will probably be en route or already at the dock when they make the decision to cancel the trip. If you arrive and the trip has been cancelled the Hornblower will provide a free pass for a harbor cruise.

Picking Up Your Ticket You must check in at the Ticket Booth for a ticket at least 30-45 minutes before the cruise. For directions to the ticket booth, see following section below.

 9 AM for the 9:30–1 PM cruise  1 PM for the 1:30–5 PM cruise

Bringing Guests We would like you to fully concentrate on your duties as a museum whaler. Do not bring children, family or friends on board during your volunteer hours. Hornblower Cruises and Events Contact Information Ticket Booth 619-725-8836

Website www.hornblower.com Cruise Schedule Daily: 9:30 AM–1 PM and 1:30–5 PM mid-December through April (dates vary by year)

Contacts

Rebecca Milkey Kelly Johnson Director Marketing Public Cruise & Guest Services Manager [email protected] [email protected] 619.725.8853 619.725.8813

Captains Rich Goben Eric Gustafson Chad Cummings Julie Peet Nick Kriesel Joe Dutra Tom Balistreri Bob Kurtz Finding Your Way to the Pier The ticket booth is located near the Navy Pier- 970 North Harbor Drive

Directions to Ticket Booth Driving south on I-5 take the Front St/Civic Center Exit. Go 3 blocks, turn right on Ash St, and follow Ash St to the waterfront. Turn left on North Harbor Drive. The Hornblower Ticket Booth will be on the right side.

Driving north on I-5 exit Hawthorne St/Airport Exit, veer left, staying on Hawthorne St, and follow west to North Harbor Dr. Turn left on North Harbor Drive. The Hornblower Ticket Booth will be on the right side.

Parking Public parking is recommended, as the metered parking does not allow enough time for this cruise and there is a two-hour limit even on Sundays and holidays. Ace Parking is located on the USS Midway parking lot one block from the ticket booth. Enter parking lot off of N. Harbor Dr. on right. Cost is $10/day. There are also 5-Star Parking lots at the corner of Pacific Highway and Broadway and approximately 1.2 miles away on the corner of Grape Street and Harbor Drive. Both are $12/day.

Public Transportation The San Diego Trolley is also close by (at the Sante Fe Depot) as well as the San Diego Transit buses. Some whalers park at Old Town and then take the trolley to the Sante Fe Depot. Tickets are $2.50 one way for general public and $1.25 for seniors. See http://www.sdcommute.com/ for complete information on Public Transportation. Combating Seasickness Prepared by Captain Tam Thacher

Prevention is Key Preventing nausea is your key weapon against seasickness. Find a haven on the boat where the motion is at its minimum and which allow your eyes to gaze at the horizon. The higher the deck, the more swaying you’ll feel. The center of the boat, rather than the bow or stern, is the calmest area. Avoid any areas that smell of diesel or exhaust fumes, and don’t stay in one place too long and get sleepy.

When the boat is slowing down and remains idling while viewing animals, your resistance to motion sickness diminishes rapidly. Lack of fresh air and inactivity can intensify symptoms. Not responding to preliminary triggers is ignoring the remedy. When alarms signal nausea, headache, sleepiness, or dizziness, be ready to react to avoid vomiting. Getting a good night’s sleep and being well rested increases endurance.

Food Food choices do help. What you consume prior to a trip may make a difference. Reduce consumption of greasy, acidic and heavy food. A meal of warm starchy, bland, light food is a good choice. Do not

skip eating before boating. An empty stomach can be almost as bad as one full with the wrong types of food. Eating 1–2 hours before departure is best, especially carbohydrates with some fluids.

Hydration Know your liquids. Water is an excellent choice. Coffee and caffeine have different effects on people. Flavored water, tea, hot cocoa, soup, sport drinks, apple juice, almond, soy or cow’s milk are all terrific choices. The more fluid you can consume is beneficial beyond words, both on and off the water.

Ginger Almost all products with ginger, including crystallized ginger or ginger snaps, seem to help people (most ginger ales contain no ginger). Many add peppermint for additional stomach-calming effect.

Pressure point wristbands In order to help, Sea Bands and PSI Bands have to produce a constant pressure on the pressure point located about 1–1/2” below the crease to the wrist. Can be purchased at Target or many pharmacies.

Over the counter medications type products Chemical remedies include OTC products and in extreme cases injectables for offshore. There are many antihistamines that have proven successful. Use the web to see a complete list of current choices. All are marketed as Antimetic Products claiming similar results. The most common drugs used are:  Bonine, Dramanine ll—both are Meclizine  Dramamine—Dimenhydrinate  Bonine for Kids—Cyclizine HCL

Both organic and chemical methods work; it’s finding the right combination with the sea conditions. Personal prevention means finding a solution. Over the counter (OTC) medications need to be taken before departure, many hours early if conditions are expected to be rough. If I know I’m going out in rough sea, I will often take Dramamine—the drowsy version—the night before to get a head start, and then I take a Non-Drowsy or Bonine formula the next morning. Read the directions on the package.

OTC products and natural remedies pose problems for boaters when used with prescriptive drugs. Just remember don’t be mixing your own cocktail of OTC drugs unless you know what you’re doing. If taking prescriptions, discuss with your doctor the best choice for you. Check before combining, including ginger products and herbal remedies. What works for one person may be contrary for you.

NOTES

Section 13: Glossary Baleen

Mysticeties

Calcareous

Dorsal

Falcate

Marine Mammal Protection Act

International Whaling Commission (IWC)

Sagittal crest

Kleptoparasitism

Section 14: Books, Web Resources and Credits You are by no means required to read these books, but they are excellent sources for topics covered. Many are recommendations from experienced Museum Whalers. Search online for good deals on used books. Books Marine Mammal Field Guides

Carwardine, Mark. 2002. Smithsonian Handbook: Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. Dorling Kindersley.

Clapham, Phil. 2001. Whales of the World. Minnesota: Voyageur Press.

Jefferson, Thomas A. et al. 2007. Marine Mammals of the World—A Comprehensive Guide to their Identification, Academic Press.

Leatherwood, Stephen and Randall R. Reeves. 1983. Sierra Club Handbook of Whales, Dolphins, & Porpoises. Sierra Club Books.

Orr, Robert and Roger Helm. 1989. Marine Mammals of California. University of California Press.

Marine Mammal General Information

Chadwick, Douglas. 2006. The Grandest of Lives “Eye to Eye with Whales.” San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Darling, Jim. 1999. Gray Whales. Minnesota: Voyageur Press.

Dedina, Serge. 2000. Saving the Gray Whale People, Politics, and Conservation in Baja California. University of Arizona Press.

Herzing, Denise. 2011. Dolphin Diaries. St. Martin's Press.

Hoare, Phillip. 2010. The Whale: In Search of the Giants of the Sea. Harper Collins Publishers.

Russell, Dick. 2001. Eye of the Whale. London: Island Press.

Birds

Lederer, Roger. 1977. Pacific Coast Bird Finder. Nature Study Guild.

Fisher, Chris. 1997. Birds of San Diego. Washington: Lone Pine.

Nelson, Bryan. 1979. Seabirds. New York: A&W Publishers Inc.

Peterson, Roger. 1961. Field Guide to Western Birds. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Saunders, David. 1976. Seabirds. New York: Hamlyn.

Sibley, David. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Books on San Diego Bay

Perspectives of San Diego Bay, Next Generation Press. 2005. http://www.nextgenerationpress.org/

San Diego Bay, a Story of Exploitation and Restoration. 2007. CA Sea Grant College Program, UCSD.

San Diego Bay, a Call for Conservation. 2009. CA Sea Grant College Program, UCSD. Web Resources This is by no means an exhaustive list. Many of these sites have links to others.

American Cetacean Society — www.acsonline.org/

Scripps Institution of Oceanography — sio.ucsd.edu/

MarineBio — marinebio.org/

Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society — www.whales.org/

Marine Mammal Center — www.marinemammalcenter.org/

Monterey Bay Aquarium — www.montereybayaquarium.org

Cornell University — www.birds.cornell.edu

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration — www.noaa.gov Photo Credits Front Cover: Photos by Jane Mygatt

Bird Image Credits Alcids Cassin’s auklet (on rocks). Sabine's Sunbird (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 Cassin’s auklet (flying). Gregory Smith. Ptychoramphus aleuticus [CC BY-SA 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)]

Boobies Brown booby. Aviceda. (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Cormorants Brandt’s Cormorant. Teddy Llovet. Licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons Double crested cormorant. Dick Daniels. (http://carolinabirds.org/) (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)

Diving ducks Surf Scoter. Alan D. Wilson. (NaturesPicsOnline) [CC BY-SA 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)]

Grebes Western grebe. Dominic Sherony. Western Grebe. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 via Commons

Gulls California gull. Alan Vernon. [CC BY 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Heermann’s gull. Dick Daniels. (http://carolinabirds.org/) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) Western gull. Diliff. Larus occidentalis. Point Lobos, CA, US - May 2013. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Commons

Jaegers Parasitic jaeger. Pjt56. [CC BY-SA 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Loons Pacific loon. Copyright: Audubon Canyon Ranch, Photographer: Gordon Sherman; http://egret.org/node/1218

Pelicans Brown Pelican. Alan D. Wilson. Brown Pelican. http://www.naturespicsonline.com/. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5

Terns Elegant tern. Regular Daddy. Bolsa chica, Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Commons

Shearwaters Black-vented shearwater. Brad Weinert (Courtesy of the photographer).

Wading birds Great Blue Heron. On Rock1wikipedia user Googie man. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons Snowy Egret. © Frank Schulenburg. Egretta thula at Las Gallinas Wildlife Ponds. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.