Subverting Heteronormativity in
Japanese Shônen-Ai Manga:
Gender, Sexuality, and Identity in Tsuda Mikiyo’s Princess Princess and The Day of Revolution, Kôga Yun’s Loveless, and Earthian, and Murakami Maki’s Gravitation
1 Table of Contents:
Index of Images: Page 2
Chapter 1: Introduction Page 3
Chapter 2: The Subversive Nature of Gender Transformations in Tsuda Mikiyo’s
Princess Princess and The Day of Revolution Page 12
Chapter 3: Identification and the Other: Representations of Violated
Heteronormative Space in Kôga Yun’s Earthian and Loveless Page 33
Chapter 4: Assertions of Non-Identity in Kôga Yun’s Earthian and Murakami
Maki’s Gravitation Page 53
Chapter 5: Conclusion Page 74
Glossary: Page 77
Appendix A: Page 78
Bibliography: Page 90
2 Index of Figures:
Figure 1: Page 16: The Day of Revolution volume 1:
Figure 2: Page 17: The Day of Revolution volume 1:
Figure 3: Page 19: The Day of Revolution volume 1:
Figure 4: Page 20: The Day of Revolution volume 1:
Figure 5: Page 22: The Day of Revolution volume 2: 115
Figure 6: Page 23: The Day of Revolution volume 2: 184
Figure 7: Page 27: Princess Princess volume 4: 158-1599
Figure 8: Page 29: Princess Princess volume 2: 90
Figure 9: Page 30: Princess Princess volume 4: 67
Figure 10: Page 37: Loveless volume 7: 93
Figure 11: Page 38: Loveless volume 7: 94
Figure 12: Page 41: Loveless volume 4: 80
Figure 13: Page 42: Loveless volume 4: 81
Figure 14: Page 45: Earthian volume 1: 69
Figure 15: Page 50: Earthian volume 4: 131
Figure 16: Page 59: Gravitation volume 12: 59
Figure 17: Page 63: Gravitation volume 1: 126
Figure 18: Page 69: Gravitation volume 3: 22-23
Figure 19: Page 71: Earthian volume 2: 365
3 Chapter 1: Introduction
The world is based on a model of heteronormativity that exists in all societies worldwide. Within this context, the only forms of identities that are acceptable are ones that support a belief in the nature of heterosexuality as normal and natural.
Heterosexuality is not a concept that is always routed solely in sexuality, but also carries connotations of gender and sex normality. Under notions of heteronormativity, it is only acceptable for a person’s gender, which is based on a conglomeration of social and personal portrayal of culturally specific notions of masculinity and femininity, to match their sex, which is either male or female. However, current social understandings have acknowledged that not only does gender not have to represent sex, but sex itself is not the binary reality presented in heteronormative thought. These identities, commonly regarded as the other in social thought, represent a challenge to the dominance of heteronormative society.
While these identities exist and to some extent pose a threat to heteronormativity, they can also be seen as extensions of heteronormative thought. Identities are formed based on portions of the selves that people choose to represent themselves to society.
They give people frames of references in which to construct their own identities and their own responses. For example, someone may introduce themself as a teacher to which another person may respond as a fellow teacher, student, or administrator.1 Without
identities, people may lose the ability to interact with one another and ultimately fail as a
species. Despite the necessity for identities, heteronormativity constructs identities as
sources of discrimination.
1 Had the person chosen to represent themself as a male to someone who then responds either as male or female depending on the individual.
4 Within its own title, heteronormativity contains the implication that the heterosexual identities are normal, which extends to the abnormity of non- heteronormative identities. Heteronormativity is essentially the discrimination by society of the non-heteronormative individuals who are othered by their sexual and/or gender identities. Even so, the need to carry gender and sexual identity is manufactured by heteronormative society as a way of preventing any form of androgynous individuals.
These identities are developed and portrayed based on social interactions among people.
However, these identities are also developed via the consumption of cultural icons such as literature and film.
Literature and film offer both an interpretation of an identity and the establishment of identity, as the cultural exchange between interpreter and interpreted changes. In the making of the cultural work, the interpreted is reality and the interpreter is the work of art, but upon release to the public, the public becomes the interpreter and the work becomes the interpreted. Thus, not only do cultural works, such as film and literature, represent, how ever unrealistically, society, but also establishes society and identities through its presentation. For that reason, we see films that are typified as a genre based on who the intended viewer is and who is represented in the film. Likewise, it is possible to undergo the same process with newer forms of cultural mediums such as the Japanese graphic novel, manga.
Identity in the Land of Manga
5 While heteronormativity is shared worldwide, identities are all culturally based
and differ from society to society. In Japan, some identities are stressed more than in
other countries. For example, the identities relating to family such as father, mother, son,
daughter, husband, wife, carry more weight than westerners can comprehend because
these identities are formed in the context of Confucian and Buddhist traditions.
Traditionally, Japan has not cared much about gender or sexual identity so long as it did not interfere with aspects of practically based social obligations. As a result, queer identities have not only been present, but flourished for a time, just not based on the notion that same-sex relationships were the basis for an identity.2 Even now, “queer
identities” in Japan are not equivocal matches to those found in the west, which has
resulted in the western view that Japan is behind and not progressive from an LGBT3
standpoint.
The disunity in the base group in the Japanese gay liberation movement, as
revealed in Mark McLelland’s article “Is there a Japanese gay identity?” is a result of
certain social constructs as well as issues regarding identity. McLelland reveals that while
to possibility of identity allows for freedom, it also results in conformity. He argues that
gay identity does not allow for ambiguities, as it is a social construct. Furthermore, the
Western gay identity does not allow for the possibility of heterosexual relationships. A
gay man married to a woman is often seen as hiding in the closet. His marriage is only a
marriage of convenience designed to hide his gay identity. However, marriage in Japan is
an important rite of passage into society and is not necessarily looked at as concealing
identity so much as fulfilling societal and familial obligations. McLelland has done
2 Homosexual and heterosexual were nonexistent to an extent in Japan before 1868. 3 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender + Asexual, Queer, Questioning, Intersex, Pansexual…
6 further work involving the study of homosexuality in Japan, particularly in popular
culture, which begs the question of why so much focus is being drawn to these works and
not the reality of Japanese sexuality.
Over the past decade, the study of Japanese manga and anime has increased
drastically, including the study of shôjo manga, or girls’ comics. Manga and anime are
separated based on the intended demographic that is drawn based on gender. Within each
gendered genre are the numerous sub-genre that are familiar: action, romance, fantasy,
comedy, etc. However, within shôjo manga, there is a sub-genre known as yaoi, an acronym for yama nashi, ochi nashi, imi nashi, which means no climax, no point, no meaning, that was originally used to describe amateur comics known as dôjinshi. The yaoi sub-genre is significant because they are all stories of beautiful boys involved in romantic, sexual, or suggestive relationships with other boys. Furthermore, these comics
are marketed to a female demographic and created by women, which is the reason why in
Mizoguchi Akiko’s PhD dissertation she claims that yaoi has the potential to not only be a feminist genre, but a lesbian feminist genre because of women objectifying men for their own pleasure and desire. Mizoguchi is one of the few scholars that have written on the yaoi genre who happens to also be a lesbian, feminist, Japanese, and a fan of the genre.
Mizoguchi, as well as other scholars of yaoi such as James Welker and Mark
McLelland, have all written on the problematic nature of the representation of homosexuality within the yaoi genre. While they recognize the boys’ love portion of yaoi as potentially homophobic, enforcing at times offensive denials of homosexuality,
Mizoguchi is the only one to really absolve the genre because of its impact on women.
7 None of these researchers have really looked in depth and focused on individual texts.
Mizoguchi’s dissertation contained mostly an investigation into the demographics of
yaoi, while the others have sought mostly to contextualize the genre as a whole, which is
largely impossible because of the variety. However, Mizoguchi provides an exceedingly
brilliant argument with her discussion on the issues surrounding character identification and the formation of adolescent identities, which informed one of the chapters of this study.
In addition to scholars, the yaoi phenomena have been discovered by consumers of popular culture and who have produced their own guides. Patrick Drazen wrote a general guide on the explosion of Japanese anime in the west attempting to explain the reason behind its popularity spike. Both he and Helen McCarthy and Jonathan Clements, the authors of The Erotic Anime Movie Guide, write about the yaoi anime that has been released in America. For the most part, both of the works are absent of any critical information, making broad generalizations without support. While McCarthy and
Clements’ book offers little to no value in the study of yaoi, Drazen does provide an interesting point of contention in his discussion on homosexuality in anime.
The idea of “pseudo-homosexuality” is a problematic idea that Drazen hooks into to explain the acceptability of homosexuality in anime. He defined “pseudo-gay” as a homoerotic relationship involving non-human characters. For example, the relationships between Kawrou and Ikari in Neon Genesis Evangelion and between Chihaya and
Kagetsuya in Earthian are pseudo-gay because one or both of the partners are angels, who cannot be seen as actually homosexual. I staunchly argue against this interpretation, particularly in relationship to Earthian because even if he is right and non-human
8 homosexual relationships are “pseudo-gay,” Chihaya and Kagetsuya are still figures of
identification for the reader.
Ultimately, of all the academic attention that yaoi is receiving currently, none of
them seriously represent the genre outside of the scope of heteronormativity. Despite
McLelland’s prolific attention to the Japanese LGBT community, he becomes more of mediator between western and eastern conceptions of queer identity. Likewise,
Mizoguchi’s identity prevents her from being able to separate identities established in
heteronormative space from her analysis.
Argument
This study does not disassociate itself from the society of heteronormativity, but
presents an argument that undermines it. If heteronormativity is a model of society that
does not simply include the normalized status of heterosexual identities, but also the
abnormalized statuses of nonheterosexual identities, then even the use of
nonheteronormative identities is an employment of the heteronormative system because
without heteronormative identities as a point of references these identities cannot exist.
Without heterosexuality, how can concepts for homosexual identities exist? They simply
cannot.
To undermine heteronormativity, one must argue against the systems that press
for the development of both heteronormative identities and nonheteronormative
identities. I believe that shônen-ai manga is capable of such a feat for three reasons.
9 1. The first reason is the role of gender in heteronormativity is quintessentially
linked with biological sex. In the works of Tsuda Michiyo, Princess Princess and
The Day of Revolution, gender and sex are viewed as separate entities. Princess
Princess follows three boys, Kôno, Shihôdani, and Mikoto, who are forced by the
student council at their all boys school to emulate women at all times and dress up
as Princesses in order to act as normalized objects of desire. While they are
initially employed to prevent same-sex desire from building up, they become the
object of desire regardless of them acting as male or female, which prevents full
on ambiguity to the nature of desire in the manga. Likewise, The Day of
Revolution is about the attempted normalization of the main character, Kei, who
learns that he is actually a woman, and chooses to become Megumi, a woman.
Her difficulties at transitioning from male to female show exactly the nature of
gender is born of societal pressures and not a factor of biology. Ultimately, she
resists attempts to feminize her personality and remains unchanged outside of her
identified sex, her gender becoming ambiguous. In both Princess Princess and
The Day of Revolution the focus of the narrative is on gender transformations as a
way to subvert heteronormative understanding of gendered identities.
2. The second reason for the subversive nature of shônen-ai is a further explored
argument of Mizoguchi Akiko’s idea on identification. Through identification
with the other, it is possible to create nonheteronormative identities. The power of
the other as an object of reader identification is a result of its ability to transcend
identities. Since the other is a status formed by identities that are simply separated
10 from society, regardless of the reasons for a figure being term the other, they can
be related to by anyone else who is the other. In Kôga Yun’s manga Loveless and
Earthian, the characters presented as the other are not a result of queer identities,
but the nature of their bodies and circumstance. In Loveless, the reader is led to
identify with the main characters, Ritsuka and Sôbi, who are a pair, made up of a
fighter and a sacrifice, that do not share the same name. By not sharing the same
name they are transgressing the rules of society that are both moralistic and
scientific. Through that they become the other. Earthian constructs the other by
creating a central figure, Chihaya, as the sole mutated angel with black wings in a
society of angels with all white wings, as a hero. In both manga, we identify with
the central characters who ultimately undermine systems placed as hurdles to
prevent the freedom of the characters. These hurdles act similarly, or in the same
way, as heteronormativity. Thus, we identify with characters whose otherness is a
result of them crossing the boundary and defying “heteronormativity” in some
way that is not through the formation of identities.
3. The last reason I believe shônen-ai manga is potentially subversive is the nature
some manga present queer identities. By assuming and asserting a queer identity,
whether a result of sexual identity or gender identity, one is placing themself in
the position to be compared to heteronormative identities. They are unable to free
themselves from the position of heteronormative ideals. Thus, all sexual or gender
identities reinforce and reconstruct heteronormative identities as a way for the
heteronormative society to always remain in control of everything that attempts to
11 exist as separate entities. However, Yun’s Earthian and Murakami Maki’s
Gravitation, the characters do not attempt to reliably identify their sexualities. In
Gravitation, the central character, Shindô, falls in love with Yuki, another man.
Their romance is constructed as simply a matter of chance and spontaneity, not
the result of some hidden sexual identity. In fact, the main character is forced into
assuming a gay identity at first in order to be taken seriously. However, the nature
of the confession is unreliable and ultimately rejected by the narrative. The
subversive nature of these two manga stems from both the celebrity couple of
Gravitation and the angelic couple of Earthian as spontaneous love that arose
because they did not attempt to limit themselves on an assumed identity
developed in heteronormative space.
Through these sections, I will argue that shônen-ai manga presents the possibility for the ultimate undermining of heteronormative society. This argument will use in-depth analysis of the works briefly described above.4 This study uses only the officially published translated versions of the manga and does not seek to explain the narratives presented in either the original serial magazine run of the series or the original publishing of the Japanese manga.
4 I have also provided a detailed plot summary as Appendix A.
12 Chapter 2:
The Subversive Nature of Gender Transformations in Tsuda Mikiyo’s Princess
Princess and The Day of Revolution
Introduction:
In heteronormative society, gender and sex are inseparable synonyms that can be
used interchangeably. Gender and sex are separated into a binary form with acceptable
standards of masculinity for men and acceptable standards of femininity for women. Such
a form has clearly been the source of a great deal of oppression with the social hierarchy being led by men with women at the bottom. However, the truth is that gender is not a synonym for sex, but can go as far as to be an antonym.
In reality, gender is a socially constructed category that exists separate from sex, which is determined by biological tools such a hormones and chromosomes. Gender is much more complicated as an identity because it is constructed based on performances of masculinities and femininities that vary from culture to culture and country to country. As a result, a person often is capable of having multiple gender identities, especially when viewed from other cultures. For example, from a western perspective, many Japanese men appear to be feminine because they do not emulate the masculine gender qualities that are observed in the west such as musculature, facial hair, and short hair. However, within a Japanese context, where gender is constructed on other aspects of masculinity and femininity, Japanese men do not appear feminine, for the most part. The desire for heteronormative control still maintains what is acceptably masculine and feminine,
13 allowing for some leeway between the two, but still condemning transgressors that pass beyond their acceptable gender performance.
The idea of gender as a performance is not a new idea in Japan. For both men and women cross-gendered performances have been a part of popular culture at one point or another, whether in the all male Kabuki, or the all female Takarazuka. The flexibility in gender allows for a biological man to identify as a woman, but perform as a man.
However, so long as the understanding of a binary foundation of sex remains intact, there remains a scale by which to judge a person’s gender. Problems arise when the binary system of sex breaks down and is destroyed.
The destruction of the binary system is the point of gender transformations. Since, gender is both socially constructed and culturally specific, it allows for separation from sex. Gender transformations act as a way for a person to achieve some sort of liberation from the constraints of sex by letting them choose how to present themselves to the public. Furthermore, the transformations would allow for a disruption of the categories of gender that was normally expressed.
From the beginning of shôjo manga, gender has been a flexible performance that would ultimately preserve heteronormative structures. For example, Tezuka Osamu’s
Princess Knight is the story of a young girl who dresses as a boy in order to remain in control of her throne. It was only necessary until she found a man to marry. However, the manga of Mikiyo Tsuda, Princess, Princess and The Day of Revolution are built on gender transformations that become subversive of the heteronormative balance of gender.
In The Day of Revolution, Kei finds out that he is biologically female, making this series into most likely the first manga series to deal with an intersex character. Kei decides to
14 live as a woman, and is eventually forced to start a relationship with a boy of a similar
ambiguous gender to prevent the relentless pursuit of her former friends. On the other
hand, Princess, Princess and the short reversed scenario, Prince, Prince, present objects of the same-sex, but different gender, to the student population in order to provide an outlet for student desire.
The gender transformations in Princess, Princess and The Day of Revolution are visibly anti-heteronormative because of how gender functions in the narratives. The Day of Revolution results in a “heteronormative” relationship between a man and a woman.
However, both Megumi and Mikoto, appear feminine. Furthermore, while Mikoto attempts to put forth and act a masculine role, he visibly recognized only as feminine while Megumi is still recognizably masculine, both in language and body image. Thus, their relationship appears as at least a reversal of heteronormative couple if not as a lesbian appearing couple.
In terms of Princess, Princess, sexual desire is crafted by men on other men who have a feminine appearance. While they are forced to dress up and wear make up, it is only required during school events and sporting events. The majority of time the
Princesses, Tôno, Shihôdani, and Mikoto, are visibly male. Even when they are out of costume, dressed in the male uniform without any make up, they remain the objects of desire to the male students surrounding them. This constructs a relationship of desire that disrupts heteronormative expectations because it is a female writer who places men into a typically female position as the object of desire to the male viewer.
The Day of Revolution
15
Initially, Kei was in a similar position as the object of desire for other men. Take
for example the series of images from the manga. His friends bring up the reasons why he
occupies such a position even as another boy (see figure 1: Page 16). Kei lacks the
physical traits and appearance of a masculinity that allows him to be placed as an object
of desire for his friends. Tsuda Mikiyo’s The Day of Revolution presents the character of
Kei/Megumi as gender confused, not sex confused, because he/she automatically decides
to live as a female even though she displays more of a masculine performance. Despite
living as a boy for fifteen years, she does not question the revelation of her female
biology. The confusion over her gender arises because she identifies as a woman, but still
projects the same image of masculinity she did as a boy (see figure 2: Page 17). By
having this gender transformation, Mikiyo explores the meaning of sex and gender, and how men and women are placed in relation to one another.
While Megumi’s decision to transform her gender to match her sex is
heteronormative, the ultimate position is subversive. Megumi has difficulties in adjusting,
not because she is biologically female, but because she is trying to reconstruct her gender
as female. Ultimately, the only reason Kei decides to live as Megumi is because he is
only aware of the heteronormative idea that sex and gender are inseparable.5 Later, when given the option by the doctor, Kei tries to change his decision to live as a girl, but his parents refuse him, mostly because of how their relationship as a family had changed and as mostly a concession to comedy.6 Regardless, Kei was unaware that he had a choice in
5 The Day of Revolution 1, 19 6 The Day of Revolution 1, 35.
16 h 17
18 the matter because he believed that a person’s gender has to match a person’s sex because he only understood it in the heteronormative construction of gender and sex. Kei’s naivety is actually a successful attempt at subverting heteronormativity by making the reader understand that the true nature of gender and sexuality is different. Furthermore, while creating Kei as an intersex character, Mikiyo is providing an arguably more acceptable form of gender transformation, as it is not presented as a psychological issue as in transgendered individuals, which can be seen as a result of some sort of nurtured identity, but a psychological issue caused by a biological anomaly, which is formed simply by scientific chance. This apparent concession to heteronormative society actually places this manga in a form that may not have been acceptable by readers. Thus, the overall message is still the powerful argument that a person’s sex does not determine gender.
Following Megumi’s decision to live as a woman, the formerly fifteen-year-old boy has to develop a feminine identity. Megumi’s interactions with Makoto are primarily aimed at teaching Megumi how to become feminine instead to masculine. Makoto gives
Megumi tips on how to walk, how to speak, and other behavioral guidelines; her ultimate goal is the dissolution of any leftover Kei.7 Even so, Megumi’s idea of what femininity is ultimately robs her of her strength. As a boy, Kei was apparently able to hold his own in a fight regardless of his size. However, Megumi appears to have lost that strength she had when she was Kei. Towards the end of the first volume, when an upperclassman tries to rape her, she is forcibly placed in the role of a heteronormative female. For example, in this frame from the manga Megumi appears scared, barely managing to say stop with tears in her eyes. When compared with the image on the next page (see figure 3 and 4)
7 The Day of Revolution 1, 44.
19 20 w
21 with her boldly stating her desire to be free from the situation and then physically attacking the upperclassman with a punch to the face and a kick to the groin, she appears
to have reverted to the masculine woman she has been encouraged to abandon. This
attack represents both Megumi’s absorption of her former Kei identity as well as her
attack on heteronormativity that seeks the submissive, victimized female.
Megumi’s redevelopment of her masculine persona following the trauma from the
attempted rape is seen immediately when she informs Makoto that she will be under
Makoto’s care for the rest of her life8. She refuses any of Kei’s friends’ advances because
men “are burly and scary and annoying…”9 Her revulsion to men does not appear to
vanish either as she does all she can to avoid them throughout the second volume, until
she encounters Makoto’s younger brother. However, Megumi does not view Mikoto as a
man, which may be the reason Megumi can approach him.10 They share the same
experiences, both from now and when Megumi was Kei, of being hit on by guys,
touched, and attempted rape by upperclassmen. Furthermore, as developed in Princess,
Princess, Mikoto is incredibly feminine. Despite Mikoto always scrambling to assert
himself as a man, he eventually allows his masculinity to be overtaken by Megumi’s
masculinity, assuming and accepting the feminine role. Thus, Mikoto is exchanging his
heteronormative role as the assertive male character to Megumi, which flips their
relationship. For example, in figure 5 (page 22) Megumi gallantly steps up in front and
defends Mikoto from her male friends’ bullying. Then again, in figure 6 (page 23), while
Mikoto is initially resentful for being on the receiving end of the kiss, he is evidently fine
8 The Day of Revolution 1, 166 9 The Day of Revolution 1, 167 10 The Day of Revolution 2, 118
22 23
24 with it. The important notion is that Mikoto equates the act of receiving as the female role
and is ultimately accepting of it. As a result, as a couple, Megumi and Mikoto have
demonstrated the uselessness of heteronormative gender dynamics. Furthermore, they are
cast androgynously in a way that is capable of constructing the relationship as both
heterosexual and homosexual.
Megumi and Mikoto’s relationship is built on similar experiences they had as
men.11 Both characters experienced the same harassment before and after Megumi’s
gender transformation. Megumi sums up the way Mikoto is treated by his classmates, “Is
it really true you’re called “Mikoto-chan” and you’re treated like a girl and a plaything
and hit on by boys?12” While Mikoto is male and asserts his masculinity in Day of
Revolution and Princess, Princess, he is constructed as a feminine character.
Furthermore, Megumi has an issue regarding men in that she does not really appear to
find them attractive. Her four friends from when she was still a boy are all her suitors
now, while Megumi does not view them as anything different. Megumi only underwent a
gender transformation; there is not enough evidence in the text to say that she also
became attracted to men13. Thus, Mikoto is a logical partner for Megumi because she did
not previously know him and he has very effeminate features14. The relationship becomes
an androgynous pairing of two people that are very close in gender identity, which casts a homosexual slant to the relationship. Part of Mikoto’s attraction to Megumi is her lack of femininity15. While their relationship is ultimately heterosexual, because Megumi is
11 Day of Revolution vol 2, 63 12 Day of Revolution vol 2, 59 13 It is questionable whether Megumi was or was not attracted to guys before she became female, but since she has always been genetically female it is possible, but not evident. 14 Day of Revolution vol 2, 60 [Also apparent in Princess, Princess] 15 Day of Revloution vol 2, 83
25 certain of her identity as female, despite the amount of masculinity she exudes after living as a male for fifteen years, and Mikoto’s femininity, it gives off the appearance of a relationship between two androgynous characters resulting in the possibility of the relationship being constructed as homosexual.
Princess, Princess
Mikoto, or Miko-chan,16 appears as the reluctant Princess in Princess, Princess.
The purpose of the Princess program is to provide a place where the all male student population can direct their sexual energies at, apparently to prevent “it from going in a strange direction.”17 While this “strange direction” is not revealed, it is obvious from the setting and genre, since BL in particular is famous for antics in all boys schools, that the strange direction would be homosexuality. At first, this constructs the series as homophobic, as it resists the homosexual undertones of the setting. However, how is a male dressing up as a girl to be the object of desire for men, different? While my argument may appear to be contradictory here, claiming that the desire in Princess,
Princess is homosexual despite the portrayal of female gender, the Princesses are first and foremost men. Furthermore, they are only separated from the students in the dorm, having their own rooms and bathroom, but all other times, when going about their daily lives they are with the other students as men. Ultimately, they spend more time with their peers as men, than they do as Princesses. Nevertheless, they are expected to still put on
16 -chan is a Japanese term that denotes intimacy and/or youth. 17 Princess Princess 1, 22
26 the “Princess” performance by raising their peers’ spirits by smiling. As a result, I believe
that ultimately the desire expressed is a mix of heterosexual and homosexual desire.
While Princess Princess lacks the legitimacy that The Day of Revolution’s gender
transformation had because of it being used superficially to turn men into the objects of
desire for “straight” men, Princess, Princess succeeds through this superficiality. For the
most part, when Kôno, Yuujirô, and Mikoto are performing as Princesses it is simply a
visual experience for the male students. As the members of the sewing club reveal, their imaginations construct the Princesses as women. This fantasy is delicate because it is constructed on the physical appearance of the Princesses, which is why the sewing club
demand that the three boys change in the dressing room to preserve that fantasy.18 The main question regarding the existence of the Princess program is the relationship between gender and desire.
The Erotic Anime Movie Guide, refer to the reason why gay men are more likely to desire real life pornography as opposed to yaoi related pornography. They suggest that men base their desire on more physical visuals while women apparently tend to prefer more ambiguity to form their own fantasies. Regardless of the validity of this idea, the men in Princess, Princess appear to be more driven by the sensations of the Princesses than by fantasies. For example, in figure 7 (page 27), they are reacting to the sound of the
Princess bathing or the sight of the Princess bathing, which drives their imagination.
While there is not much evidence of the female imagination presented in the narrative,
18 Princess Princess 1, 104
27 28 the imagination presented by Kôno’s sister is pushed to point of delusion. An example of
Sayaka’s tendency to imagine unreal things is in the third volume when she convinces
herself that Kôno is gay, despite being told the opposite by both Kôno and Yuujirô19.
However, the Princesses still develop, to an extent, psychological aspects that are feminine. While Kôno and Yuujirô go out trying to find themselves girlfriends, they discuss what type of women they like. Yuujirô claims that women “absolutely have to have… big tits.”20 Kôno informs Yuujirô that what Yuujirô is saying, while looking like
a girl, freaks him out. Even though Kôno expects Yuujirô to show interest in the female
body because he is a guy, but because of their jobs as Princesses, he also is confused by
seeing a “female” saying those “perverted things.” (See figure 8: page 29)
Princess, Princess provides more for the consumers’ fantasy than anything else.
Since Kôno and the other Princesses are constructed as women because of their job at
school, they receive attention in and out of uniform. However, desire is never fulfilled in
this case. Mikoto is the only character in the series to actually demonstrate heterosexual
traits through his relationship with Megumi, which, as previously described, is a non-
heteronormative relationship. Even though Mikoto is always spouting about masculine
identity and male pride, his arguments are mostly comical and actually lead to more men
wanting to chase after and violate him. Despite his dislike of participating in the Princess
program, he has one comical moment involving a fantasy of him and Megumi in
matching outfits. (See figure 9: Page 30) This image actively shows the confused state
that Mikoto is in both resulting from his relationship with Megumi and his job as a
Princess.
19 Princess Princess 3, 81 20 Princess Princess 2, 88
29 30 31 Princess, Princess demonstrates how easily masculinity and femininity can switch and flow together, and that a man can be accepted as a woman through identifying him self as an object of male desire. The flow of masculinity and femininity is a function of how quickly the three Princesses are capable of transitioning between their male and female identities. For Kôno and Shihôdani, they manage to do it quickly while Mikoto’s reluctance takes significant time to make the transfer. However, Mikoto is the only
Princess who is able to inhabit the world with both female and male identity simultaneously because he is the object of male desire as both a Princess, as seen in
Princess Princess, and as a male, as seen in The Day of Revolution.
Conclusion:
Tsuda Mikiyo’s work is extensively connected to gender identities and performances. In both The Day of Revolution and Princess Princess, the characters transform their gender either in opposition to heteronormative understandings of gender or desire, or to prevent non-heteronormative conceptions of desire. The simple title of
The Day of Revolution is enough to recognize it as subversive. Megumi’s acceptance of her intersexuality and identification as a woman to match her biological sex is initially a movement understandable as heteronormative. However, the transformation she undergoes after accepting her identity as a woman is the real revolution Megumi creates.
Ultimately, Megumi molds herself the same identity she carried when she was male, but still identified as female, displaying how relative gender can truly be. Princess
Princess further develops the relative nature of gender and the intricacies of desire. Kôno
32 and Shihôdani are able to reconfigure their gender to become the necessary object of desire necessary of the Princess program. On the other hand, Mikoto in largely unable to perform the transformation and is then objectified as both male and female simultaneously. These gender transformations are subversive to heteronormative conceptions of gender because they have complicated the normally simply, binary systems of sex and gender.
33
Chapter 3: Identification and the Other: Representations of Violated
Heteronormative Space in Kôga Yun’s Earthian and Loveless
Introduction:
The identification with the other is an important reason why shôjo manga can be seen as subversive of heteronormative boundaries. Identification allows for the individual reader to recognize parts of themselves in the characters that inhabit the narratives of the manga. The characters become representatives of the reader, recognizable through either their thoughts, actions, or identities, but are not limited by issues such as the reader’s identity or gender. For example, Mizoguchi Akiko wrote in her dissertation that she
identified with the androgynous boy vampires Allan and Edgar from Tribe of Poe. She
claims that through the vampire archetype, she witnessed the right for the other to exist in
the world. Even though they were male characters, Mizoguchi was able to identify with them because of how they were presented as the other and this identification, she claims, was the reason she became a lesbian.21 Furthermore, identification with the other in shôjo
manga can have a great impact on identity formation during adolescence.
In my adolescence, I identified with the character Ikari Shinji from Neon Genesis
Evangelion. Even though I could not relate to his experience or character, I found he
represented the isolation that I had made myself. I was able to watch as he broke through
his own isolation. This identification during my adolescence played a pivotal role helping
me reach my own maturity. In the same way that Mizoguchi’s identification with Allan
21 Mizoguchi, 18.
34 and Edgar, my identification with Shinji helped me form an accepting, non-
heteronormative identity.
Identification, especially the identification with the other are significant because of its ability to undermine heteronormative faculties. The subversion of heteronormative structures does not require identification with a non-heteronormative character identity, because the representation of the other in manga is transferable to reality regardless of the character’s identity that makes them the other. For example, the character Teito Klein in the currently syndicated manga 07-Ghost by Amemiya Yuki and Ichihara Yukino,
becomes the other because he is literally isolated.22 Teito is the sole inheritor to a
country, a powerful magic item, and a former war slave. Even with the relationships he
has with the people around him, he becomes the other because he is very different from
everyone else. Since the manga focuses on him and his experiences, the narrative draws
out sympathy for this character who loses all the close bonds he had. Nevertheless, the
church that takes him in does so regardless of Teito’s past and present, accepting him
completely.
Teito’s identity as the other is not based on identities constructed by our society,
such as gender and sexuality, but on his life experiences. Identification with Teito can be
built simply on his existence as the other and not simply his situation, which is highly
unrelateable. Even though Teito is not the other because of a non-heteronormative
identity, his identity as the other can still be used to form non-heteronormative identities
because the reader identifies with his otherness. The other only exists within a social
context, so the other varies from manga to manga and is not necessarily representative of
the other as we know it. However, when the other directly correlates to the other as we
22 This analysis refers to developments in the first three volumes of 07-Ghost released in America.
35 know in reality, the identification becomes even more powerful such as in Loveless and
Earthian.
For the most part, the other in Kôga Yun’s Earthian and Loveless is constructed both through the direct representation of an other identity and as an allegory for an other.
While, in the case of Loveless, there is still a sense that the otherness is a transfer from reality, the othering in Earthian is a direct correlation to aspects of the other familiar to the reader. In Loveless, the other is a product of the name system that is violated by first
Ritsuka’s partnership with Sôbi and the continuation of Koya’s partnership with Yamato.
While the name system allows for same-sex as well as different-sex pairings, it does not allow for two people with different names to form the partnership. Thus, the name system essentially recreates the notion of heteronormativity in that it is a system that decides what relationships are right and normal and what relationships are wrong and abnormal.
In contrast, Earthian takes a more conventional approach by directly representing the other through the characters of Chihaya and Lucifel. The other in Earthian is a product of both a non-heteronormative identity and physical appearance. Identification with the characters within these two texts, Earthian and Loveless, provides a powerful opposition to heteronormativity because they provide examples of the other as sympathetic characters.
Loveless:
The other in Loveless is most recognizable in the pairing of Ritsuka and Sôbi. In
Loveless, the world is built on a system of destined partners that are joined by name.
36 Ritsuka is a sacrifice, characters who give orders to their fighter during battle and also are
the ones who receive all damage, whose name is “Loveless” and somewhere he has a
fighter that shares the name “Loveless.” Sôbi carries the name “Beloved,” but he is
actually a blank fighter unit that has no name, yet the ability to become a fighter unit to
anyone. There are several other pairs that are placed throughout the series such as
“Breathless,” “Zero,” “Sleepless,” and “Bloodless.” The name system is the belief the
characters have that two people are destined to be together because they carry the same
name. Take for example this image from Loveless. (See figure 10-11: Pages 37-38) The
threads show that there is a physical connection between the names. Both Ritsuka and
“Breathless” have threads that connect to the people sharing their name. This name does
not refer to a given or a family name, but another name that is decided on before birth
and appears visibly upon the body. The name system is incredibly important, acting not
only as a moral guide to partnerships, but a scientific one. Partners who do not share the
same name are weaker in battle because they are not compatible.
If this name system places rules on what partnerships are normal or abnormal,
then is this not a similar construction of heteronormativity? Heteronormativity also argues that it is only possible for one type of relationship. Additionally, heterosexual relationships are the only sexual relationship that can biologically produce children.
Thus, heteronormativity both has a moral and a scientific reason, exactly like the name system in Loveless. In both cases, the other is someone who transgresses those acceptable
37 38 39 boundaries. As a result, the other in Loveless is easily recognizable as the other as we
understand it, despite the differences in reality and in the narrative.
Ritsuka is the initial transgressor and other in Loveless. When Yôji and Natsuo,
the first “Zero,” discuss with Ritsuka the nature of names and the fighter-sacrifice
system, Ritsuka reacts aversely to the suggestion that when “Loveless’” fighter unit
shows up Ritsuka would no longer need Sôbi. Ritsuka answers, “it doesn’t matter.”23
Later on in the same volume, Ritsuka reiterates his dislike for the system and the idea of a
destined partner. In this situation he is having a conversation with Yamato, the sacrifice
for the other “Zero.” Ritsuka tells Yamato that “your partner isn’t decided by name” and
“you choose that person for yourself.”24 The significance of this meeting will be explored later because Ritsuka influences Yamato and Koya’s own transgression. However,
Ritsuka and Sôbi are constantly attacked for not sharing a name. From the first spell battle in the story, they are ostracized from their society through the unwillingness of the other partners to accept them.25
The most passionate verbal and physical attack is incredibly violent. Koya, the
black haired female fighter for “Zero,” is visibly angry at Sôbi for taking another
sacrifice, even more so for not dying with Ritsuka’s older brother, Sôbi’s original
sacrifice. The violence of this situation presents Ritsuka and Sôbi’s transgression as a
moral opposition to Koya. Since Ritsuka and Sôbi are the main characters of Loveless, the readers’ sympathy is directed at them. In this confrontation, the reader is most likely on the side of Ritsuka and Sôbi who are rebelling against the name system. We believe in
23 Loveless vol 4, 83. 24 Loveless vol 4, 119 25 Loveless vol 1, 43.
40 the nature of Ritsuka’s desire for choice and freedom and identify with them. Identifying
with Ritsuka and Sôbi over Koya in this situation is identification with the other.
Koya and Yamato become even greater representations of the other when they are
forced to choose between each other or their belief in the name system. Yamato and
Koya’s relationship is clearly special when compared with the other relationships and partnerships in the series. For the most part, they are the only pair that has established a
romantic relationship. The image on pages 80-81 in the fourth volume visually represents
that relationship. (See figure 12-13: Pages 41-42) Koya and Yamato are not main characters; they only appear at the end of the third volume and half way through the
fourth volume. However, Kôga constructs their relationship as important in someway by
devoting significant time exploring the development of their relationship. For example,
this image is made up of Koya’s thoughts and Yamato’s words on page 80 and then page
81 is a single image of them embracing with “all of you will be mine.”
The relationship between Koya and Yamato transgresses social convention the
moment Yamato’s name disappears from her body. The numerous pairs that are sent to
take Ritsuka to the school uphold this convention. Even Koya believes in this convention,
“How dare you [Sôbi] change your sacrifice?! We are given only one!! If your sacrifice is
dead then so must you die!!26”
26 Loveless vol 4, 22
41 42 43 During their report to Nagisa, the creator of Zeroes,27 Nagisa responds to Yamato’s injury,
“If you ever become a burden, I’m going to replace you with a new sacrifice.” Koya: “No! Yamato is the only one for me. And I am Yamato’s fighter unit.” Nagisa: “That’s only if you were natural. You Zero series are artificial and interchangeable!”28 It is because of their name that they are faced with possible separation. As they are artificial, their partnership is artificially made and not special. Koya and Yamato’s ability to break free after Yamato’s name disappears is can be traced back to Ritsuka and Sôbi.
Before they are to engage in battle, Yamato takes Ritsuka out for coffee to talk to him.
Yamato: “You don’t want to find your name? It’s totally special when two people share the same name. It’s as if Heaven decided it. Your chosen one.” Ritsuka: I hate stuff like that. I make my own choices. Your partner isn’t decided by a name. You choose that person for yourself.” Yamato: “You say that because you know nothing…”29
Ritsuka chooses to partner with Sôbi, despite the taboo on a fighter serving two sacrifices. From this quote it is particularly clear that the partner relationship is constructed romantically by society through when Yamato says, “it’s as if Heaven decided it. Your chosen one.” However, this contradicts the previous scene in which
Nagisa makes clear it was she that decided the pairing and not some mystical work.
Perhaps because they are confronted by their artificiality, they grasp at a romantic notion of the shared name. By the end of their appearance in volume four, they have decided to stay together despite no longer having the same name, “if we have a bond stronger than our names now it shall be tested.”30
27 Nagisa is the creator of Zeroes, known to include Natsuo and Yôji, and Koya and Yamato 28 Loveless vol 4, 49 29 Loveless vol 4, 118-119 30 Loveless vol 4, 154
44 What is particularly striking about how Koya and Yamato’s relationship is played out is how much it resembles compulsory heterosexuality.31 The relation between
compulsory heterosexuality is represented by the name system in Loveless. In this case,
the name is representative of the only acceptable form of desire.32 Take for example an
earlier pair,33 Midori and Ai, who share the name “Breathless.” For Midori, the only
acceptable form of desire is Ai, and for Ai, Midori. It is treated as an assumption that they
desire one another. Going back to the case of Yamato and Koya, the reason they cling to
the shared name is that they are accepted as partners of each other. However, the moment
they lose the name as justification for their relationship they choose to their relationship
over the compulsory belief in sharing one name. Their transgression as a partnership is
particularly subversive because it mirrors Ritsuka and Sôbi’s own partnership, which has
been accepted by the reader because of their position at the center of the series.
Furthermore, Ritsuka and Sôbi’s partnership becomes recognized by others who initially
opposed them. Both the first group of “Zero” accepts the two as partners, and then
“Breathless” accepts them as well.34 Thus, the other receives some acceptance and acknowledgement, which could potentially carry great meaning with identification.
Earthian
Kôga takes a more direct approach in Earthian by approaching the other from a more relatable position. The characters Lucifel and Chihaya are the primary characters
31 Compulsory heterosexuality is a development of heteronormative functions in that everyone is assumed [and must] to be heterosexual and those who “come out” are social and moral deviants. That is why, at this point, the act of “coming out” is largely an experience of non-heterosexual individuals because their identity is not recognized in a world of compulsory heterosexuality. 32 In this case, desire refers to both a platonic partnership or a romantic one, as it remains unclear if all partnerships in Loveless are meant to be romantic. 33 They are the first “normal” pair in the series, as Ritsuka and Sôbi do not share a name, and the Zeroes are artificial. 34 Loveless vol 7, 95.
45 that are recognized to be the other, but there are additional side characters that also fulfill this role such as the android Taki. While Earthian deals with homosexuality directly, with the ban on homosexuality in Eden, homosexuality is not a force in constructing the other because homosexual desire is more wide spread than heterosexual desire. Instead, the other is constructed through the nature and actions. Chihaya is the only angel to be born on Eden with black wings and hair. Even though other angels appear with similar characteristics, they are either dying of the black cancer, artificially created in an Earthian lab, or the product of an Earthian and an Edenian. On the otherhand, Lucifel is constructed as the other through her actions. She rebels against authority and nature, breaking both the forbidden lesbian relationship with Gabriel and the incestuous relationship with her brother Michael. These two examples are considerably different,
Chihaya and Lucifel occupying two opposite ends of a spectrum.
Chihaya’s black wings and hair are a constant source of self-pity. He remains very self-conscious about his wings when he shows them to a handful of Earthians. Take for example this image of Chihaya showing his wings to Daina, one of the background others in the story. (See figure 14: Page 45) Chihaya’s face as he opens his wings and allows his hair to reach its true length matches the words he says before and after. He is afraid she would laugh at him, or that she would say they looked dirty. This visible display of self-consciousness is echoed through Chihaya’s position in Eden society. One of the first encounters the reader has with Kagetsuya, he calls Chihaya “a freak.”35 Even though Kagetsuya calls Chihaya a freak, an event that happened chronologically before this, when Chihaya and Kagetsuya first meet, he has a very different response. Kagetsuya responds to all the background
35 Earthian vol 1, 8.
46 c 47 hatter berating Chihaya for his looks by thinking how “breathtaking” Chihaya truly is.36
This constructs the world that Chihaya lives in and what he is constantly subjected to
because of his otherness that is impossible to hide.
It is very easy to identify with Chihaya because he is one of the most human
characters of the series. Humanity is one of the overarching themes in Earthian and the
characters with the most humanity are mostly those who are others. For example, Taki, a
bio-humanoid, wants to become human. After freeing himself from his obsessive creator,
Taki meets Chihaya who insists that Taki is an Earthian. Taki moves from the other because he is successfully able to become human. Even though, through repeated run-ins with his creator, he is told that the only way for him to become human is to kill a human, his creator eventually recants. He admits that Taki is “more human than those who were born human.”37 Chihaya, Kagetsuya, Taki, and the Black Angels (see Appendix A) are granted humanity because even though they exist as others they save the non-others by repelling Raphael’s attempt to destroy the Earthian. All the members of the team that attacked Raphael were not biologically Earthian because some were androids, half- breeds, artificial beings, and angels. Nevertheless, they become the heroes and there could be nothing more powerful to identify with an other than an other that becomes a hero.
Another interesting dynamic with Chihaya as the other is his relationship with the angel Aya. Aya is a checker for the minuses like Kagetsuya, partnered to Miyagi.
Throughout the series, she expresses her jealous dislike of Chihaya because she claims to love Kagetsuya. While she agrees to marry Miyagi, she does so only on the condition that
36 Earthian vol 1, 154. 37 Earthian vol 3, 191.
48 they wait until Kagetsuya and Chihaya return to Eden. Her acceptance of Chihaya is
visible in the epilogue as she is thinking about Chihaya.38 She has come to accept
Chihaya because all of the next generations of angels were born with the same physical
traits as Chihaya. So, Chihaya only receives acceptance from Aya when he is no longer
the other. While this seems to be counter-intuitive to my argument, Aya has put her entire family into the position of the other. She and Miyagi, despite having a large number of children, remain unmarried, which we see one of her daughters teased for.39 They became
the other out of loyalty to Kagetsuya and Chihaya. Ultimately, Aya’s acceptance comes
out of both Chihaya’s de-othering and her becoming the other.
Unlike Chihaya, Lucifel is not visibly marked as the other, nor does she ever
leave that position. Lucifel ultimately is a problematic character, raising major moral
objections that are hard to detangle her from. However, the complex and problematic
nature of her character is what makes her such an interesting subject despite her absence
for the entire main timeline. Lucifel is an evil anti-hero, an identity that recognizes the
contradictions in her character. Her otherness is routed in her actions, primarily based on
her sexuality.40 In Eden, where it seems it is incredibly common for the angels to experience same-sex desire.41 However, Lucifel is the only character to have sex with
both a woman and a man in Earthian, and she declares “lust” to be her “only god.”42
Despite her claim that lust is her only god, Lucifel’s sexual encounters, as related to us, are not entirely selfish. The only reason she returns Gabriel’s feelings is that she
38 Earthian vol 4, 161-165. 39 Earthian vol 4, 160. 40 In this case, sexuality is referring to sex, and not identity. 41 The only exception in the text being Aya who is only apparently interested in Kagetsuya and Miyagi. 42 Earthian vol 4, 130.
49 “can make her happy.”43 Even though Lucifel does not love Gabriel she still returns her feelings in order to make her happy. Lucifel’s other sexual encounter is the culmination in her relationship with her older brother Michael. Despite being closely linked with
Michael throughout this side story, sleeping together at night and kissing, Lucifel only has sex with Michael the night before she disappears, which is the one selfish act she commits. Nevertheless, these acts largely construct Lucifel as the other as both homosexuality and incest are illegal crimes punishable by death.
Furthermore, Lucifel is very powerful as a character. She says the things that I personally believe I would say. The image on page 131 provides the best example of this.
(See figure 15: Page 50) The reason Lucifel has turned her back on Eden and their god is because of oppression. She is the only character in the whole series that tells Raphael to take his happiness, condoning a physical relationship with Michael. The one thing that never happens through the series is a resolution to Michael and Raphael’s relationship.
Lucifel’s wish ultimately goes unfulfilled despite it being the conclusion I, as a reader, would have liked to see. Even with Lucifel’s largely ostracized otherness, she has
43 Earthian vol 4, 130.
50 51 profound reaches into those that live on after her death. She actually predicts the birth of
Chihaya, and all the misery and hardship that beset the angels, such as the black cancer,
proving that even though she is an other, she can still affect people greatly.
What does it mean to identify with Lucifel or Chihaya? It is easy to understand that Chihaya is a more accessible character to identify with. However, that is not because
Chihaya is easy to identify with so much as it is difficult to identify with Lucifel. These
two characters work together, though, constructing a spectrum of available identifications
and warnings. Lucifel largely serves as a warning because she actively pursues her nature
as the other whereas Chihaya simply exists as the other. Earthian shows that, for the
other, it is possible to belong somewhere. Even if the place you are from is not accepting
of the other, it is possible that it can change. However, there is still the existence of a
place for the other to exist among other others.
Conclusion
The other is the identity given to all people who are different. It is possible for
otherness to result from any number of things, depending on the social context. The
reason identification with this other is important is because it justifies the existence of the
other in reality and provides a place for exploration for the person identifying with the
other. Identification can work in numerous ways, existing both as a replication of reality
or an allegorical representation of the other. In Kôga Yun’s Loveless, Ritsuka and Sôbi
are the primary characters to identify with who are marked as the other by their rejection of destiny and the name system. Koya and Yamato provide a more powerful role as they
52 demonstrate the possibility of change to the other, choosing love over destiny. Similarly, the characters Lucifel and Chihaya in Kôga’s Earthian, provide the other with a great deal of impact proving the abilities of the other to affect people. Identification with these characters combat heteronormativity because the other is a central figure that is designed
to receive the sympathetic responses of the reader.
53
Chapter 4: Assertions of Non-Identity in Kôga Yun’s Earthian and
Murakami Maki’s Gravitation
Introduction:
People establish their relationship with other people based on the identities they assume. Identities are multifaceted, created from a multitude of personages that vary in importance depending on the person. A person chooses whether their gender identity is more important than their racial identity, or if their religious identity is more important than their sexual identity. Ultimately, people separate themselves into groups based on their choice in identities. As people separate themselves into groups based on their own assumption of their identities, groups fluctuate in size and power. Eventually, groups form that represent a majority and, as we have seen in reality, declare what is right and wrong for everyone. Even though smaller groups are usually oppressed by the majority, there is strength in the solidarity formed by shared identities. Despite the solidarity that allows minority groups to effectively challenge majority groups, these minority groups are constructing their identity based on their relationship to the majority group. As a result, even if the minority group’s initial identity was not formed based on an interaction with the majority, it continues and develops in relation to majority and becomes an extension of the majority.
Since identities exist, people are forced to fit themselves into specific holes that construct their identity. All of the groups ostracize the people who do not fit into the
54 categories that are established. As long as people are forced to create identities for themselves, they are forced to give up their freedom of expression in order to fit their identities. Without specifying gender or sexual identities, heteronormativity would be dismantled because nobody is constructed as normal or abnormal leaving no possibility for comparison or hierarchical structuring. However, at the same time identities are visibly capable of contradicting heteronormative hierarchies because they encourage solidarity and provide a place to belong.
The trouble when discussing gay identity is that, while it provides the space for gay men and women to exist, it does so at the cost of conformity.44 Gay identity proposes strict requirements, disallowing those who do not fit into the defined identity category of homosexuality. However, this western model of identity is not true in Japan. While
Americans largely consider issues such as marriage and living together as the epitome of aspirations of gay identity, this model of LGBT rights is resisted largely by “same-sex desiring men” in Japan. Many same-sex desiring men in Japan still aspire to fulfill their societal obligations, which include forming a family with a wife and kids.45 McLelland argues that ultimately, while Japan resists the western form of gay identity and gay rights, they will create their own “gay identity” based on their own experiences.46 In addition, the reluctance for Japanese men to come out based on a western identity model, is a resistance against the “narrow stereotypes” they would be associated with.47 The benefits of coming out in Japan are virtually nonexistent because of different cultural expectations that trump the need to publicly assert sexual desires.
44 McLelland, 463. 45 McLelland, 464. 46 McLelland, 469. 47 McLelland, 467.
55 The resistance to gay identity in manga, especially the assertions of heterosexuality despite a homosexual relationship, is often read as homophobic. This is specifically seen in the boys’ love manga of the past twenty years as Mizoguchi Akiko notes.48 However, interestingly enough, Mizoguchi constructs the homophobia of yaoi as not a phobia of homosexuality, but a phobia of gay identity, which is the fear of publicly asserting a desire that is counteractive of social expectations. I believe that it is possible to arrive at a different conclusion than Mizoguchi’s. Nevertheless, Mizoguchi acknowledges that “there is no single ‘reality’ or ‘truth…’ is represented in these texts.”49
So even though my identity is a polar opposite to her’s as western man, my understanding of the text is legitimized because there is never one simple meaning to any form of media released to the public. The resistance to gay identity that Mizoguchi Akiko argued as homophobic is also a resistance to heteronormative structure. Even if the men in yaoi fictions assert they are heterosexual, the act of sleeping and loving another man represents a resistance to heterosexual identity as well. After all, a straight identified man by association cannot have a romantic or sexual relationship with another man. However, something changes when sexual identities vanish from the text and the assertions are changed from straight identification to the simpler “but I like girls.”
Two specific manga that share this trait of the characters not identifying themselves sexually are Murakami Maki’s Gravitation and Kôga Yun’s Earthian. Out of the two manga series, Gravitation provides the strongest character assertions of
“heterosexuality.” These assertions are considerably stronger as they are made after being called gay, which would construct the homophobia that Mizoguchi argued because they
48 Mizoguchi, 133. 49 Mizoguchi, 115.
56 are asserting heterosexuality in retaliation to the gay identity. However, the assertions are short lived and weak, only consisting of Shindô’s insistence that he likes girls. Absent from these assertions are any self-proclaimed statements of “I’m not gay.” This constructs a median sexuality that cannot be seen as straight or gay. Furthermore, in
Earthian there is no sexual identity at all. While characters admit to sexual desire, they do not assume a specified identity. Additionally, even though the narrative claims that all angels share same-sex desire, it is not true as some side characters express obvious physical attraction with members of the opposite sex. Ultimately, the characters in both
Earthian and Gravitation do not openly identify sexually, but form identities based on their relationships. Thus, the characters do not limit themselves to a particular sex or gender because of sexual identity, but have considerable freedom in that assertions of non-identity allows for all relationships to be possible.
These two manga resist heteronormativity through its assertions of non-identity.
Rather than choosing to identify themselves as gay or straight, the characters avoid those labels. Furthermore, the characters assert their non-identity within a cultural context that is applicable to contemporary Japan. Many scholars often reject shônen-ai as a genre because of its tradition of locating the narrative outside of Japan both in time and space.
That is not the case with Earthian, despite the fantastic setting, and certainly not true of
Gravitation, which takes place in contemporary Japan. When the characters make these assertions of non-identity within an understandable context, the identities that are presented are far stronger. Despite the two manga diverging on the point of the characters’ identities, they ultimately argue that identity is not important to a relationship, but the romantic feelings relating to love, acceptance, and kindness. These seemingly
57 random acts of love transcend everyday assumptions of love and identity. The characters’
transcendence is also only possible through the support of the people around them, which
firmly grounds the relationship within a visible and recognized form. The love these
characters’ present subverts the strict nature of the heteronormative ideals.
Culture:
Strict heteronormative ideals do not exist in the bishônen of the 1970’s shônen-ai
genre “lives and loves outside the heteropatriarchal world inhabited by his readers.”50
Originally, the shônen-ai genre existed in a space far away from contemporary Japan, often assuming the “romanticized Europe of the past.”51 Since the male-male relationship
is constructed outside of heteropatriarchal Japan, the characters become unburdened by
the social and moral constraints that society places on people. This particular aspect of
the yaoi genre has been regularly criticized because of the use of homosexuality without
consequences. However, it provides a fantastical world for the reader to escape to that is free from the constraints of everyday society. Even in manga series released in the past ten years, the male characters carry on their sexual relationships without facing any of the
very real consequences that exist for men in homosexual relationships. However, it is not
the case that all shôjo manga is escapist fantasies as both Earthian and Gravitation
contain the real consequences of homoerotic desire in heteronormative societies.
Gravitation does not create a new world or attempt to create a fantasy vision of
Japan; it is a real, contemporary Japan within the narrative. The manga series takes place
50 Welker, 842. 51 Welker, 842.
58 mainly in Tokyo and surrounding areas, but does venture into New York City for some
time. Essentially, the world the everyday reader lives in is recreated in the manga, with
the exception of the comic relief. The comic relief in Gravitation is usually over the top
with nothing relevant to the story. In the latter part of the series, when Shindô runs away
to New York City and meets Ragê, the comedy takes a heteronormative turn that is then twisted. When Ragê follows Shindô back to Japan, she is excited by the chance to see
Shindô and Yuki together. So, even though Ragê travels in a giant robotic panda, her outrageousness is toned down by her desire to see Yuki and Shindô physically involved, that is partially shared by the readers. (See figure 16: Page 59)
Even with the over-the-top comic violence in Gravitation, the series remains real.
Shindô and Yuki conduct their relationship in secret at the beginning out of fear of the public eye. The fear is a very real experience that is felt all over the world. Shindô defends Yuki’s reputation with his body when Aizawa from the rival band ASK threatens to expose their relationship. While the photographed gang rape of Shindô is perhaps a melodramatic aside, because it has little impact in the overall narrative, it expresses the fear that Shindô felt for Yuki’s career as a novelist. Fear is one of the emotions that solidify the reality of Gravitation because fear is what is notably absent from the early bishônen manga. However, when Shindô and Yuki publicly announce their relationship after the press surrounds Yuki’s apartment, sales for both Shindô’s records and Yuki’s novels rise. Rather than suffer a public backlash, they are placed at a higher level of popularity, which is a logical outcome. Since Yuki is a romance novelist with a largely female fan base, and Shindô is a young rock star, their relationship is more-or-less
59 t
60 tolerated and, at times, adored. The position of Shindô and Yuki as entertainers and artists is what makes the relationship plausible.
Earthian takes a decidedly different approach to establishing reality. By using reality to make the fantasy more believable, Earthian is able to be both fantastical and realistic. In essence, Earthian is a return to the bishônen manga of the 1970’s with androgynous male characters. However, Kôga replicated issues of morality and social expectations, which anchor the story in reality. The most obvious issue is the ban the angels in Eden placed on the physical fulfillment of homosexuality. While there is a ban on homosexuality, it is not due to it being immoral, but a practical response to a crisis. In fact, same-sex desire is considerably more in the majority than not. The reason homosexuality is banned is a result of a population decline the angels are facing on Eden.
Every year, fewer angels are producing offspring and they can only copulate once a year.
Furthermore, with the spread of the black cancer, the overall population is beginning to dwindle. The only practical course of action was to ban homosexual fulfillment as it interfered with their attempts to preserve their species. While Japan, and most Western countries, do not have a ban homosexuality, there remains in Japan the expectation for marriage. Even men in Japan with exclusively same-sex desires want to fulfill their responsibility to Japan by marrying and having children, which are the same expectations in Earthian.
The rigid expectations of Eden in Earthian create the need to escape. After
Chihaya and Kagetsuya are found having sex, they are imprisoned and put on trial. It is in that prison cell that Chihaya turns his back and abandons Eden. Eden’s rules forced
Chihaya to deny his relationship, his love for Kagetsuya in order to save them from
61 execution. Kagetsuya, who admitted to both falling in love and having sex with Chihaya,
joined Raphael on the mission to destroy the Earthians just so he could see Chihaya. They
are reunited on Earth, the only place that they can be together. Rather than offering the
world of escape that bishônen manga of the seventies created, this had the characters escaping from their world into ours. So, when the reader identifies with Chihaya or
Kagetsuya, they are also forced to face the reality of who they are because these two characters exist in the contemporary world that aside from a few quirks is extremely close to us. Rather than providing a place to escape to, the reality of Earthian’s fantasy world
places the reader in the same world they were escaping from.
Both Earthian and Gravitation represent a reality. The realism these two manga is
a divergence from the classical roots of shônen-ai. Rather than tell stories about male-
male love within the far removed worlds of a romanticized Europe without the threat of
consequence, Kôga and Murakami tell stories of male-male love in very realistic world
where the characters face realistic consequences. The manga cease to be a place for
escapism and confront the reader with a representation of real-life. Furthermore, the
characters are able to, in some fashion, conquer the heteronormative structures that would
separate them.
Identities Presented in Earthian and Gravitation:
The identities in Earthian and Gravitation are not central to the narratives. There
is a difference in the way they each deal with the idea of sexual identity. Earthian is the
older of the two by ten years, but the translation was produced around the same time as
62 Gravitation. However, there are no discussions regarding an identity assumed by Chihaya
or Kagetsuya or any of the other characters in Earthian; the characters simply do not
discuss their identity. The fact that they experience same-sex desire is incidental and does
not lead to the formation of a sexual identity, simply a loving relationship. Gravitation,
which started in the near the end of the nineties, contains sexual identities that Shindô
circles around. In every case, however, Shindô’s assertion of either gay or straight
identity only comes at a point in the narrative that he is forced to construct a sexual
identity. While Earthian and Gravitation deal differently with sexual identity, the
characters both ignore their need for one, which is not homophobic, but actually more subversive than having identities that contradict heteronormative identities.
In the first volume of Gravitation Shindô is backed into a corner for the first time.
In order to have his feelings to be taken seriously by Yuki, Shindô has to force out a proclamation of his gay identity. While this could be read as Shindô identifying himself as gay, it is not a conclusion that Shindô reaches with much thought. First of all, on the preceding page, Shindô says, “what the hell am I saying? How many more feet can I get in my mouth?”52 His argument with Yuki is filled with him making leaps at justifying his reasons for visiting and liking Yuki, and since Shindô is not the type to think be for saying he makes the jump to a gay identity simply to justify and win the argument.
Another reason it appears that Shindô’s proclamation of identity was a result of Yuki
forcing Shindô to justify his attachment to another man, is the actual manga frame from
the argument. (See figure 17: Page 63) Shindô’s eyes are clenched, his face is flushed,
and his mouth is open wide with the words in bold, indicating yelling. Shindô’s proclamation is
52 Gravitation vol 1, 125.
63 64 born out of frustration and is the only way he can see of getting Yuki to take him
seriously. After all, a gay identity is only logical if Shindô finds himself in love with
another man.
Even though Shindô announces to Yuki that he is in love with him and that he is
gay, Yuki reciprocates the feelings, but, at the beginning of the second volume, Yuki
says, “I don’t really believe that you are gay.”53 This shows that Yuki did not believe
Shindô’s confession that was forced out of him. Furthermore, even during his relationship
with Yuki, Shindô periodically announces that he likes girls. Shindô never does assume a
“straight” identity, though. Later in the narrative, Shindô does have an extremely short-
lived relationship with Ragê after he is forced to break up with Yuki. However, the issue
of desire, and the displays of desire, for both Yuki and Shindô, is only ever for the other.
As a result, it is impossible to claim that Yuki or Shindô are a specific sexual identity that
they do not assume because they only show desire for each other. Their sexual identity is
only established so far as they desire each other and not other men or women. Desire acts
as a way to undermine any attempts to pin a certain, specific sexual identity on them.
Sexual identity, in this case, is ultimately insignificant because it is not a reason or a justification for their relationship.
With Earthian, unlike Gravitation, sexual identity is nonexistent, only seen in that
the angels share a desire for members of the same-sex. Additionally, it is unclear how
true it is that all the angels experience same-sex desire because it appears quite clear in
tertiary characters such as Aya who desires first Kagetsuya and second, her male partner.
Additionally, Kagetsuya, for a time, courts Gabriel, Raphael’s wife, seeking to produce
offspring. Even though uniform homosexual desire is claimed, there seems to be a
53 Gravitation vol 2, 27.
65 division between assumptions and reality. This division is also a visible factor within
heteronormative society in which the assumption of heterosexual desire is true of
everyone, unless someone identifies as something else. However, in the angels’ society,
even assuming a uniform same-sex desire, homosexuality is forbidden to act on. In this
society, it is not a ban on gay identity, but on the fulfillment of sexual desire. Why is it
then, that none of the characters establish a gay identity?
Even without sexual identities, Chihaya and Kagetsuya still maintain their
personal identities. Chihaya and Kagetsuya do not seek acceptance for a sexual identity,
but for their colleagues to accept or acknowledge their relationship. They are not seeking acceptance for the act the performed, but for the love they share. While on trial,
Kagetsuya defends their relationship. Rather than deny their relationship, Kagetsuya
admits fully to the charges of homosexuality he and Chihaya are being charged with. He
uses his time to fight against the oppressive nature of their society. Kagetsuya asks,
“What’s wrong with two people loving each other?”54 There is no mention of
homosexuality on Kagetsuya’s part, simply arguing over the right for people to love.
Even though their relationship is banned, Kagetsuya does not attempt to fight for his
individual identity, or even the right to have a gay identity, but for the right to love
someone. His comment is devoid of sexual identity and gender identity, showing the
importance of these identities in love is ultimately unnecessary.
What makes sexual identity important and necessary? Both Chihaya and
Kagetsuya, and Shindô and Yuki base their relationships on things that are not involved
with sexual identity. They actually reject rather than embrace the idea of sexual identity
because it is not a true means of justifying their love. The couples’ desires for one
54 Earthian vol 3, 130.
66 another is a result of their love, signifying that love is what established their desire.
Perhaps it is then correct to identify their sexual identity as unique to their lover, but what
would be the point of that? Identities tend to force people to be who they are not. In
heteronormative society, even with an acceptance of gay identities, there is still a control
placed on people to avoid ambiguity. How necessary is it to compromise the self in order
to fit into predetermined identities? The main characters of both Earthian and Gravitation
resist those traps, pursuing a relationship that they may not have otherwise considered if
they had a strong sexual identity.
Random Acts of Love:
Gravitation and Earthian are both romantic stories of characters that transcend
barriers in search of love, barriers that are in place through the replication of
heteronormative society in the narratives. The characters manage to end the stories
arguably happy in their relationships.55 While they are torn apart throughout the series, in both Earthian and Gravitation, they manage to get back and stay together. All of this is
accomplished without identifying themselves sexually; they are not required to assume
gay identities to be in their same-sex relationships. This shows a transcendence of
identity in that they are able to fall in love with someone without placing themselves into
heteronormative derived identities. Even expectations placed on love and relationship by
heteronormative society is passed, as the characters cannot prevent themselves from
falling in love that goes against heteronormative expectations. The ability these
characters have to transcend love, identity, and societal expectations is rooted in those
55 Murakami is currently writing a sequel to Gravitation and apparently, the troubles are not over yet.
67 around them. In Gravitation, Shindô is concerned about causing a public outcry that would hurt Yuki’s writing career, but, when their relationship is publicized, there is no public backlash. Furthermore, Shindô and Yuki have the support of their family and friends, including Yuki’s intended fiancée. Similarly, in Earthian, Chihaya and
Kagetsuya escape to Earth where the Earthians they have been in contact with support them. Even Aya comes to terms with Chihaya’s love for Kagetsuya while she remains on
Eden.
Shindô’s fear of a public backlash that would probably destroy his relationship leads to his rape. His love for Yuki was spontaneous, based on their first encounter. It was not until Aizawa from ASK confronted Shindô does Shindô realize the consequences he faces in his relationship with Yuki. Shindô did not realize, at first, that there was anything wrong with falling in love, even if it was another man. The reality presented by
Aizawa is that Shindô’s relationship would not be accepted and would actually bring harm to Yuki. Even when Yuki is about to confess to the press, Shindô tries to stop him out of fear. However, rather than face an angry, hateful public, they become extremely popular. The public accepts their relationship, but only in so far as a fetishist acceptance as the female public represented in the manga is attracted to male-male romance. Their acceptance relies solely on the popularity of male-male love and the public does not care one way or the other how Shindô or Yuki identify themselves. Even so, the simple act of superficial acceptance assists in removing a stress on their relationship, which helps their relationship survive.
The acceptance of their relationship by the people around Shindô and Yuki is not superficial. Ayaka, Hiro, and Tatsuha have the greatest effect on the pair’s relationship.
68 From the start, Hiro makes it clear to Shindô that “it doesn’t matter if it’s two guys. Love
is love. Don’t get hung up on all that moralistic society crap.”56 Hiro repeats similar
phrases throughout the series. Furthermore, Ayaka and Tatsuha, Yuki’s fiancée and
brother, tell similar things to Shindô. In the third volume, when the story arc involving
Ayaka’s unsanctioned trip to see Yuki in Tokyo, Ayaka initially makes Shindô doubt his
relationship with Yuki. After practically giving up Yuki to Ayaka, Tatsuha tells Shindô that he is the same as Ayaka. Even though Ayaka is Yuki’s fiancée, both Ayaka and
Shindô fell in love for the same reasons. It had nothing to do with Yuki’s gender, but his person. (See figure 18: Page 69) When Ayaka realizes that on a deep level Yuki returns
Shindô’s feelings she gives up and pushes for Shindô to stay with Yuki because that is
what would make Yuki happy. Even with the characters less accepting of their
relationship, such as Yuki’s brother-in-law Seguchi, the resistance is not rooted in
moralistic principles, but in protection, similar to that of Hiro’s.
Earthian also follows a similar vein, although the criminalization of
homosexuality is a reality on Chihaya and Kagetsuya’s home planet, Eden. Even though
there is a ban on homosexuality that both Chihaya and Kagetsuya are well aware of, they
fall in love regardless. Chihaya’s initial feelings for Kagetsuya awoke not from sexual
desire, but from the kindness Kagetsuya showed to him despite Chihaya’s physical
56 Gravitation vol 1, 114
69 70 appearance. Chihaya thinks “that if I could find someone who was kind to me, then
maybe I would fall in love with that person.”57 The love that forms between them is also
spontaneous and comes without them realizing it. For example, in this image (See figure
19: Page 71), Kagetsuya stops to think about his feelings for Chihaya and is shocked to
find that he likes him above everyone else. Their relationship is not attacked until they
are caught copulating on Earth. The outcry from the public is not aimed at their identity
or even their same-sex desire, but at the fact that Chihaya and Kagetsuya consummated
their relationship physically. While this ends up driving the pair to escape from Eden,
albeit separately, they do not simply turn away and run from their home. Rather than
abandon the home that sought their destruction, they turn around and fight against the
oppressive nature of Eden and foil Raphael’s attempt to destroy the Earthian.
Chihaya and Kagetsuya find very little support on Eden. Their only support
comes from Lord Michael, Aya, and Sayaka. For both Aya and Sayaka, their support
comes only after the learn the conviction and truth of Chihaya’s feelings for Kagetsuya.
During the trial, Aya actually interrupts Chihaya’s denial of their relationship calling him
a “traitor” and a “coward.”58 Aya hated Chihaya at the beginning because of his black
mutation and the relationship he had with Kagetsuya, yet in the epilogue she writes a
letter to Chihaya, not Kagetsuya. Sayaka also transforms in a similar manner, getting the
three of them imprisoned by challenging Chihaya to a duel over Kagetsuya. Michael supports Chihaya by letting them reunite as a pair and then later aiding Chihaya’s escape.
57 Earthian vol 1, 167. 58 Earthian vol 3, 140.
71 72 Ultimately, they are unable to do much to help the pair because of the overwhelming opposition, which results in Chihaya and Kagetsuya’s self exile from Eden. Their love persists among their friends on Earth who are also experiencing their own sort of self- ostracization.
Both Gravitation and Earthian are stories of spontaneous love and transcendence.
Neither pair realized or could do anything to prevent their love. It arose naturally regardless of sexual or gender identity. Both Shindô and Chihaya fell in love with their match because they were able to provide something different from everyone else. Yuki was placed in contrast with the superficial girl Hiro hooks Shindô up with, which is established by Yuki’s harsh criticism of Shindô’s songwriting while the girl is impressed.
Kagetsuya is also the first person that is nice to Chihaya, and as a result, Chihaya grows to like Kagetsuya. Their transcendence is possible because they have a source of support that came when needed. The love expressed by the two pairs subverts the strict nature of heteronormative practical ideas because there is nothing practical with their relationships.
Readers bear witness to the organic fostering of love in these two narratives that are possible by the resistance to the inorganic nature of heteronormative identities.
Conclusion:
Kôga Yun’s Earthian and Murakami Maki’s Gravitation are examples of shônen- ai manga that subvert heteronormative identities. The resistance to gay and straight identities in Gravitation, however, is not homophobic. Shindô and Yuki are not afraid of identifying themselves as gay since they are involved in a public same-sex relationship,
73 but there is no reason for them to assume an identity. Because Shindô and Yuki do not identify sexually, they do not demonstrate desire for other people. Their desire is simply for each other, which just happens to be a same-sex desire. The message behind Shindô and Yuki’s relationship is that love is able to transcend identities and heteronormative society. Likewise in Earthian, sexual identity does not exist, only desire creating a society not unlike a heteronormative one. Chihaya and Kagetsuya end up escaping from that society because their love is condemned simply for the preservation of their race.
Kagetsuya defends their relationship, not because they are two men, but because they are in love. The lesson these manga can impart on the reader is that love is dependent on people, not people’s sexual or gender identities. As a result, Gravitation and Earthian are manga that subvert notions that are required to preserve heteronormative society such as the development of sexual or gender identity.
74 Chapter 5: Conclusion
At first I set out to write a thesis on the whole yaoi experience including the
shônen-ai, the dôjinshi, and the boys’ love. This initial approach proved to be
problematic. While shônen-ai has enough works published in translation, the other two
genres are low in substance. Even though dôjinshi, as the main pornographic genre of the
three is filled with amazing possibilities to analyze, they are only translated online by
amateurs. On the other hand, there is just not enough substance to the boys’ love genre in
English because the narratives that are translated are mostly short comics that offer no
real narrative to explore deeply. By focusing on shônen-ai alone, I was still able to make
the same argument, but in a more focused way.
Most of the scholarship done on the genres presented in yaoi are generalized.
With the exception of Mizoguchi Akiko, the majority of scholars, mostly westerner men,
only contextualize the subversive nature of yaoi in the broader experience of Japanese sexuality. They often fall back on historic positions of Japanese constructions of
homosexuality and gender. Mizoguchi Akiko, however, is able to root her analysis within
a contemporary context that very few scholars, and certainly no western men, can do as
she is a part of the fandom. On the other hand, I have attempted to contextualize specific
shônen-ai manga in a broader sense, which is informed, first and foremost, by the narratives itself, rather than the culture that produces it.
I felt it was important to my study to take the approach of having specific manga argue a generalize point because heteronormativity is established worldwide and I did not want to simply argue that it undermines the Japanese system of heteronormativity.
75 Through this approach, my identity becomes less important because I am not an outside
westerner trying to explain something that is uniquely Japanese. Instead, I am an insider
trying to explain that manga is capable of subverting heteronormativity on a much larger
scale. I was encouraged even further by the spread of manga across the world to non-
Japanese and non-English speaking countries.59 This grandiose idea was my intention for
this study and, how ever improbably, was something I hoped to achieve.
The manga I chose for the study, Princess Princess, The Day of Revolution,
Earthian, Loveless, and Gravitation, are all fairly popular works, which adds to the
subversive nature I argue.60 The argument that unites these five manga is that they all, in
some way, dismantle heteronormative identities. Tsuda’s Princess Princess and The Day
of Revolution produced arguments against heteronormative conceptions of gender
identities, which allow for a more fluid system of androgyny and relationships that could
not exist under such a rigid structure. The rigid structure of heteronormativity was
represented and conquered by the other characters in Kôga’s Loveless and Earthian.
Since we are expected to identify with the other in Kôga’s work, we too experience the subversive nature of the characters that undermine the systems put in place to mediate human interactions. For Ritsuka, Sôbi, Koya, and Yamato, they chose to remain with their partner despite not sharing the same name. Chihaya had little choice in his othering
because he was the only angel with black wings and hair, yet we see him rise triumphant
against his home planet, Eden. Lastly, both Earthian and Gravitation demonstrate the
uselessness of sexual or gender identity in describing relationships. Sexual identities
ultimately get in the way of the potentiality for relationships. Under heteronormativity,
59 Gravitation, for example, can be purchased in Spanish on Amazon. There are also numerous websites operated in English that feature people from all over Europe. 60 Proven simply because they are published outside of Japan.
76 would Shindô and Yuki been able to actually publicly announce their relationship? It
would not have even progressed that far because neither character identifies as gay.
While in Japan that does not necessary mean very much as many men engage in gay
relationships while identifying as straight. However, for the most part, they are not
exclusive relationships that are in the public eye. Thus, Gravitation and Earthian suggest
that love is the true basis for desire and sexual identity is not needed.
This study ultimately reflects my own arguments regarding heteronormativity and identity. Is it truly necessary to define oneself based on sex, gender, or sexual identity? The only reason these identities exist is to make love easier to find. Yet, these identities result in worldwide discrimination and the perpetuation of heteronormativity. Heteronormativity would crumble if it did not have a relationship to declare normal or abnormal. I recognize that this is clearly an idealist perspective and implausible, but I feel that the ultimate goal that could unite both feminists and LGBT rights activists should be the elimination of the categorizations that lead to their oppressions. I also recognize the danger this position could have in undermining both movements because I am arguing for the dissolution of their solidarity. Ultimately, I want this research to provide a possibility for a different perspective on the nature of identity in the space of heteronormativity.
77 Glossary:
Japanese:
Yaoi: Umbrella term for the genre that includes dôjinshi, shônen-ai, and boys’ love
Shounen-ai: Boy love, literally, refers to the genre marketed at adolescent females
Bishounen-ai: Beautiful boy love, genre of shônen-ai popular in the 1970s
Seme/Uke: The aggressive top and submissive bottom of a male-male relationship in yaoi
Shoujo-ai: Girl love
Bara: Pseudonym used by gay men
Yuri: Term developed by lesbians as a counterpart to bara, however now is almost exclusively a term for lesbian porn for male consumption
Shounen/Shoujo: Boy/Girl
Dôjinshi: Fan/Amateur comics: began in the eighties, mostly pornographic magazines about favorite manga/anime characters that do not actually engage in relationships during the series
Boys’ Love: Genre that emerged in the nineties as the commercialized version of yaoi, marketed at older women
78 Appendix A:
Earthian
Earthian began its original run in Japan in 1988 in a magazine called Wings,
which was marketed to women ages sixteen to twenty. It was not until 2005 that the
series was released to the US audience via BLU Manga a section of Tokypop that
specializes in yaoi releated imports. This five volume manga series was also adapted into
a four episode OVA61 starting in 1989.
Earthian is Kôga Yun’s take on the classic angel motif that is fairly popular
among manga readers. Humans are dubbed Earthians by a species of aliens62 that live in
outer space. The story focuses on one angel in particular, Chihaya, who has an unsual
appearance. While other male angels63 tend to be larger, and all angels tend to have blond
hair and white wings, Chihaya is petite and feminine in appearance with black hair and
wings. As a result, he is usually ostracized because he is associated with a disease known
as the black cancer that is becoming a growing concern among the angels. Through his
remarkable appearance and his skills in academics, the orphan Chihaya is adopted by
Archangel Michael and goes on to attend the military academy.
Archangel Michael is fed up with the Earthian, who are either loved or hated by
the angels. As a result, Michael demands judgment on the Earthian and sends angels in
teams of two to count the positive and negative aspects of the species destroying Earth.
The team of two is made up of one checker for the positive aspects and one for the
61 Original Video Animation 62 Yun Kôga’s Confession 63 Easiest way of describing them
79 negatives. Chihaya’s goal is to become a checker of the positives, leading him to become
valedictorian of the military academy.
At the academy, Chihaya meets another student named Kagetsuya. Kagetsuya is
both the epitome of physical aesthetics and a high-ranking member of their society. They are both struck by each other, Chihaya by Kagetsuya’s beauty and compassion, and
Kagetsuya for Chihaya’s unique beauty. During the portion of the manga that takes describes Chihaya’s experience at the academy, Kagetsuya repeatedly rescues Chihaya from malicious bullying as a result of his appearance, leading Chihaya to declare his feelings of ‘friendship’ for Kagetsuya despite homosexuality being a capital offense.64
Kagetsuya and Chihaya are later paired up and sent to Earth in order to judge
mankind. While Chihaya’s selfish selflessness often creates problems for Kagetsuya, it
soon begins to rub off on Kagetsuya and they soon develop a close relationship. When the pair return to space following an investigation into the black cancer and a fallen
Archangel, they are forcibly separated to prevent transgression. Kagetsuya receives a new partner, a younger angel who idolizes him, while Chihaya is give a vacation before he would ascend into the position of Seraphim, the Archangel who succumbed to the black cancer following his relations with an Earthian that produced a half-breed girl, the chief checker for the pluses.
During their separation, Chihaya understands his feelings for Kagetsuya and
Kagetsuya enters his heat season.65 they eventually consummate their relationship on
Earth. While they hoped to remain in secret, another angel sent to retrieve them after
Seraphim’s daughter who has both a resistance to the cancer as well as superior powers
64 Do to the translation and the layers of complexity revolving around “suki” it is not apparent if Chihaya is declaring simply friendship or romantic feelings. 65 Angels have mating seasons once a year.
80 attacks the military base witnesses their lovemaking. When on trial, Chihaya chooses to
deny his love for Kagetsuya who is being accused of initiating their relationship, hoping
that they would spare Kagetsuya.
While waiting in prison, Seraphim’s daughter, Elvira, who also has black hair and
wings, comes to Chihaya to help him escape so that he can help her prevent the
destruction of the Earthian. Archangel Michael, Chihaya’s adopted father, decides to
allow the two to escape, and is imprisoned by his ‘friend’ Raphael. Raphael orders the
destruction of Earth and proceeds to take a warship designed for the sole purpose of
destroying mankind. Kagetsuya joins Raphael, secretly planning to join Chihaya on
Earth.
On Earth, Chihaya meets up with Elvira and her fellow ‘black angels’. Having accelerated her aging through her own will she has given birth to a second generation of
half-human half-angel children, both immune to the cancer destroying the angels and
with the abilities to fight the invading angels. Chihaya and Kagetsuya meet up again and
along with a humanoid android Taki and a pyrokinetic girl, they defeat Raphael forcing
him to choose with destroying humanity and never returning to Eden, or return home.
The story ends without explicitly saying what happens to the four. Although it is clear
that Kagetsuya and Chihaya would never be able to return home.
The fourth manga volume released in the United States contains short stories
detailing event occurring before and after the series. It attempts to clean up the ambiguity
around the bizarre love square between Lord Michael and Raphael, Michael’s dead twin
sister Lucifel and Raphael’s wife. The story also cements the important details that lead
to the banning of homosexuality and the reasons the population is decreasing. At some
81 point, all angels became only attracted to the same gender. Since these relationships
would not produce offspring, homosexuality was banned and angels were forced to marry
in heterosexual pairings. However, this regulation did little to solve the problems because
the angels’ sex drives continued to diminish being forced into relationships simply for
procreation.
Lucifel, who is violent and unfeminine, forces Michael into a sexual
relationship.66 When she meets Raphael, who shows intense interest in Michael, they
become enemies. Michael is meek in comparison to his sister and oblivious to Raphael’s
feelings. Raphael learns of the relationship between Lucifel and Michael and in turns
proposes to Lady Gabriel. Their marriage is of convenience since Raphael is in love with
Michael and Gabriel is in love with Lucifel.67
For a period of time Lucifel disappears, when she returns she is near death and
she meets with Raphael. Despite both of them sharing such hatred for the other…
Chihaya appears to be the child Lucifel left at the orphanage. It is unknown if Chihaya is a product of Lucifel’s relationship with Michael, or if Lucifel mated with an Earthian, but she knows the truth of the black cancer and how to prevent it.
Loveless
Loveless began in Monthly Comic Zero Sum in May 2002. It was later adapted into a twelve episode OVA and both are available in America. This series is also still
ongoing so there is currently no conclusion yet.
66 As Lucifel is portrayed as an androgynous woman wanting to be male it has no contradiction. 67 At one point Lucifel allows Gabriel a night in her bed.
82
Loveless is a fantasy story, much like Earthian, however this series focuses on
“kemonomimi” a slang term used to describe characters with animal ears and tails. Only some of the characters have “their ears” signifying that the loss of one’s ears is connected
to the loss of one’s virginity. The story circles around a twelve year old boy named
Ritsuka.
Ritsuka is the new kid in school. His mother suffers from some unmentioned
mental condition that leads to her abusive nature. Ritsuka had an older brother, Seimei,
who would protect him since his father would be at work leaving Ritsuka to be beaten.
However, shortly before they moved, Seimei was burned alive in Ritsuka’s elementary
school chair. Also, when Ritsuka turned ten, his mother claims that he became a different
person. As a result, Ritsuka is suffering from amnesia, unable to remember anything from
before he was ten and living an existential existence, believing that he will soon
disappear when the real ‘Ritsuka’ returns.
At school on his first day he meets Yuiko who desperately tries to become friends
with him. While Ritsuka is mature and complex, Yuiko is childish, naïve, and simple,
often making simple observations that are often overlooked. While at first Ritsuka refuses
her, they eventually become friends along with another boy, Yayoi, who has a crush on
Yuiko.
After Yuiko plainly states that Ritsuka is like two different people, he runs from
her and out of the school gates where is grabbed by an older man. Ritsuka observes first
that the man is an adult because he does not have his ears. The man introduces himself as
Soubi, telling Ritsuka that he was a friend of Seimei’s. Ritsuka’s undying devotion to his
83 ‘perfect’ older brother leads him to invite Soubi to “make memories” by taking pictures together at the park.
Soubi reveals that Seimei instructed that Ritsuka should inherit Soubi. Ritsuka is then plunged into a world of sadomasochism, magic, and battles. While at the park, they are attacked by a pair of children a little bit older than Ritsuka named Aoi and Midori.
Ritsuka is intended to be the sacrifice for Soubi who is a fighter. In battle, the fighter uses words as spells to constrict and bind the opponent’s sacrifice. Even though, Soubi is the fighter, he can only operate under Ritsuka’s instructions. This quirk to Kôga’s series is the point of much frustration as the series is ongoing and has not explained nearly enough regarding the reasons for the battles and fights.
After the battle, Ritsuka learns that Seimei was killed by Septimel Moon, some sort of secret organization. Ritsuka makes it his mission to discover who and why his brother was murdered. For the bulk of the available series, the story focuses on developing Ritsuka’s relationship with those around him. Yuiko grows to fall in love with him, his homeroom teacher who still has her ears becomes stronger through a desire to help Ritsuka’s treatment at home, and Ritsuka slowly begins to value his existence more.
Eventually, Ritsuka makes contact with Septimal Moon via an online role-playing game, which makes him begin to question whether his brother is truly dead. Slowly, Septimal
Moon is becoming less of an antagonisitic society as an unknown character tries to persuade Ritsuka’s mother that if she kills her son, Seimei would return home.
Frustrated with the lack of information, and Soubi’s reluctance to discuss his relationship with Septimal Moon, Ritsuka orders Soubi to take him to the Seven Moons
Academy. Kio, Soubi’s only friend, forces Soubi to bring him along. In the car, Kio tells
84 Ritsuka about Seimei’s relationship with Soubi and why Kio hates him: the scar etched
into Soubi’s neck baring the word “Beloved” was done by Seimei. Kio relates how
Seimei has abused Soubi, both mentally and physically, causing Ritsuka to become
confused with his own vision of his brother.
It becomes clear that Seimei is indeed still alive. While at the school, Seimei and
his true fighter attack for unknown reasons. It is also revealed that Soubi is a blank
fighter unit, meant to replace a dead or lost fighter. Soubi’s hatred of the school is due to
the relationship he had with Ritsu, the headmaster who trained him as well as took his
ears. Currently, Nisei, Seimei’s fighter and the person who had tried to have Ritsuka’s
mother kill Ritsuka, was caught at the school. Seimei escapes after ordering Soubi to help
him. Unable to ignore orders from his master, Soubi breaks open a window and Seimei
escapes with Kio as a captive.
Princess, Princess
Mikiyo Tsuda68 is a relative newcomer to the manga scene, publishing Day of
Revolution, her first manga title, in 1998. Princess, Princess is her first longer series, and began publishing in August of 2002 in the periodical Wings. This series is loosely tied to her first two publications Day of Revolution and Family Complex, both of which will be
dealt with later.
Kôno Tôru is a sudden transfer student to Fujimori Academy, an all-boys high
school. His parents died in an accident early in his life and he was taken in by his Uncle
68 She makes clear that this is in fact her shôjo penname and she has a different alias for writing explicitly BL.
85 and raised along side his cousin/step-sister Sayaka. Kôno’s sudden decision to transfer in
the middle of the semester is because of Sayaka, who has developed a psychotic
obsession about her cousin she plans on marrying69, including injuring women who got
close to Kôno, and herself.
On the first day of classes at Fujimori, Kôno already suspects something different
at the school. He receives a great many more stares than he expects to as a transfer
student and when he is placed next to another student, Yuujirö Shihôdani, he mistakes
him for being a girl. Kôno soon discovers that he has been chosen as a candidate for the
Princess program.
The Princess program is apparently unique to Fujimori, put in place in order to provide an outlet for the adolescent, all male, energies that build up. Every year a new group is chosen among the incoming younger class who has feminine beauty. Yuujirô is one himself. Kôno accepts his selection as a Princess because of the financial benefits involved, desiring to be a lesser burden on his Uncle. As a result, Kôno, Yuujirô, and a third student Yutaka Mikoto, dress up in women’s clothing, make up, and wigs in service of the school.
The Day of Revolution
The Day of Revolution is Tsuda Mikiyo’s short companion series that was released prior to Princess Princess. The two volume series is the story of a fifteen year old boy, Kei, who learns that he is intersex and decides to live as a woman. Kei initially acted out, playing the part of a delinquent teenage boy, smoking on his school’s rooftop
69 This is all revealed gradually throughout the first four titles in the series
86 with his buddies during lunch, as a way of trying to get attention from his father. When
Kei and his family find out that he is biologically female, they decide to start over and
Kei becomes Megumi.
Megumi reenters her school as a freshman the next year, having been physically
acclimated to her new found sex. With the help of Makoto, the daughter of her doctor,
she tries to fit into the school that she was in when she was still Kei. Unfortunately, her
desire to keep her former identity a secret is virtually destroyed when she and Makoto
uncover the popularity that Kei and his friends had accumulated at the school. As a result, eventually her old friends find out that Megumi is actually Kei.
Megumi’s old male friends reintroduce her into the group as the object of desire.
All of them profess their love for her and wish to go out with her. Unable to deal with the sudden change in their relationship, Megumi rejects them. During this, an upper classman who is resentful from when he and his friends were ousted by Kei’s group, who were freshmen at the time, kidnaps Megumi without knowing her past identity. Eventually
Megumi blurts out a comment that causes the upperclassman to realize that she was Kei, and he attempts to rape her. Megumi fends him off, but suffers psychologically and decides that she will stay with Makoto for the rest of her life.
Makoto, not all too unpleased with netting herself Megumi, tries to set Megumi up with her old male friends. However, Megumi avoids them completely, constantly running to the safety of Makoto’s house. On her first visit in the manga, Megumi meets
Makoto’s younger brother, Mikoto (from Princess Princess). They establish an attraction to one another and eventually begin dating. Megumi does not see Mikoto so much as a man because he is very feminine. She sees him much as she sees herself when she was
87 still living as a boy, which is the reason Makoto believes their relationship will work.
Mikoto eventually stands up to the much older male suitors and he and Megumi begin their relationship officially, with Megumi as the aggressor.
Gravitation
Gravitation began its publication run in 1996. It is the series that Murakami Maki is most known for. The series includes a twelve volume manga series, two novels, and unlicensed dôjinshi created by Murakami herself. Currently, a sequel series is being published in Japan. Gravitation is to yaoi in the United States as to what Akira is to anime, both are considered to be the root that caused the surge in popularity.
Gravitation follows the singer, song writer, synth player Shindô Shuichi and his guitarist friend, Nakano Hiroshi, as they graduate from high school and form the next sensationally popular rock band. While trying to compose the lyrics for a new song for a battle of the bands at his high school, Shuichi comes under criticism by a beautiful strange young man in the park at night. Unable to get the man out of his head, Shuichi obsesses over this unknown figure to the point of being unable to get his work done on his music.
While on a date set up by Hiro to get his mind off the strangers, Shuichi impulsively jumps in front of a red sports car driven by the same man. Thus begins the strange romance that is the focal point of Gravitation. While Shuichi does not find out the
88 man’s name until a little later, Yuki Eiri, and not until much later does he find out his real name is Uesugi Eiri.
The name Yuki was chosen by Eiri as a penname and because it was the name of the first man he loved and killed. In Eiri’s70 childhood, he moved to New York City with his brother-in-law, Seguchi Tohma, to avoid the harassment over his foreigner appearance. Eiri falls in love with his tutor Yuki Kitazawa, and is lured into an empty building and gang raped. During the rape, Eiri shoots all of the men present, including
Yuki. This event traumatized him as well as Seguchi, who develops an extreme over- protectiveness of his younger brother-in-law that leads to violent and psychologically damaging retribution of those who try to hurt Eiri.
Kitazawa is a hurdle that Shuichi has to overcome because even though Kitazawa had betrayed Eiri, Eiri still loves Kitazawa. The only reason he was upset over
Kitazawa’s betrayal was because Kitazawa was paid ten dollars to allow someone else to have Eiri first. Eiri and Shuichi’s relationship is extremely bumpy and eventually comes into direct violation of Seguchi, who is both the CEO of the record label producing Bad
Luck and the synth player of a legendary band, Nittle Grasper. Seguchi demands that
Shuichi leaves Eiri if he wants to remain in the music business. While this is actually
Seguchi’s idea of a lark, Shuichi runs away with his American manager to begin a music career in America.
Bad Luck rises fast in popularity, helped by the press that leaks Shuichi and Eiri’s relationship71 and signals the downfall of fellow band ASK, who's lead singer targets and has Shuichi raped on film for blackmail. However, for the most part the relationship
70 I use the first name for clarification purposes, in the manga, he is mostly Yuki. 71 Eiri is, himself, a celebrity romance novelist.
89 between Eiri and Shuichi is seen as perfectly fine. By the end of the series, Shuichi effectively kills the ghost of Kitazawa with the help of Yoshiki Kitazawa, Kitazawa’s former younger brother who has become a woman and Bad Luck has conquered even the reunion of Nittle Grasper.
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