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UBEats (Universal Education Achievement Tier in )

Created and Produced by

The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

and North Carolina State University

with funding from the National Science Foundation UBUniversal BioMusic EducationE AchievementATS Tier in Science Module Overview and Preliminary Information

UBEATS BioMusic Curriculum for Elementary Grades 2/3 and 4/5

UBEATS is a BioMusic formal education initiative funded by the National Science Foundation as a Discovery Research K-12 exploratory project.

The project is a collaboration of The University of North Carolina at Greensboro and North Carolina State University.

Project Leadership Dr. Patricia Gray, PI, Clinical Professor and Senior Research of BioMusic, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Dr. Sarah Carrier, Co-PI, Assistant Professor, Elementary Science Methods, North Carolina State University Dr. David J. Teachout, Co-PI, Associate Professor and Chair of the Department, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Dr. Eric Wiebe, Co-PI, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, College of Education, North Carolina State University

Virtual Mentors Dr. Roger Payne, (whale songs) Ocean Alliance Dr. Steve Nowicki, (bird songs) Duke University Dr. Don Hodges, (music/brain) The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Dr. Doug Quin, (bioacoustics) Syracuse University Dr. Tecumseh Fitch, ( communication) University of Vienna

Advisors Dr. John Bransford, PI, NSF-SLC LIFE Center, College of Education, University of Washington Dr. Cynthia Williamson, Director, Curriculum, Instruction & Technology, North Carolina Dept. of Public Instruction Ms. Christie Ebert, Arts Education Consultant, North Carolina Dept. of Public Instruction Dr. Sam Houston, North Carolina Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education Center, Research Triangle Park

Consultants Ms. Zebetta King, NC Science Teacher of the Year 2009 Mr. Philip Blackburn, composer and bioacoustician, American Composers Forum

Doctoral Research Fellow Ms. Cathy Scott, UBEATS Program Coordinator. Ph.D. candidate in Science Education, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Teacher-Authors Ms. Debra Hall, Kenan Fellow, Science Specialist, Bugg Creative Arts and Science Magnet School, Wake County School System Ms. Crystal Patillo, Kenan Fellow, Music Specialist, Bugg Creative Arts and Science Magnet School, Wake County School System Ms. Cathy Scott, UBEATS Fellow, Science Specialist, Ph.D. Candidate, University of North Carolina at Greensboro Ms. Christen Blanton, UBEATS Fellow, Music Specialist, St. Pius Elementary School, Greensboro, NC Ms. Carmen Eby, UBEATS Fellow, Music Specialist, St. Pius Elementary School, Greensboro, NC

UBEATS Module Overview and Preliminary information (i) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home What is BioMusic? Don Hodges, (music/brain) UNCG; Doug Quin, (bioacoustics) BioMusic is an interdisciplinary field—, animal Syracuse University; and Tecumseh Fitch, (animal communica- communication, , music theory, neuroscience, tion) University of Vienna. , bioacoustics, and evolutionary anthropology—that Advisors include: Dr. John Bransford, College of Education, studies how music’s biological and cognitive elements are University of Washington; Dr. Cynthia Williamson, Director, expressed in relationships and meaning-making in and Curriculum, Instruction and Technology, North Carolina non-human communication systems. Department of Public Instruction; Ms. Christie Ebert, Arts BioMusic is an outgrowth of the scientific concept of Education Consultant, North Carolina Department of Public . Lead researchers in BioMusic initially worked Instruction; and Dr. Sam Houston, North Carolina Science, through the National Music Arts’ BioMusic Program at the Mathematics, and Technology Education Center, Research National Academy of and now are part of the Music Triangle Park. Research Institute (MRI) at the University of North Carolina Consultants include: Ms. Zebetta King, North Carolina Science at Greensboro. BioMusic researchers have presented at the Teacher of the Year 2009; and Mr. Philip Blackburn, composer American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and bioacoustician. meetings and published articles in Science and other peer- ______reviewed journals. BioMusic research focuses on the underlying structures and Wild Music: & Songs of Life, is a BioMusic informal processes of human music-making as a communication system science education project that includes a 4,000 square foot and compares it with other systems. science exhibition, public programs and website (www. (NOTE: In the BioMusic context, we use the term ‘music’ to mean wildmusic.org). Wild Music, funded by the National Science a complex system of communication based on , time, and Foundation and Harman Industries, is a project of The University intentionality.) New research confirms human musicality is based of North Carolina at Greensboro, the Science Museum of in genetics suggesting deep evolutionary roots (Science News Minnesota, and the Association of Science Technology Centers, special edition, 2010; Zenter and Eerola, 2010). Key to exploring Inc. Wild Music was guided by a prestigious international the biological foundations of animal communication and human multi-disciplinary board of science advisors (see website) music-making is understanding how manipulating time and and includes institutional partners­—Cornell Laboratory of sound is grounded in the natural sciences. Ornithology, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, American Composer’s BioMusic research studies the commonalities of musical Forum, and the Exploratorium. The exhibition provides a rich, sounds in all —in relations of sonic patterns, , interactive environment that employs multisensory learning and rhythms, volume, structures, and significance—and their role outstanding listening experiences. The exhibition is bi-lingual in biodiversity. Current interdisciplinary research areas include and accessible to the visually impaired. Wild Music also includes bird songs, whale songs, songs, mice songs, music a website (www.wildmusic.org) that is an interactive, up-to-date perception in apes, human brain/music, prehistoric musical tool- science information resource; a School Outreach Guide; and a making, bioacoustics, nanotechnology, physics of sound, and Compendium of Live Performance opportunities that provide habitat as bio-indicators. integrated musical experiences. Wild Music has been the subject of the Association of Science and Technology Centers BioMusic Education Initiatives Roundtables for Advancing the Profession; has presented public UBEATS (Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in programming in each host site featuring musicians of diverse Science) is a ‘science of music’ formal education curriculum for musical cultures and scientist-musicians; and has commissioned elementary grades 2 to 5. UBEATS was developed over two-and- new music by renowned naturalist/composer Steve Heitzig. a-half-years by The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Wild Music and UBEATS share many of the same advisors and and North Carolina State University with funding from the consultants. National Science Foundation. Two teams of in-service teachers comprised of science teachers and music teachers developed ______innovative modules for upper (i.e., 4th and 5th) and lower elementary (i.e., 2nd and 3rd) grades that conform to national UBEATS Websites science and music standards. The lessons feature inquiry- UBEATS project description: based learning that builds science-processing skills through http://performingarts.uncg.edu/music-research-institute/ investigations of the natural world’s musicality. The current research-areas/biomusic/ubeats materials have gone through various iterations after two years For UBEATS educators: of testing in elementary classrooms across North Carolina. https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home Virtual Mentors include: Roger Payne, (whale songs) Ocean Alliance; Steve Nowicki, (bird songs) Duke University; www.wildmusic.org

UBEATS Module Overview and Preliminary information (1) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home Goals and Strategies

UBEATS incorporates BioMusic concepts into elementary math and science curricula and enables science and music teachers to collaborate to teach students about biodiversity, physics of sound, animal communication, animal perception and cognition, human , and cultural diversity.

The UBEATS Basic Assumptions and Beliefs

Science Music

UBEATS Modules consist of Science activities that allow UBEATS Modules consist of Music activities that allow students students to tell a story. The story narrative is based on the to find affinities with others and the external world. The process scientific inquiry genre. That is, it has a formalized structure is based on perceiving musical structures in both sound and time based on scientific ways of thinking and expressing oneself. across human and other animal cultures. The use of innate human music faculties is grounded in contexts of scientific inquiry and in ways of creating alternate pathways of expression and meaning.

The UBEATS Modules narrative is built around the inquiry cycle The UBEATS Modules exploration of music concepts and the as articulated in the National Science Education Standards. The process of music-making supports the National Music Education purpose of the narrative develops both enhanced conceptual Standards. The purpose of the musical activities is to engage understanding of a particular science topic, but also develops in structured listening and doing that enhances conceptual basic science process skills—scientific ways of thinking and doing. understanding of science and the process of music-making.

The UBEATS Modules use the science notebook as a powerful The UBEATS Modules use the creation and imitation of musical tool for organizing and recording this narrative. structures across cultural and species’ lines as powerful tools for engaging students in the process of meaning-making.

The UBEATS Modules use some existing Lab activity kits that The UBEATS Modules use some existing music education provide resources for developing the narrative, but they are materials and recorded music that provide resources for not an end unto themselves and are not the central driver for developing awareness of musical processes, but they are not an the activity. end unto themselves and are not the central driver for the activity.

The UBEATS Modules use reflective thought as central to the The UBEATS Modules build on an understanding of music- module’s narrative and thread this practice throughout the making as the manipulation of sound/time for the co-creation individual lesson plan’s activities. The lab work (i.e., equipment of meaning. Both perceptual and cognitive processes are setup and preparation, conducting the investigation, recording developed in wide-ranging settings to enable new analytical the data) is not the majority of time spent on the activity. The skills and to support new creative approaches. lab work is preceded by a development of what is known and what is to be explored and is followed by a synthesis of the findings, reflection back on what the initial goals were, and where one would go next to find out more.

The UBEATS Modules assume that ‘All students can do The UBEATS Modules assume that ‘All students can do music.’ science.’ Both interests and core abilities mean that students’ Both interests and core abilities mean that students’ awareness narrative will vary in both their grasp of the science concepts of the other will vary in both their grasp of the science and and process skills and in exactly how they express themselves. music concepts and their process skills and in how they express UBEATS activities allow for these ranges, within the logistical themselves. UBEATS activities allow for wide ranges of doing constraints of the classroom. music, within the constraints of the learning environment.

UBEATS Module Overview and Preliminary information (2) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home Opportunities—How UBEATS Modules offer New Ways to Enhance Learning

1. UBEATS modules focus on how the auditory system is used for observation and sense-making. They focus on building Aural Skills as important observational tools and central to the development of science process skills at the elementary level.

2. UBEATS modules offer opportunities for students to engage with sound analysis techniques and to invent notational systems for recording aural observations. The curriculum encourages students to think about how representing the data in words, graphics, numbers, etc. can help them further understand sonic phenomena. Because a crucial part of direct and reflective science is the representation of data, auditory data provides an opportunity to have students think about how one should represent these data initially and how it can be re-represented. This is both valuable and different than what most science activities offer. 3. UBEATS Modules show that using symbols to capture auditory events enables students to develop analytical skills and develop technology skills. Multiple ways of representing aural events and musical experiences provide both scientific and cultural perspectives that offer important and diverse ways to access and reflect upon information.

4. UBEATS Modules build on motivating and engaging students through their innate interests in music. In addition to exploring the biological foundations of music-making, the modules explore how the properties of sound and the structures of musical sounds are used in the natural world to communicate and are adapted for human music-making.

5. UBEATS Modules use auditory data to more fully understand many scientific phenomena. 6. UBEATS Modules help build deep listening skills in combination with traditional music -training skills to enable a better understanding of others.

7. UBEATS Modules’ auditory-based activities can potentially offer opportunities to ESL students (and other students for whom language is a barrier) that are not available with activities that are heavily based on the written and spoken word.

National music and Science EDUCATIOn Standards Integrated in UBEATS Modules

National Music Education Standards National Science Education Standards

Goal 1: Singing alone and with others (K-8) Content Standard A: Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry Goal 2: Performing on instruments, alone • Understanding about scientific inquiry and with others, a varied repertoire • Employ simple equipment and tools to gather data and extend the senses of music (K-4) Content Standard B: Physical Science Goal 3: Improvising melodies, variations, • Properties of objects and materials and accompaniments • Position and motion of objects Goal 4: Composing and arranging music • Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism within specified guidelines (K-4) Content Standard C: Life Science Goal 5: Reading and notating music • The characteristics of organisms Goal 6: Listening to, analyzing, and • Organisms and their environments describing music (5-8) Content Standard C: Life Science Goal 7: Evaluate music and music • Structure and function in living systems performances • Reproduction and heredity Goal 8: Understanding relationships • Regulation and behavior between music, the other arts, and • Populations and ecosystems disciplines outside the arts • Diversity and adaptations of organisms Goal 9: Understanding music in relation to history and culture (K-8) Content Standard E: Science and Technology • Abilities of technological design • Understanding about science and technology • Abilities to distinguish between natural objects and objects made by (K-8) Content Standard G: Science as a Human Endeavor

UBEATS Module Overview and Preliminary information (3) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home Resources & Preparatory Information

Timing of Lessons: A lesson is not necessarily equal to one class period. Time estimates for each lesson are suggestions based on beta testing in classrooms over a two-year period. The teacher is given the flexibility to design the flow of the concepts with how class periods are organized.

Website URL’s Referenced in Lessons: The Lessons cite URL’s for specific websites that support the content and activities. URL’s work differently in different browsers; if you’re having difficulties, type the URL into a different browser, i.e. Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, etc. The websites are also linked at the UBEATS users website.

UBEATS Users Website: This is a dedicated website for potential and current users of the UBEATS curriculum. It is a resource for sound files, websites, and other materials. We invite registered users to share ideas, new resources, and updates with the entire UBEATS community. This will enable future additions and refreshed UBEATS iterations. Please go here to register and participate: https://sites. google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home

RavenLite™ is a sound analysis software program used throughout the 4/5 module. It is available for free from Cornell University at: http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/RavenVersions. html#RavenLite. The software program provides both sound samples and visual representations of sounds, called ‘,’ for a wide variety of birds and other . After downloading, to access these, open Raven Lite™, then select ‘Open Sound Files.’ Check the sample you want to hear and then press enter. The file will open and play the sound while showing the .

Musical Instrument Resources: You may need to contact a music specialist teacher in your school or district to help you acquire or borrow some of the following instruments for various lessons found in the 4/5 module. Additional community resources could include music clubs, performing arts organizations, churches, music stores, and private music teachers. The list of musical instruments used in the UBEATS modules are:

• Classroom Instruments: These are music instruments typically used at the K-6 Elementary level. They may include xylophones, Metallophones, Glockenspiel, Finger Cymbals, Triangles, Woodblocks, Hand Drums of various sizes, Claves, Tambourines, Maracas, Boomwhackers, etc.

• Percussion and Wind Instruments: These are instruments used in most band programs. They may include Woodwind Instruments (e.g., flutes, oboes, clarinets, saxophones), Brass Instruments (e.g., horns, trumpets, trombones, euphoniums, tubas), and Percussion Instruments (e.g., snare drum, cymbals, bass drum, timpani).

• Guitar and Other Stringed Instruments: These are instruments found in specialty classes (e.g., guitar class at the secondary level) or in the orchestra. Stringed orchestral instruments include the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.

References

Science News, Your Brain On Music, Special edition, August 14th, 2010; Vol.178 #4

Zentner M., Eerola T. 2010. Rhythmic Engagement with Music in Infancy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, March 15, 2010, http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/03/08/1000121107

UBEATS Module Overview and Preliminary information (4) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home LESSON FORMAT

5E Engage Explore Explain Elaborate Evaluate UBEATS curricula includes two modules – a 2/3 module with 17 lessons and a 4/5 module with 17 lessons. The modules are integrated sets of age-appropriate, inquiry-oriented learning activities based on the 5E learning model developed by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS). In this model, each ‘E’ refers to one of the five stages of a lesson activity: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate. This lesson model serves as the template for all UBEATS lessons in both modules and gives each lesson’s activities an organized and predictable structure that enhances learning. The above icons are used throughout the modules for easy recognition of the lesson’s sections.

UBEATS Module Overview and Preliminary information (5) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home UBUniversal BioMusic EducationE AchievementATS Tier in Science

Concepts and Science Process skills

BioMusic is a field of study that incorporates ideas from biology, animal communication, ethnomusicology, music theory, neuroscience, physics, bioacoustics, and evolutionary anthropology. The ways these areas converge are unique and complex. What follows is information presented across two sections.

The first section, BioMusic Concepts: A Guide, presents a series of concept statements and terms intended to illuminate BioMusic’s rich and varied nature. These terms are used often throughout both BioMusic Modules.

The second section, Science Process Skills – From a BioMusic Perspective, presents six traditional science process skills with descriptions common to the world of science education. Subsequently, each traditional description is followed by an enriched contextualization of that process skill from a BioMusic perspective. BioMusic Concepts: A Guide

Concept Statements

1. Describing Sound 4. Sound and the Environment 2. Sound Construction and Organization 5. Sound and Visual Representation UB3. Physics of Sound EATS6. Sound and Human Technology Terms Each of the terms is coded to the concept statement in which it is discussed (e.g., items coded with (1) can be found in the ‘1. Describing Sound’ concept statement).

Absorption (3) Echolocation (4) Niche Hypothesis (4) Sound Wave (3) (4) (1) Patterns (2) Spectrogram (5) Amplitude (1) Geophony (4) Phrase (2) Syrinx (4) Amplification (6) Human Music Making (2) Pitch (1) Tempo (2) Anthrophony (4) Instruments (2) Reflection (3) Timbre (1) Beat (2) Larynx (4) Repetition (2) Time (1) Biophony (4) Loudness (1) Rote Singing (2) Tools (2) Call (2) Medium (or Material) (3) Rhythm (2) Vibration (1) Call and Response (2) Melodic Contour (2) Signature Sound (4) Vocalization (2) Duration (1) Melodic Pattern (2) Sine Wave (5) Wave Form (5) Dynamics (2) Musical Instruments (6) Songs (2) Echo (2) Musical Memory (2) (4)

Describing Sound

Central to describing sound is to realize that sound is the result of vibrating objects that produce waves of energy (i.e., 1. sound waves). Vibrations can be thought of as the end result of the energy of sound traveling through matter in waves. The oscillation of matter back and forth is described as a vibration. The wave describes how the energy changes in direction and intensity over time. These waves travel through most all types of matter (i.e., gases, solids, liquids) and are received by our sensory system into what we know as sound. The matter being oscillated can be a gas, liquid or solid, though it is most readily visible to the human eye in liquids or pliable solids (e.g. oobleck). While the basic sensory systems of the brain register the energy waves as vibrations or sound, the higher functions of the brain process the information by grouping into meaningful units such as a musical phrase or spoken sentences or clauses. To talk about sound, we need to have descriptive language.

Amplitude/Loudness: How loud we perceive a wave represents the amplitude or loudness of the sound sound to be is determined by the width of the vibration wave. Amplitude roughly describes how much energy of the sound wave. Because a sound wave is created the sound waves have. by vibrating material made up of atoms and molecules, The distance that vibrating molecules move is there exists a relationship whereby the larger the always very small. Humans can discriminate changes in distance available for the molecules to move back the sound of just a ten-millionth of an inch. However, for and forth, the faster the molecules will move and some vibrations, you can actually see the material move therefore, the louder the sound will be. The distance with the human eye. Since it takes more energy to move that vibrating molecules move is also related to the a larger surface area of material, the larger the vibrating amount of energy required to move the molecules, surface, typically the louder the sound. Another with the more movement resulting in louder sounds. important factor is the distance between the source of Because sound is waves of energy, sound is often graphically represented as a wave. The height of the continued

Concepts and science process skills (7) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home the sound and the listener. As the wave moves through frequencies (over 20,000 Hz); whales and a medium (including air), the energy is absorbed and can hear (frequencies below 20 ). dissipated. Loudness will drop off the farther you are are used in medicine to provide prenatal away from the sound source. scanning. can be made by earthquakes Loudness is typically measured in decibels (dB). and thunderstorms. Examples of loudness levels (though they vary due to the proximity to the source of the sound) are: the rustling Timbre (pronounced tam-bur): Timbre can be described of leaves is about 15dB, a conversation is about 45dB, a as the quality of the sound. Rarely ever does the sensory vacuum cleaner is about 75dB, and 150dB would result system detect a single sound wave. Instead, our in immediate deafness. Loudness is sometimes also detects multiple sound waves of different loudness referred to as volume. The higher the volume, the louder and frequency. Often, multiple waves emanating from a sound is. Musicians often refer to a sound’s amplitude a single source will combine to form what is perceived as the dynamics of a sound (see Dynamics in Section 2). as a single sound. Many different sound sources may have combined waves that produce what seems to be Frequency/Pitch: The rate at which an object the same pitch, but they will still sound different. Two vibrates (e.g., the number of vibrations per unit of time) instruments (e.g. a violin and a clarinet) can play the determines the frequency or pitch of a sound wave. same pitches but sound very different. This difference Again, using the wave representation of sound, applies to how we perceive all sounds. One way we frequency describes the time it takes for a vibration describe these different sound wave combinations is by wave to go forward and come back to its original saying they have different timbre. position; so if three vibrations occur in one second then The material that sound interacts with, as well the frequency is said to be three vibrations per second. as ‘how’ the sound is made, has characteristics that Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) where one vibration affect its timbre. While we can mathematically describe per second is equal to 1 Hertz. the combination of sound waves each sound maker When you blow across two straws having different creates, timbre is used to describe these differences lengths, the sound made by each straw will be different. based on how we perceive a sound. Because of this, we This is because the column of air within each straw use descriptive words to characterize these perceptions. is vibrating at a different rate. When measuring the Some adjectives used to describe timbre include: frequency of the vibrations, we are able to measure very Brassy Heavy or Light Resonant precisely. For example, many music ensembles tune to Breathy Mellow Rough A=440hz. Interestingly, most humans are unable to hear Clear Metallic Rounded fine distinctions between a small range of frequencies; Dark or Bright Piercing Sharp for instance, distinguishing between 439hz, 440hz, Flat Raspy Strident 441hz, or 442hz. Instead our brains group these Gravelly Rattly Warm/Smooth frequencies into a category that is assigned as a ‘Pitch.’ Harsh Reedy So 439hz, 440hz, 441hz, and 442hz is averaged as ‘A.’

Pitch and frequency are nevertheless co-dependent. The Time/Duration: How long a sound, a pattern, or higher the frequency – the higher the pitch, and the lower an event lasts is as important as which pitches are the frequency – the lower the pitch. The air in the short used or the timbre of the sound. Time is a fundamental straw will make a higher pitched sound than the air in the component of communication systems for all animals. longer straw. Brains perceive and organize time in units of duration – Sound can only be heard if it is in the frequency a process that unfolds by recognizing the nuanced range that the animal or human’s sensory system can differences of short and long – and on several levels perceive. Humans are able to hear frequencies from simultaneously. Typical hierarchies of time include: 20 Hz (a low rumble) to 20,000 Hz (a very high pitched the moment, seconds to minutes to hours to years to whistle). Sounds that exist above that range are referred lifetimes (see Beat and Rhythm). to as ; sounds below our range of hearing are referred to as infrasound. Animals have different hearing ranges than humans although we overlap hearing ranges with many animals. Dogs and cats can hear ultrasound

Concepts and science process skills (8) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home Sound Construction & Organization

The internal relationships of the elements of music-making and other types of communication events shape the message 2. and select the possible participants. Some species have a wide range of options for participation, perception, and meaning- making while others are more narrowly determined. How these elements are used depends on the specie’s genetic inheritance, its cognitive capacities, and the complexity of the social system that supports its survival. While these elements are individually represented in the communication of other species, human music-making uses all of these elements in wide- ranging combinations to construct cultural meaning.

Beat: All animals have physiological functions that and inflection of dynamics for interpretation and operate with a sense of regularity (i.e., heart beat, inhale/ performance plays a large part in musical expressiveness exhale, walking, running, etc.). We call a regularly in human cultures. Changes in dynamics, whether recurring, underlying pulse – the Beat. It assists brains sudden or gradual, can affect listeners emotionally and in organizing external sonic information and is central physiologically (see Amplitude/Loudness). to real-time social interactions. For instance, a crowd Echo/Rote Singing: An exact repetition of an external can spontaneously clap along at a concert because sound or sound pattern. individuals are feeling together the underlying pulse or beat. The Beat is basic for coordinating actions with an Human Music Making: Recent scientific research ‘other’ (synchrony or turn-taking) and is fundamental for has established that humans are born musical. All normal music-making. Whether doing or listening, the beat helps human beings are born with a suite of abilities that are organize the way time is perceived and manipulated. required for communication, including music-making, and may be found in other animals’ communication Call and Response: Human music-making builds systems. They include the ability to: (a) entrain a beat; on the importance of same/different and repetition by (b) distinguish one pitch from another; (c) remember constructing an alternation between Response (same sound patterns. pattern always repeated) and Call (changing pattern after Response). This form is often found in work songs Melodic Contour: Pitches are perceived as rising or songs associated with ritual or religious practices. It or falling, going up or down, getting higher or lower, enables a musical pattern to unify the group (Response) or staying the same. This ability makes it possible while an evolving message or pattern (Call) advances to describe a series of pitches (the up/down/higher/ the intent. lower) as a shaped line. This visualization of the moving direction of pitches – rise/fall/same – illustrates how the Call: An animal’s Call is a simple vocalization that brain interprets patterns, phrases, or whole melodies as functions to maintain contact among members of a melodic contour. group. In non-human animals, calls alert others to danger or to potential food. Melodic pattern: A pattern of pitches. The ability to discriminate pitches moving high to low, low to high, and Dynamics: Loud and soft sounds can be discussed in staying the same is foundational to perceiving patterns. two different ways – Dynamics or Amplitude. and acoustic engineers measure the precise intensity of a Musical Memory: The ability to recognize and recall sound as amplitude, which is indicated with a particular combinations of pitch patterns, rhythms, tempos, specific number representing a decibel level (db). Dynamics also timbres, and slight variations of all of these is essential refers to loud and soft sounds but also represent the for culture building, group identification, and full continuum between soft and loud sounds. Dynamics, participation in human musical cultures. Types of musical as used in music-making, is an impression of loud and memory are represented in the wild and are required soft that is influenced by its context. For instance, in a for survival. Scientists study other animals’ abilities to loud environment one sound may be perceived as softer discriminate these essential elements and to require than another but if the same sound is placed in a soft exact copies or to accept and create modifications. For environment, it may be the loudest sound. Dynamics in humans and other species the quality of musical memory music are typically indicated by descriptive Italian terms is fundamental for recognizing group members and such as piano (soft), mezzo piano (medium soft), mezzo high valued events. Human cultures assign important forte (medium loud), forte (loud). Unlike the objective and values to specific types of music-making and associate consistent nature of how decibel numbers represent the these valued expressions (emotional or iconic) with full loudness and softness of amplitude, the manipulation participation in a culture. continued

Concepts and science process skills (9) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home Patterns: Brains are constantly working to organize recognize rhythm in a percussion solo or an imbalanced information from the external world. One of the ways brains clock’s tick-tock pattern or a distinctive door knock or in the do this is to recognize repetitions in sensory information way a person walks. and to organize them as a memorable unit. It is easy to see Songs: In animals, Song is a complex learned a pattern: X X X P X X X P X X X P. But we can also hear this vocalization. For human music-making, it is a complex, pattern if you sing or play the same pitch and duration of learned, non-speech vocalization. In birds and other the sound for X and a different pitch or different pitch and animals in the wild, Songs are typically used to identify duration for P. When hearing sound patterns – our brain individuals or groups, establish and defend territory, and can recognize pattern organization by pitch, by duration, or attract mates. While humans use songs in these ways as a combination of both. Recognizing ‘Same’ and ‘Different’ well, human songs are also vehicles for emotion, memory, are essential qualities used by our brains to organize and and meaning-making. use patterns. Sound patterns are the basis for all animal communication and human music-making. Tempo: Brains perceive the speed of sounds or sonic events. In music, tempo is calibrated by measuring the Phrase: A phrase is a unit of combined melodic and/or speed of the beat or pulse in relation to the minute. In rhythmic patterns that form a longer unit and is perceived Western Classical music notation, tempo is indicated to the as a clear demarcation point. It is not the full, complete performer by a value representing the number of beats per statement or idea but rather a sub-unit of the whole. For minute (e.g., beat = 60), which provides a quantitatively instance, if you sing: “Row, row, row your boat gently consistent indication of the rate of the speed. Tempo may down the stream” – you have sung one phrase. The next also be indicated descriptively by words that provide phrase is: “Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, life is but a stylistic meanings. For example, ‘presto’ is used to indicate dream.” Animal songs also subdivide into phrases that swiftly or fast, ‘andante’ indicates a walking tempo, and scientists study and compare. ‘adagio’ indicates a tempo that is slow and graceful. Repetition: Brains pay attention to repetition. It is Regularity and predictability of the beat are critical the way brains perceive pattern, and the way that elements for the perception of the speed of patterns, organisms communicate successfully with each other phrases, and the anticipation of cohesive musical events. over time. It is an essential component of memory. In the wild, the tempo of sonic events conveys important In non-verbal communication such as music-making, species and environmental information. And changes in the repetition of musical patterns or phrases signifies tempo, especially sudden tempo changes can indicate a importance. Human music-making builds on this need for a response or an action. Many sound sources phenomenon by using repeating snippets or phrases to within a biome or ecosystem occur at various tempos (e.g., organize listening or participation in the whole musical bird calls, sounds, leaves rustling in the wind, wind event. For example, repetition can be a short three- moving through trees, etc.) but may have interdependent note combination (motif) such as the beginning of the tempo relationships. This interplay among speeds of 1st movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony (click on the sounds of a biome, e.g., the same breeze that slowly http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4IRMYuE1hI ) or a moves tall trees back and forth may also move the leaves longer phrase that repeats such as the first half of “Old on the ground producing a rapid rustling sound, imparts MacDonald Had a Farm.” In other animals, repetition of important listening awareness. pattern, phrase, or song also represents significance. For Tools/Instruments: An external means or device used instance, songbirds use short repeated patterns to build to extend the body’s innate capacities to create sound. distinctive songs similar to the Beethoven example, and Musical instruments are tools that enable humans to whales sing repetitions of long phrases similar to human make higher or lower pitches of sounds, louder sounds, song construction. Repetition by echo of an ‘other’ also different quality of sounds, longer lasting sounds than contributes to bonding and social cohesion. vocalizations or other body generated sounds are able to Rhythm: Rhythm is a combination of short and long time do. The acoustic properties of spaces are also tools. Other durations organized by an underlying beat. Recognition species also use tools and acoustics for sonic extensions and performance of rhythms are key elements for and advantage. music-making and for animal songs. Brains organize Vocalizations: Vocalizations are the general the occurrence of sounds, actions, or movements as categorization for sounds that are internally generated combinations of short and long time units or rhythmic by the body and are used externally for communication. patterns. Rhythm and Rhythmic patterns are distinctive Vocalizations include songs and calls. even without a melody and influence how we hear a melody (pitch/frequency patterns). For instance, we

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As described previously, sound energy is a form of mechanical energy. Sound energy is produced through vibrations as 3. they travel through a specific medium. Sound vibrations cause waves of pressure which lead to some level of compression and rarefaction in the mediums through which the sound waves travel. If a sound wave is of large enough amplitude and an appropriate frequency, we can not only hear it through our , but can feel it with our body. This sensation is produced by the material that contacts our body (e.g., the air around us or the piece of metal we have our hand on) and transfers the sound energy through waves.

Absorption: The characteristics of materials determine waves is typically referred to as the acoustical properties of how much sound energy is absorbed. Materials and their the material. surfaces can transform sound wave energy into other kinds Reflection: Reflection can be thought of as a redirection of vibrational energy by spreading it out and redirecting it of sound waves. Higher frequency waves that are more in ways that diminish the original sound wave’s directed directional are more easily reflected in a specific direction. energy. This absorption can be achieved by both the For instance, when a makes a high-pitched sound it microscopic properties of molecules and how they bond, bounces off the wall of a cave as an ultrasound ‘echo.’ The but also the macroscopic properties of how the material bat can detect the distance to the wall due to the amount is shaped. A material like foam sheeting or carpeting is of time it takes for the sound wave it created to go out to good at sound absorption both because of the microscopic the reflecting surface and return. The term ‘echo,’ as used properties of the material and because the material’s shape here, describes the time delay between the wave going out includes millions of crevices that trap and redirect sound and returning. A wave can reflect off of multiple surfaces waves. Even though molecules in gases are distributed at different locations, creating multiple echoes at different farther apart than those in solids, gases still absorb some time delays. Dolphins also echolocate using high frequency sound energy. This affects the sound’s amplitude, or clicks. When a dolphin makes a clicking , the sound loudness, because it falls off the farther one is from the vibrations bounce off the object, and return to the dolphin sound source. How much sound energy is absorbed is by traveling through its lower jaw, into to its ear, and finally dependent both on the frequency of the waves and the to its brain. Because different materials of different sizes and type of gas the sound waves pass through (see Amplitude). shapes will absorb and reflect sound waves differently, the Medium or Material Characteristics: Sound waves dolphin’s brain is able to distinguish the object’s shape, size are considered longitudinal waves and are characterized by and location through echolocation. Dolphins can distinguish their push-pull motions. Sound waves move through each between different materials such as tin or aluminum cans, of the mediums (air, gas, solid) by vibrating the molecules live or dead and items as small as a pea. in the matter. The molecules in solids are packed very Objects like smooth, hard plastics, metal, concrete, tightly. This enables sound to travel much faster through a or polished stone are unable to trap wave energy or solid than a gas. Sound waves travel about thirteen times absorb the sound’s energy. These materials therefore faster in wood than air. Liquid molecules are not packed as are good reflectors. Additionally geometric properties or tightly as solids and therefore sound waves will typically shapes such as concave parabolas, can reflect, collect, and pass through more slowly than solids. Gas molecules are concentrate sound. (i.e., amplified). This is why satellite very loosely packed. Sound travels about four times faster dishes are shaped the way they are (see Acoustics in and farther in water than it does in air. This is why whales Section 4). can communicate over huge distances in the oceans. Sound waves also travel faster on hotter days as the Sound Wave Characteristics: Depending on the molecules bump into each other more often than when it is frequency and other characteristics of a sound wave, it cold. Quantitatively, sound waves travel at a rate of 19,685 may have a very specific directionality (i.e., unidirectional), feet per second in granite, at approximately 4,900 feet per it may spread out in all directions (i.e., omnidirectional), second in water and 1116 feet per second in air. or somewhere in between. You can get a sense of the Sound waves interact with matter in complex ways. directionality of a sound by walking in a circle around the Sound waves travel through solids, liquids, and gases at sound source and sensing whether the loudness changes varying speeds because the composition of molecules as you circle. Generally, the higher the frequency of a differs in each state of matter. Sound waves will always be sound wave, the more directional it is. Standing right altered in some way by the material that they interact with. in front of a speaker, you hear pitches across the full As the sound waves pass through a material, some of the frequency range. If you move progressively to the side of vibrational energy can be reflected (echo) or absorbed, the speaker, the higher pitches will begin to drop off until in varying amounts, depending on the surface materials. you increasingly hear more low (bass) pitches. How a material reflects, absorbs or passes through sound

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The communal space in which communication and music-making occurs affects all of the participants in that space. How 4. species use the space for sound-making and sound-receiving, and how those results are perceived by the participants impacts biology, adaptation, and future outcomes. An important area of research is the study of sound environments and the impact that sounds have on all organisms – including humans. The volume of sound, the competition of sounds, intrusive vs. acceptable, the value and timing of quiet vs. sound-making are areas that provide important scientific data about species’ wellness and environmental management.

Acoustics: Acoustics refer to the properties of the 2) Mockingbirds make harsh, raspy when space where sound is initiated and/or received, or how chasing other birds out of their territory. A similar but the mediums that the sound waves travel through distinct call is used when defending against predators influence what is heard (received), by whom, and how like a hawk or falcon. Other Mockingbird calls include far away. These combined qualities and how they impact a wheezing noise, a ‘chuck’ note, and a very piercing sound reception are referred to as Acoustics. series of notes ‘high low’ repeated twice.

3) Blue Jays are also imitators and use their copy skills Animals in the Environment: Other Animals, like for several purposes. The Blue Jay frequently mimics humans, often need to communicate with each other the calls of hawks, especially the Red-shouldered over long distances. Over time, animals have adapted Hawk. These calls may provide information to other to leverage the opportunities their environment has jays that a hawk is around, or may be used to deceive afforded them to use sounds to survive and thrive in their other species into believing a hawk is present so that environments. In some cases, animals use characteristics they can eat. and objects from the natural world to enhance their vocal ranges and the distance their calls can travel. For 4) Chimpanzees identify intruders to their community instance, dolphins and whales have evolved to transmit by the use of sound. and receive sounds under water rather than through 5) Bees help lost members back to the hive through air as humans do. use ultrasound not just as a sound, and communication tool but as a way of echolocating to navigate through woods and caves and locate to 6) Young animals locate their mothers through sound eat. Some species of frogs have evolved to use the inside just as mothers use sounds to locate young. of hollowed trees to amplify their croaking. Similarly, Animals’ ways of communicating are determined woodpeckers use the outside of hollowed trees to amplify by their biological inheritance; however, they often learn rhythmic pounding with their beaks. how to perform important sound patterns when they are Other animals and humans use sound as a means young from their parents, just as a human child learns to communicate, find a mate, protect and warn against from their adult caretakers. In this way, fundamental predators, or locate community members. Species must performance traits of the specie’s communication system create a sound that others can identify, often done by are handed down from generation to generation. Just as creating distinctive repetitive patterns. Some species rely with humans, there are regional variations. For example, on individuals composing novel patterns that are learned, birds of the same species living in different habitat zones imitated, and recognized as Signature Sounds. Like our may not perform the same song patterns in the same own speech patterns, the use of signature sounds depends ways and, for that reason would not necessarily be able on the brain’s ability to understand and interpret patterns. to communicate with each other. Distinctive sounds provide animals one of the important means to survive in the wild. The great variety Creating Sounds: Humans and other animals are of species leads to a wealth of sounds, vocalizations, capable of creating a wide range of sounds. Sounds calls, and songs. Some examples include the following: require an energy source to initiate vibrations that form sound waves. For humans and other animals, 1) Humpback whales are known to sing ‘songs’. They vocalizations result from a vibrating mechanism inside make sounds that are rhythmic and melodic, that can the throat called the larynx. Many people call it their typically last 10 to 35 minutes, and that are comprised voice box. The larynx houses vocal cords that are of phrases that are strung together without pauses to stretched across the larynx. When humans speak or create a song. Humpback whales use song sing, air pushes between the cords, causing the cords construction patterns that are similar to patterns humans use. continued

Concepts and science process skills (12) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home to vibrate and produce sound. Muscles in the diaphragm Receiving Sounds: Animals can also sense the control how much air is forced through and pushed vibrational energy that makes sounds. In humans and in across the larynx, controlling the loudness of produced many animals, the ears are the primary mechanism for sounds. Other muscles adjust the tension and space of collecting and interpreting these sound waves. Human the vocal cords causing variance in pitch. ears, along with those of many other animals, have an For birds, the vocalization is called a syrinx. The outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear is what is syrinx is located where the bird’s windpipe branches to visible on the outside of the body and is used to collect its lungs, allowing the bird to make more than one sound sound waves into the middle and inner ears. The shape at a time, which humans cannot do. The muscles in the and size of the outer ear, as well as the way that it is syrinx tighten to produce sound – the tighter the muscles, constructed, allows an animal to hear a range of sounds the faster the vibrations, making a higher pitch. As the and pitches. Some animals, such as horses, are able bird breathes out, it can change the amount of pressure rotate each outer ear independently, allowing them to it puts on the syrinx, which changes the sound produced. better collect sound waves. For humans, the outer ear Humans are able to produce only one sound at a time, ends in a membrane called the ear drum. Vibrations of because their larynx is located higher up in their trachea, the ear drum are transferred to the middle ear where or windpipe. Because a bird has its syrinx close to its two a set of three bones further concentrate the direct the lungs, it has two sources of air to make sound, and can sound wave vibrations. Finally, in the inner ear, a very produce two sounds at the same time! Each side of the hard, fluid-filled bone transfers the vibrations to special syrinx is controlled separately, allowing this to happen. hairs that transform the vibrations into nerve impulses Other ways the body can produce sounds include transferred to the brain for interpretation. In addition to using other types of muscular energy. For instance, the normal processes of aging, sounds we are exposed humans strike parts of the body, hands and, feet to can cause damage to the hearing system of the ear, and beavers and whales slap their tails. All of these resulting in either temporary or permanent loss of approaches transfer energy that sets up vibrations and hearing. This can mean loss of amplitude (loudness) or have potential communication value. frequency range. Various species have abilities to hear frequencies Echolocation: Certain animals such as dolphins and and amplitudes that the human ear is unable to detect. bats use a sensory system in which sounds are emitted, For example, the dolphin can hear fourteen times better and their echoes interpreted, to determine the direction than humans, but it does not have visible outer ears. This and distance of external objects. is because dolphins hear through a sophisticated hearing Niche Hypothesis: Bioacoustician, Bernie Krause, has sensory system that is located in small ear openings proposed a new approach to understanding the sounds on both sides of the head. However, it is believed that of the wild called the Niche Hypothesis. He advocates hearing underwater is mainly done through the lower jar that any given biome is recognized and recognizable bone that conducts sounds to the middle ear. by the combined sounds of all its habitants. Instead Soundscape: The combined sonic environment, of narrowing scientific attention only to the study of including the sounds from animate and inanimate sources, individual species’ sounds, Krause proposes that the is a distinctive and memorable event. Soundscapes are entire community of sounds influences the survival of all dynamic, ever-changing, and representative of the forces the inhabitants. To help organize the sounds of the Niche impacting the biome. Soundscapes deliver important Hypothesis, he suggests groupings based on the sources information that enables listeners to determine how to act. of the sounds. They include: biophony (e.g., sounds emanating from animals, insects, , trees, etc.); geophony (e.g., sounds emanating from geophysical inorganic activity in the earth system, including wind, earthquakes, dripping, ice cracking, rainfall, thunder, water flowing, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.); anthrophony (sounds emanating from man-made devices). The Niche Hypothesis builds on many concepts of biodiversity.

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Sound waves are often represented graphically as a wave form. More specifically, the wave takes the form of a 5. mathematical sine function. A sine wave function can mathematically represent changes in both the amplitude (loudness) and frequency (pitch) of the wave. Similarly, multiple waves can be mathematically combined to create complex wave forms representative of kinds of typical sounds found in the natural environment.

An alternative graphical representation of sound is called evolved from European traditions and focuses on the a spectrogram. A spectrogram represents a sound along simultaneous visualizations of pitches, rhythm, dynamics, an x and y axis, with the x axis representing the passage timbre, and tempo as organized by an underlying beat. of time and the y axis representing the frequency of the Because Western music notation averages how rhythm, sound (higher pitches pitch, and tempo are represented, efforts to improve the show higher on the system continue to more accurately convey the nuances y axis, etc.). Some of live music-making. representations will While scientists and musicians most often use have a third dimension standardized methods to represent sound, scientists representing amplitude. and musicians take advantage of opportunities to Alternately, amplitude invent or improve symbol systems. Sometimes new can be represented by representations are created for a specific task or color in the visualization. experiment. In other cases, artists and other creative Visually representing individuals invent visualizations that capture a human music-making particular emotion or convey a narrative of a specific spectrogram is a challenging site or performance. These invented systems are still a and complicated task that has engaged the human communication tool and can be created graphically or imagination and confounded experts for eons. Human with other 2D or 3D media. -based tools are music cultures have historically devised many kinds expanding the ways we think about representing sounds of symbol systems to represent the actual sounds and are expanding our capacities to convey how sound and processes of musical engagement. For Western and time affect the moment. music cultures, the standard accepted symbol system

Sound and Human Technology 6. Humans uses their bodies to create communicative sounds such as speech and music-making. The human voice is the basic device for sound communication; however, finding ways to expand the natural limits of the human voice motivate and have motivated the invention of technologies throughout history. Using tools to extend the body’s normal range of pitch, amplitude, and time manipulation have produced many technologies or musical instruments. Typically sounds can be made by tapping (percussion instruments), plucking (stringed instruments) or blowing air (wind instruments) across a hole or making a reed vibrate. Each of these technologies extend communication possibilities to everything from practical messages to emotional narratives. Earliest examples of humans making musical tools include rhythm making instruments (rattles, drums) and pitch making instruments (flutes).

The history of musical instruments reflects the evolution energy, we animals work with available acoustics and of human technology. From mechanical (piano) to materials, (e.g., woodpeckers and frogs using hollow electronic (electric guitar) to digital (music software), trees) to concentrate and direct sounds, and to create humans manipulate available technology to extend their sounds that are perceived as louder than they would range of musical participation. otherwise. Humans also leverage energy provided by We and other animals also leverage the electricity to amplify sound. Modern sound amplification reflective properties of the environment to advantage converts sound vibration, which is a form of acoustical communication. Because making sound waves requires or mechanical radiant energy, into electrical energy

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Concepts and science process skills (14) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home and then back into mechanical energy in the form of amplifying a synthesized, more powerful version required vibrations again. for an audience to hear easily. pick up sound wave vibrations and This amplified sound may go to a single listener in convert them to a very minute electrical voltage or . the form of headphones or to a single room in the form This signal may go directly into a recording device to of a pair of speakers. Large sound systems may utilize capture it in a magnetic form on a computer hard disk many amplifiers, each working to supply the sounds or magnetic tape for later editing and playback. On a to a specific area, where the audience may consist of a computer, the recorded sound can also be analyzed few persons or many thousands. Finally, the amplified using visualization tools like a spectrogram. Whether the electrical signal is fed into one or more loudspeakers. The are played immediately or from a loudspeaker acts as a sort of microphone in reverse. A recording, the signal must be strengthened or amplified cone or a diaphragm is set to vibrating by the amplified many thousands of times in order to have enough electrical current. Electrical energy is thereby converted energy to create vibrations humans can hear. For this into mechanical energy, setting up vibrations in the purpose, an audio amplifier is used. Many amplifiers adjacent air once again with sound waves that are can also accommodate receiving signals from several audible to our hearing. microphones or other sources, combining them, and then

Websites First movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4IRMYuE1hI

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Inquiry-oriented activities stress questioning, discovering, analyzing, explaining, and drawing conclusions. UBThinking and analysis skills areE developed by havingATS students: (a) summarize key points from text, video, or graphics; (b) make observations and draw conclusions; (c) collect, display, and interpret qualitative and quantitative data; (d) express concepts orally and in writing; and (e) solve practical problems. Traditional science process skills include Observation, Inference, Classification, Measurement, Prediction, and Communication (Padilla, 1990). Additionally, Reflection serves as a tool for students to think about what they have learned and for the teacher to assess student understanding (Deaton, Deaton, & Leland, 2010). Below, each of the six traditional science process skills is presented with a description common to the world of science education.

Subsequently, each traditional description is followed by an enriched contextualization of that process skill from a BioMusic perspective.

OBSERVING: Observation involves using the senses to gather information about an object or an event. This includes describing similarities and differences in specimens and identifying changes 1. (both quantitative and qualitative) in environmental conditions (Lancour, 2004). Participants will use their senses of sight, touch, and hearing to create accurate, detailed descriptions of each specimen and sound found and of the environment in which they were located.

Music-making is a two-way activity that places equal emphasis on the Doer(s) and the Listener(s). The Listener may respond in an active way to the Doer and may even opt to engage in a music- making response that sets up a turn-taking relationship. A passive-appearing Listener (such as an infant) may show no outward signs of active engagement with the Doer but may be internalizing information about the sounds and may even be learning how to respond or participate with the Doer. No reaction to the Doer is also a meaningful response because that can shape the next music-making event initiated by the Doer. Music-making is always a closed loop of Doer and Listener and that relationship shapes the music-making outcomes for maximum benefit. When we participate in creating or initiating music-making, we may use all or a combination of senses to impart information. From an auditory perspective, whether Doers or Listeners, our biology pre-selects the sounds and methods available to us for joint music-making purposes. As we engage musically with each other, we select sounds, make patterns, and use methods that are appropriate for the participants, the context, and the intent of the action. We do this by leveraging our cultural preferences, the acoustics of moment, and the available sound-making or technology resources. We often signal our engagement in music-making through our movements and gestures. These kinesthetic actions convey how we internalize and interpret the music-making moment. Dancing, clapping, toe-tapping, swaying, head-bopping, singing along, the size of the movements, the loudness of the movements, the chosen movements – all shape and intensify the experience of music-making. Seeing how others or we actively engage with music-making shows us what is perceived and assists us in understanding the musical moment and its purpose. Visual cues help us observe, participate, and interpret the collective experience. Visual representations of the act of music-making whether in the moment (recordings, videos), or the creation of symbol systems to describe how to reconstruct it, all support interactive and active engagement in music-making.

Concepts and science process skills (16) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home INFERRING: Through inferring, participants use evidence to determine what events have already occurred. Those who use their inference skills form assumptions based upon past observations to create 2. testable hypotheses (Lancour, 2004). Unlike observations, which describe current conditions, inferences are created based on past events (Lancour, 2004).

We humans infer a lot of information about the external world and about each other by using the fundamental elements of music-making. Those building blocks include the ability to match pitch/ tone/volume, the ability to entrain a beat, and the ability to recognize previously heard music-making patterns. We attend to these elements as our caretakers and our community practices them. The rules and how that culture’s music-making traditions unfold teach us how to discriminate what we are hearing and how we interpret it. Some of the inferences we make about music-making are individualized and reflective of age, location, and social context. However, larger cultural pressures instill preferences and biases from birth that are typically unconscious and rarely consciously examined. These imbedded cultural rules and understandings allow us to intuit how to interact with each other, how to make and enjoy music, and what we accept as music-making.

CLASSIFYING: Classification is the sorting of objects and events into different categories based on properties and criteria. Classification systems may be binary, dividing objects into two groups based on 3. attributes, or multistage, sorting items through a hierarchy of characteristics (Bass et al., 2009).

The action loop of Doer(s) and Listener(s) relies on many classifications and categories. How the engagement is structured is determined by many qualities of the sound such as: 1) is the sound made by an organism or by a man-made device; 2) what is the perceived intent; 3) are body movements a positive or negative aspect of the event; 4) is looking at the other required or is the communication possible without it. Other classifications focus on the details of the sounds such as pitch/frequency, timbre, tempo, beat, rhythm, dynamics/amplitude, phrases, patterns, et al. (see Section 1). All of these in various combinations contribute to rapid classifications and categorizations that happen in the moment and are reflective of the participants’ biology, experiences, and knowledge.

MEASURING: Measurement is one of the key process skills and one used regularly throughout inquiry science programs. Through measurement, participants collect quantitative data including lengths and 4. time. Measurements collected may be either metric or English measurements.

Research measures the quality and appropriateness of music-making by studying the Audience. Who is available to listen, how many of the available attend, and how they respond or do not respond are central considerations. Measuring can include: 1) which music-making elements are appropriate or inappropriate for the Audience; 2) is the Audience response affecting behavior of either or both Doer and Audience; 3) is the music-making accepted for a short or long term inclusion in the group’s communication. The behaviors of the participants can be studied by observing how many adopt the same beat or synchronize movements with each other; or if the music-making patterns are imitated or repeated by others and for how long, and how far away. Further, how the participants attend is important. Measuring the levels of the listener’s discrimination often indicates how dedicated the Audience is. By giving rapt attention to the music-making, the Audience indicates full engagement, a possible turn-taking role, and possible future behaviors.

Concepts and science process skills (17) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home PREDICTING: Often, scientists will make predictions of future events based on evidence. Prediction plays a crucial role as scientists develop a hypothesis to test. Data will then be collected as evidence to 5. support or refute the hypothesis.

We can predict behaviors or outcomes for music-making once we understand how the Doer and the Audience are likely to interact and with what resources. Some of the critical forecasting variables include the participants’ prior musical experiences and comprehension of the rules. These factors that predict engagement are based on common or cultural experiences with the style of music-making, individual acuity about the music-making rules and cultural practices. These elements enable the participants to intuit meaning from the musical event or observe how others may be impacted by the musical event.

COMMUNICATING – Active or Passive Participation Systems: Logical link of evidence and musical knowledge to make sense of events. Once scientists collect data, they must share their data and 6. communicate their findings through graphs, charts, text, formal papers, and oral presentations. These modes of communication enable scientists to present their information in a clear form that is accessible to the general public.

We can communicate about music-making by doing or by describing or by representing. Non-verbal communication about music-making is action based and typically includes joining in, turn-taking, attending to someone else’s moment of music-making through silence, protecting the sound space from external intrusions. These actions involve visual, aural and kinesthetic expressions that communicate important information about the musical event for the participants. For instance, when participants choose to play an instrument to extend the communication options and then practice ways to enhance musical effectiveness, they are using non-verbal communication to convey meaning-making beyond self. Beyond practicing to improve one’s own skills, it may also include recruiting others to participate, interacting with recordings, downloading/sharing sound files, attending performances, seeking out more ways to interact with others about or doing music-making. Other effective skills for communicating about music-making include using symbol systems to describe or represent it. The goal of capturing and saving the moment of music-making traditionally uses writing approaches such as music notation or descriptive words. But as technology advances, so have the ways of capturing the musical moment. Recordings, spectrograms, audio technology, and software programs bring more precision and more ways to study music-making. But the subtleties of how music-making unfolds while doing it – still challenges the current technologies and symbol systems and provides opportunities for new representational systems to develop. Underlying the importance of communicating about the musical moment is the clear understanding that music-making is deeply embedded in the cognitive process. Whether using non-verbal, representational, or verbal methods, music-making creates powerful associations and memories that contribute to cultural memory, community bonding, and future outcomes.

Reflection: Inquiry-based activities enable Reflections of the music-making event that incorporate each of the science process skills. In reflecting on their observations, measurements, inferences, 7. classifications, and predictions, participants may consider alternative ideas and methods for data collection and analysis. Reading the reflections of peers may also serve students in further developing their understanding of scientific knowledge and processes. In addition, the teacher may use student reflections as a tool for analyzing both their teaching strategies and student performance.

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Bass, J.E., Contant, T.L., & Carin, A.A. (2009). Teaching Science as Inquiry, 11th ed.. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Deaton, C.M., Deaton, B.E., & Leland, K. (2010). Interactive reflection logs. Science and Children, 48(3), 44-47.

Lancour, K.L. (2004). Process skills for life science. Science Olympiad National Office. Retrieved May 9, 2011, from http://soinc.org/tguides.htm

Padilla, M.J. (1990). The scientific process skills. Research Matters – to the Science Teacher, 9004. Retrieved May 10, 2011, from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm

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