religions

Article On Being Consumed: The Martyred Body as a Site of Divine—Human Encounter in the Letters of Ignatius of Antioch

Peter-Ben Smit 1,2,3,4

1 Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Utrecht University, Janskerkhof 13, 3512 BL Utrecht, The Netherlands; [email protected] 2 Faculty of Religion and Theology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands 3 Faculty of Theology, University of Bern, Längassstrasse 51, 3012 Bern, Switzerland 4 Faculty of Theology, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria 0028, South Africa



Received: 15 September 2020; Accepted: 14 October 2020; Published: 26 November 2020


Abstract: The manner in which humans and the divine are brought into communion with each other, a key aspect of many religious traditions, is frequently, if not always, material (or sacramental) in character. Meals and food play an important role in this; such meals can include the consumption of the deity (theophagy), as well as the consumption of the human being by the deity. This paper takes its cue from the discussion of constructions of divine–human communion and explores this subject in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch (early second century CE). It shows how in the literary heritage of this bishop, the body as the physical site of martyrdom is of key importance, in particular due to its consumption in the Roman arena. This martyrdom is the way in which Ignatius hopes to enter into perfect communion with the divine. The body thus becomes, in its annihilation, the instrument through which divine–human communion is established. As this all relates to a case of martyrdom, Ignatius’ ideas about the body are also subversive in character: the punishment of his body is, through his theological imagination, transformed into a means of achieving Ignatius’ goal in life: attaining to God.

Keywords: theophagy; food; Eucharist; martyrdom; Ignatius of Antioch; Christianity; theology; agency

1. Introduction Divine–human relations can be expressed by means of eating, sometimes taking the shape of theophagy, consuming the deity1. By contrast, a tradition also exists in which the human being is incorporated into the divine through its consumption. This has received somewhat less attention in scholarship, however. Yet, it is of interest from a material religions perspective (for more on this perspective, see the introduction to this volume), as in such cases, the human body, as a material ‘object’, is a key medium for bringing about divine–human communion—meals and consumption and, therefore, the body and (always embodied) commensality played a key role in ancient religion,

1 Cf., e.g., the general definition of Seidl(2011): ‘In cultic meals, table fellowship establishes a link with the divinity (convivium) or participation in it (communio, theophagy), and thereby a share in the divine life force’; see also (Verrips 1991). This paper is also indebted to lively discussions on the topic of theophagy involving Jojada Verrips, Birgit Meyer, Mirella Klomp, Katja Rakow, Annalisa Butticci and others at the “Food and Eating in Plural Environments” Workshop at the Royal Dutch Institute in Rome, 8–10 May 2019.

Religions 2020, 11, 637; doi:10.3390/rel11120637 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2020, 11, 637 2 of 13 whether at sacrifices, temple meals, or the meals of collegia2. This paper explores this subject in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch (first century CE) and shows how the body as the physical site of martyrdom plays a role in this Syrian bishop’s3 literal and figurative consumption in the Roman arena, which is the way in which he hopes to enter into complete communion with the divine4. The consumption of Ignatius does not come about through union with God or by means of divine love, as may be the case with mystics, but is, rather, the work of wild animals: martyrdom, deeply physical as it is, takes on the shape of being eaten and, thus, simultaneously annihilated and united with the divine. In discussing this, particular attention will be given to Ignatius’ subversive imagination of the body, which transforms his body from that of a captive to that of a victor and from that of a victim of cruel entertainment in the arena to that of a faithful and victorious hero. First, an introduction to the person of Ignatius of Antioch will be given. This is followed by a discussion of the connection between his work and the material approach to religion and a focus on conflict, as this offers a promising angle for further exploring Ignatius’ view (and embodiment) of Christianity5. Next, this article considers the importance of the body and suffering in his work in general, using the example of Ignatius’ letter to the Trallians. The topic of being consumed is discussed on the basis of this letter, as well as his letter to the church in Rome. The limitations of a single article mean that a full contextualization of Ignatius’ approach to the body and its suffering in its ancient context cannot be provided here. The current exploration is thus only a first and a small step6. This step, nonetheless, goes beyond extant research by focusing on the material dimension of Ignatius’ thought as it is expressed in his letters and thereby invites further exploration of this side of his writings and experiences7.

2. Ignatius of Antioch Ignatius of Antioch, who lived, ministered as a bishop, and likely died around the turn of the first century8, is best known not for his work as a bishop (about which virtually nothing is known)9, but for the letters that he sent to a series of communities in Asia Minor and to Polycarp of Smyrna. The letters have attracted much attention, especially since the Reformation, as Ignatius places a great deal of stress on the office of the bishop and the Eucharist. Over the course of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Ignatius’ work has continued to be important to a number of fields of scholarship such as the study of early Christian martyrdom, as Ignatius wrote his letters en route from Antioch, the city where he served as a bishop, to his execution in a Roman arena. The letters have also been important to the study of early Christian understandings of the church as a community, given that Ignatius outlines an

2 The latter are mentioned because of their likely proximity to early Christian groups and their self-organization and meals. Cf. for a heuristic comparison between Greco-Roman associations and early Christian groups on this point: Kloppenborg (2019, pp. 209–44). 3 What it entailed to be a bishop and where the notion of episcopacy that Ignatius represents stems from precisely is a matter of ongoing debate and is not the topic of this essay. Cf., however, the thought-provoking piece by Byers(2018). 4 I have engaged with Ignatius of Antioch in the following earlier contributions, to which the present papers is indebted: ‘Prayer and Participation in the Eucharist in the Work of Ignatius of Antioch’ (Smit 2018a); ‘Mystagogy and Martyrdom in Ignatius of Antioch’ (Smit 2016). 5 A term that can be applied to Ignatius given his own use of terms belonging to this semantic field, particularly in Eph. 11:2, Magn. 4:2, 10:11, Trall. 6:1, Phil. 6:1, Rom. 3:2–3, Pol. 7:3, cf. (Downs 2017). 6 Cf. for instance, the discussions provoked by contributions such as Brown([1998] 2008) or Sennett(1994). 7 In doing so, the main text will focus on the Ignatian epistles themselves, which are quoted in Greek and English translation in order to facilitate the interaction with them; discussions with secondary literature primarily takes place in the notes. Throughout, the edition and translation as provided by Ehrman(2003) is used. 8 These dates are disputed. Cf. for an excellent and nuanced discussion of the dating and other introductory matters, such as the authenticity of the letters, in the footnotes of which also most pertinent literature can be found: Lookadoo(2018), see also the extensive review, especially of the various recensions (short, middle, and longer) of the Ignatian letters, of Vinzent(2019). 9 The intellectual world that he was part of can, to a certain extent, be deduced from his letters and includes the (emerging) Christian tradition, in particular in its Pauline shape, and Greco-Roman popular philosophy. The contemplation of his imminent end can also be related to other discourses, including that on the noble death; for the latter, see the collection of sources edited by van Henten and Avemarie(2020), as well as the earlier contribution of Droge and Tabor(1992). Comparative research is not, however, the focus of this article. Religions 2020, 11, 637 3 of 13 understanding of the church as a Eucharistic community living in harmony around a bishop10. Here, the seven writings of the ‘middle recension’ of Ignatius’ letters are taken as a point of departure, with a particular focus on Ignatius’ thinking about the body in relation to communion with the divine through being consumed by wild animals. Ignatius’ reflections on this matter fit, as will be outlined next, a material perspective on religion well, while there is also a clear connection with the topic of conflict in relation to the material dimension of religion (as Ignatius’ body, a material object, is connected with violence throughout his letters).

2.1. Material Religion, Conflict, and Ignatius Material religious perspectives have not been used much, if at all, to research Ignatius of Antioch and his letters. This may have to do with what is the generally contemporary focus of those employing material perspectives or, inversely, with the limited interest in material perspectives among Ignatian scholars. Yet, new insight into Ignatius’ understanding of the Christian tradition can be gained by using this perspective, which, according to Meyer, views religion as ‘a medium of absence that posits and sets out to bridge a gap between the here and now and something “beyond”’11, in which material forms of mediation play a key role. There are a number of themes in the work of Ignatius that are closely related to the physical dimension of religion. Three topics that have been identified as being of particular concern for Ignatius are, for instance, the reality of the body of Jesus (both during his suffering and death and following his resurrection), the church as a physical assembly (i.e., as a Eucharistic community around a bishop with people congregating in the same space and consuming the same sacred meal) and finally Ignatius’ own physical demise, his martyrdom, which he actively longs for, as the culmination and ultimate test of a life of following Jesus, with whom he wishes to be united, both by suffering and by dying. The painful manner of his death provides a gateway to a more perfect communion than Ignatius enjoys now. Even more importantly, it provides a more definitive and eternal communion with God than is available during Ignatius’ life as a follower of Christ on earth: he worries constantly whether he will indeed be steadfast until the end and, thereby, attain eternal communion with God12. However ‘spiritual’ an author Ignatius may be regarded as, his theology and his vision of the church is deeply physical. Furthermore, the stress Ignatius places on the physical dimension of Christian faith is closely bound up with the notion of suffering as a result of conflict13. In fact, he resists a particular early Christian ‘tactic’ for solving the problem of a suffering deity—suffering was oftentimes regarded as being incompatible with the dignity of a deity—by arguing that Jesus did have a physical body and died violently. Ignatius thus founds his own hope for a physical resurrection (preceded by his own physical death) on Jesus’ fate. Beyond this, he also stresses the importance of his own physical suffering, led to Rome in chains, accompanied by a group of Roman soldiers, and, in particular, the significance of his upcoming gruesome death in the arena, where he will be killed by wild animals. Ignatius’ longing for this fate have, in the past, led to suggestions that he may be less than mentally sane14. Yet, a rediscovery of the logic of early Christian martyrdom, in which an embrace of suffering rendered the executioners powerless, given that what was intended as punishment was received as a reward15, has also led to the acknowledgment that there is indeed method to this Syrian bishop’s apparent madness and that his desire to suffer is also a way of coping spiritually with the situation in which he finds himself.

10 Influentially: Zizioulas(1985). 11 Meyer(2015, p. 336). 12 As stressed in Smit(2016). 13 Cf. van Henten and Avemarie(2020) and Droge and Tabor(1992); further comparative explorations would be inviting, but cannot be undertaken within the scope of this contribution. 14 Cf. for a survey of appertaining opinion, e.g., Still(2017). 15 Cf. also for an exploration of the same in the Apocalypse of Smit(2018b). ReligionsReligions2020 2019, ,11 10,, 637 x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 ofof 1313

in which he finds himself. Violent conflict and the material, physical dimensions of the Christian Violenttradition conflict are, in and Ignatius’ the material, letters, physical closelydimensions connected, ofand the it Christian is this connection tradition are, that in will Ignatius’ be explored letters, closelyfurther connected, in this paper. and it is this connection that will be explored further in this paper.

2.2. Ignatius’ Love of Physical Suffering and Its Logic: The Example of Trallians 2.2. Ignatius’ Love of Physical Suffering and Its Logic: The Example of Trallians As Ignatius’ ideas about the body and conflict pervade his seven letters, even focusing on one As Ignatius’ ideas about the body and conflict pervade his seven letters, even focusing on one letter offers a good entry point into his thoughts on this subject. Here, his letters to the church in the letter offers a good entry point into his thoughts on this subject. Here, his letters to the church in the city of Tralles are focused on; their contents are representative for the corpus of letters as a whole. city of Tralles are focused on; their contents are representative for the corpus of letters as a whole. Ignatius assumes or knows that the Christians in this city suffer, and he exhorts them, or seeks to Ignatius assumes or knows that the Christians in this city suffer, and he exhorts them, or seeks to comfort them, by means of a reflection on his own suffering. He writes to them in Trall. 4 that comfort them, by means of a reflection on his own suffering. He writes to them in Trall. 4 that 1. Πολλὰ φρονῶ ἐν θεῷ, ἀλλ᾿ ἐμαυτὸν μετρῶ, ἵνα μὴ ἐν καυχήσει ἀπόλωμαι. νῦν γάρ με δεῖ πλέον φοβεῖσθαι καὶ μὴ προσέχειν τοῖς φυσιοῦσίν με. οἱ γὰρ λέγοντές μοι μαστιγοῦσίν με. 2. ἀγαπῶ μὲν γὰρ τὸ παθεῖν, ἀλλ᾿ οὐκ οἶδα, εἰ ἄξιός εἰμι. τὸ γὰρ ζῆλος πολλοῖς μὲν οὐ φαίνεται, ἐμὲ δὲ πλέον πολεμεῖ. χρῄζω οὖν πραότητος, ἐν ᾗ καταλύεται ὁ ἄρχων τοῦ αἰῶνος τούτου 1. I am thinking many things in God, but I take measure of myself so as not to be destroyed 1.by I my am thinkingboasting. manyFor now things I must in God, fear butall the I take more measure and pay of myselfno attention so as notto those to be who destroyed make byme my self boasting.-important. For For now those I must who fear speak allthe to me more flog and me. pay 2. noFor attention indeed I tolove those to suffer; who make but I medo self-important.not know if I am For worthy. those who For speak envy tois menot flog obvious me. 2. to For many, indeed but I it love is escalating to suffer; but its Iwar do notagainst know me. if IAnd am worthy.so I need For humility, envy is notby which obvious the to ruler many, of butthis it age is escalating is destroyed. its war against me. And so I need humility, by which the ruler of this age is destroyed. With this, we enter one of the more controversial parts of Ignatius’ witness: his somewhat para- doxicalWith emphasis this, we on enter suffering. one of The the emphasis more controversial is paradoxical parts because, of Ignatius’ one the witness: one hand, his he somewhat desires it, paradoxicalas it brings emphasishim closer on to su Christ,ffering. but, The on emphasis the other is paradoxical hand, he is because, wary of oneit, given the one that hand, he constantly he desires it,doubts as it bringswhether him he closer is worthy to Christ, of it. but,What on interests the other me hand, is how he Ignatius is wary ofperceives it, given the that relationship he constantly be- doubtstween whetherhis body heand is worthythose of of his it. guards What interests—those mewho is are how inflicting Ignatius suffering perceives upon the relationship him, in this between section hisin the body form and of those flogging. of his Flogging guards—those obvious wholy implies are inflicting physical su ffproximityering upon—Ignatius’ him, in this journey section in chains in the formtogether of flogging. with his Floggingguards is obviously also an instance implies of physical assembled proximity—Ignatius’ bodies. Yet, as in the journey case inof chainsthe community together within Tralles, his guards this fellowship is also an instance established of assembled by assembled bodies. bodies Yet, as and in thethecase manner of the in community which they in relate Tralles, to thiseach fellowship other is also established subject to by interpretation. assembled bodies The perspective and the manner of Ignatius’ in which guards they is relate not made to each explicit other isin alsothe text, subject but to it interpretation.is not difficult to The make perspective an educated of Ignatius’ guess: they guards will is have not madeseen their explicit bodies in the as text,dominant, but it isexercising not difficult control to make over anIgnatius’ educated in guess:the name they of willthe haveemperor seen. T theirhe flog bodiesging asis an dominant, expression exercising of such controldominance. over Ignatius, Ignatius’ however, in the name subversively of the emperor. reverses The the flogging interpretative is an expression gaze, creating of such in his dominance. letters an Ignatius,‘off stage however,’ hidden discourse subversively that reverses reveals the true interpretative meaning of gaze, his creatingpredicament in his. T lettersrue, from an ‘o Ignatius’ff stage’ hiddenperspective, discourse in which that he reveals makes the his true epistolary meaning audience of his predicament. complicit, the True, guards’ from treatment Ignatius’ of perspective, him brings inhim which closer he to makes Christ his. In epistolary fact, it may audience be the complicit,case that ‘ thethose guards’ who make treatment me self of him-important brings him’ are closerthe very to Christ.guards Inthat fact, flog it may him. be If the I understa case thatnd ‘those him who correctly, make meIgnatius self-important’ needs to arelearn the humility very guards vis- thatà-vis flog his him.flogging, If I understand not by means him of correctly, his flogging Ignatius; he needs toto learnlearn humilityhumility vis-in orderà-vis histo be flogging, or remain not worthy by means of ofthe his flogging flogging; (Trall. he needs 4.2, cf. to 12.3) learn16 humility. For Ignatius, in order the toflogging be or remain is—as worthyother kinds of the of flogging suffering (Trall. are—4.2,an cf.expression 12.3)16. For of belonging Ignatius, the to floggingChrist, experiencing is—as other fellowship kinds of su ffwithering Christ are—an by means expression of sharing of belonging in suffer- to Christ,ing similar experiencing to that of fellowship Christ and with on Christbehalf byof Christ means17 of. All sharing of this in is su setffering against similar the tobackdrop that of Christ of his andbelief on that behalf Jesus of ChristChrist17 ‘.was All oftruly this cru is setcified against and thedied backdrop’ (Trall. 9.1) of his and belief his abhorrence that Jesus Christ of ‘Docetism ‘was truly’18. crucifiedHe explains and the died’ latter (Trall. as follows9.1) and in his Trall. abhorrence 10: ‘if … he of ‘Docetism’only appeared18. He to explainssuffer, … the why latter am asI in follows bondage, in

16 Cf. in general the argument of Vall (2013, p. 155), who notes that it is all about the sanctification of the flesh, 16 Cf.i.e., in of general the concrete the argument enfleshed of Vall existence(2013, p. that 155), needs who notesto be thatoriented it is all in about a particular the sanctification way in order of the to flesh, remain i.e., ofon the the concreteroad towards enfleshed salvation. existence Smith that needs (2011), to be does oriented discuss in a particularmartyrdom, way inbut order bodiliness to remain to on a themuch road lesser towards extent salvation.. This Smithis rather(2011 different), does discuss in Clancy martyrdom, (2009), but who bodiliness shows the to a broad much lesserrelation extent. between This isincarnation, rather di fferent sacramental in Clancy (physi-2009), whocality shows and thethe broad physicality relation of between the martyrs’ incarnation, witness. sacramental physicality and the physicality of the martyrs’ witness. 17 See also the general outline in Smit(2016). 17 18 ForSee a also brief the treatment general of outline which, inin the Smit context (2016) of. Ignatius’ emphasis on following the way of the cross, see: Nicklas(2010, 18 pp.For 280–83). a brief treatment of which, in the context of Ignatius’ emphasis on following the way of the cross, see: Nicklas (2010, pp. 280–83).

Religions 2020, 11, 637 5 of 13

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 Trall. 10: ‘if ... he only appeared to suffer, ... why am I in bondage, and why also do I pray to fight Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 theand wild why beasts? also do I I am pray then to dyingfight the in vainwild andbeasts? am, I even am then worse, dying lying in about vain and the Lord’.am, even He worse, also applies lying thisabout view the of Lord suffering,’. He also which applies amounts this toview being of incorporatedsuffering, which into amounts Christ, to to the being Trallians: incorporated ‘through into the and why also do I pray to fight the wild beasts? I am then dying in vain and am, even worse, lying cross,Christ, by to his the su Trallians:ffering he ‘through calls you the who cross, arethe by partshis suffering of his body’. he calls (Trall. you11). who Su areffering, the parts understood of his body and’. about the Lord’. He also applies this view of suffering, which amounts to being incorporated into interpreted(Trall. 11). Suffering, in this way, understoo is quasi-sacramental:d and interpreted Christ’s in this own way, suffering is quasi is his-sacramental: means of calling Christ’s the own faithful suf- Christ, to the Trallians: ‘through the cross, by his suffering he calls you who are the parts of his body’. (infering this is case, his themeans Trallians of calling and Ignatius),the faithful and (in experiencing this case, the su Tralliansffering in and a faithful Ignatius) and, and humble experiencing manner (Trall. 11). Suffering, understood and interpreted in 19this way, is quasi-sacramental: Christ’s own suf- issuffering a means in of a experiencingfaithful and humble communion manner with is a Christ means. of All exp oferiencing this rests communion on the bold wit reinterpretationh Christ19. All fering is his means of calling the faithful (in this case, the Trallians and Ignatius), and experiencing ofof thethis otherwise rests on the unpleasant bold reinterpretation physical proximity of the otherwise of those whounpleasant torture physical Ignatius proximity and, in the of case those of who the suffering in a faithful and humble manner is a means of experiencing communion with Christ19. All Trallians,torture Ignatius the presence and, in of the those case whoof the cause Trallians them, the to supresenceffer. Yet, of bodilinessthose who iscause a precondition them to suffer for. thisYet, of this rests on the bold reinterpretation of the otherwise unpleasant physical proximity of those who reinterpretation.bodiliness is a precondition By arguing for that this he bothreinterpretation. loves to suff Byer andarguing needs that to dohe both so humbly, loves to Ignatius suffer and turns needs the torture Ignatius and, in the case of the Trallians, the presence of those who cause them to suffer. Yet, tablesto do ofso whathumbly, ought Ignatius to be an turns unpleasant the tables physical of what experience ought to be on an his unpleasant torturers. In physical doing so, experience he reclaims on bodiliness is a precondition for this reinterpretation. By arguing that he both loves to suffer and needs agencyhis torturers. and thereby In doing reorders so, he the reclaims social spaceagency that and comes thereby into reorders being through the social his beingspace assembledthat comes with into to do so humbly,20 Ignatius turns the tables of what ought to be an unpleasant physical experience on hisbeing guards through. In his doing being so, assembled Ignatius does with more his thanguards pursue20. In ‘thedoing most so, excessive Ignatius formdoes ofmore imitation than pursu of thee his torturers.21 In doing so, he reclaims agency and thereby reorders the social space that comes into gods‘the ´most. Rather, excessive he gains form the of upperimitation hand of overthe gods´ those21 that. Rather, seem he to controlgains the him upper by envisioning hand over histhose ordeal that being through his being assembled with22 his guards20. In doing so, Ignatius does more than pursue asseem martyrdom to control rather him by than envisioning punishment his ordeal. as martyrdom rather than punishment22. ‘the most excessive form of imitation of the gods´21. Rather, he gains the upper hand over those that 2.3.seem From to control Salvific him Suff eringby envisioning to Being Consumed his ordeal as martyrdom rather than punishment22. 2.3. From Salvific Suffering to Being Consumed Having introduced the general topic of physical suffering in Ignatius’ work in this manner, it is 2.3. FromHaving Salvific introduced Suffering the to generalBeing Consumed topic of physical suffering in Ignatius’ work in this manner, it is now possible to turn to the topic of being consumed as a further specification of such suffering. In order now possible to turn to the topic of being consumed as a further specification of such suffering. In to doHaving that, Ignatius’ introduced letter the to general the Roman topic church of physical is the suffering best focal in point, Ignatius’ given work that in Ignatius this manner, uses thisit is order to do that, Ignatius’ letter to the Roman church is the best focal point, given that Ignatius uses terminologynow possible the to most turn into thisthe letter.topic Here,of being a presentation consumed as of pertinenta further extractsspecification of this of letter such will suffering. be given, In this terminology the most in this letter. Here, a presentation of pertinent extracts of this letter will be followedorder to do by that, a discussion Ignatius’ of letter them to in the a subsequent Roman church section. is the best focal point, given that Ignatius uses given, followed by a discussion of them in a subsequent section. this terminologyThe attention the to beingmost in consumed this letter. is Here, occasioned a presentation by a specific of pertinent characteristic extracts of of Ignatius’ this letter situation will be The attention to being consumed is occasioned by a specific characteristic of Ignatius’ situation whilegiven, writing followed this by letter: a discussion Rome is hisof them final destination,in a subsequent literally section. and figuratively, and he wants to ensure while writing this letter: Rome is his final destination, literally and figuratively, and he wants to en- that heThe will attention indeed to meet being his consumed end there is as occasioned envisaged. by Accordingly, a specific characteristic he sends the of RomanIgnatius’ Christians situation sure that he will indeed meet his end there as envisaged. Accordingly, he sends the Roman Christians requestswhile writing to this this end, letter: trying Rome to prevent is his final the Romandestination, church literally from interveningand figuratively, and saving and he him wants from to hisen- requests to this end, trying to prevent the Roman church from intervening and saving him from his execution.sure that he He will expresses indeed meet this from his end the there very as start envisaged. of his letter, Accordingly, as in 1:2: he sends the Roman Christians execution. He expresses this from the very start of his letter, as in 1:2: requests to this end, trying to prevent the Roman church from intervening and saving him from his executionἡ μὲν. Heγὰρ expresses ἀρχὴ εὐοικονόμητός this from the veryἐστιν, start ἐάνπερ of his χάριτοςletter, as ἐπιτύχωin 1:2: εἰς τὸ τὸν κλῆρόν μου ἀνεμποδίστως ἀπολαβεῖν. φοβοῦμαι γὰρ τὴν ὑμῶν ἀγάπην, μὴ αὐτή με ἀδικήσῃ. ὑμῖν ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴ εὐοικονόμητός ἐστιν, ἐάνπερ χάριτος ἐπιτύχω εἰς τὸ τὸν κλῆρόν μου γὰρ εὐχερές ἐστιν, ὃ θέλετε ποιῆσαι· ἐμοὶ δὲ δύσκολόν ἐστιν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιτυχεῖν, ἐάνπερ ἀνεμποδίστως ἀπολαβεῖν. φοβοῦμαι γὰρ τὴν ὑμῶν ἀγάπην, μὴ αὐτή με ἀδικήσῃ. ὑμῖν ὑμεῖς μὴ61 φείσησθέ μου. γὰρ εὐχερές ἐστιν, ὃ θέλετε ποιῆσαι· ἐμοὶ δὲ δύσκολόν ἐστιν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπιτυχεῖν, ἐάνπερ Forὑμεῖς the μὴ61 beginning φείσησθέ is auspicious, μου. if I can indeed obtain the gracious gift I need to receive my Forlot without the beginning any impediment. is auspicious, For if I I am can afraid indeed of obtain your love, the gracious that it may gift do I need me harm. to receive For myit is For the beginning is auspicious, if I can indeed obtain the gracious gift I need to receive my loteasy without for you any to impediment.do what you Forwant, I am but afraid it is difficult of your love,for me that to itattain may doto God, me harm. if you For do itnot is lot without any impediment. For I am afraid of your love, that it may do me harm. For it is easyspare for me. you to do what you want, but it is difficult for me to attain to God, if you do not spareeasy for me. you to do what you want, but it is difficult for me to attain to God, if you do not Immediatelyspare me. afterwards, in 2:1, he already refers to himself using imagery drawn from the field of food and drink, specifically as a libation: ImmediatelyImmediately afterwards, afterwards, in in 2:1, 2:1, he he already already refers refers to to himself himself using using imagery imagery drawn drawn from from the the field field of food and drink, specifically as a libation: of food2. πλέονand drink, δέ μοι specifi μὴ cally παράσχησθε as a libation: τοῦ σπονδισθῆναι θεῷ, ὡς ἔτι θυσιαστήριον ἕτοιμόν ἐστιν, ἵνα ἐν ἀγάπῃ χορὸς γενόμενοι ᾄσητε τῷ πατρὶ ἐν Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ, ὅτι τὸν ἐπίσκοπον 2. πλέον δέ μοι μὴ παράσχησθε τοῦ σπονδισθῆναι θεῷ, ὡς ἔτι θυσιαστήριον ἕτοιμόν Συρίας κατηξίωσεν ὁ θεὸς εὑρεθῆναι εἰς δύσιν ἀπὸ ἀνατολῆς μεταπεμψάμενος. καλὸν ἐστιν, ἵνα ἐν ἀγάπῃ χορὸς γενόμενοι ᾄσητε τῷ πατρὶ ἐν Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ, ὅτι τὸν ἐπίσκοπον τὸ δῦναι ἀπὸ κόσμου πρὸς θεόν, ἵνα εἰς αὐτὸν ἀνατείλω. Συρίας κατηξίωσεν ὁ θεὸς εὑρεθῆναι εἰς δύσιν ἀπὸ ἀνατολῆς μεταπεμψάμενος. καλὸν 2.τὸ But δῦναι grant ἀπὸ me κόσμου nothing πρὸς more θεόν, than ἵναto be εἰς poured αὐτὸν outἀνατείλω. as a libation to God while there is still an altar at hand, that by becoming a chorus in love, you may sing forth to the Father in Jesus 2. But grant me nothing more than to be poured out as a libation to God while there is still an Christ, saying that God has deemed the bishop of Syria worthy to be found at the setting of altar at hand, that by becoming a chorus in love, you may sing forth to the Father in Jesus 19 Cf.Christ, also this saying emphasis that Stefanut God( 2013has). deemed the bishop of Syria worthy to be found at the setting of 20 Cf., e.g., Bakker(2013, pp. 172–73). 21 As Klostergaard Petersen(2013, p. 35) has it. 22 19 Cf. also the emphasis placed by McDonnell(2010), on the urgency of the question as to how he would die for Ignatius. Cf. also this emphasis Stefanut (2013). 20 Cf., e.g., Bakker (2013, pp. 172–73). 19 Cf. also this emphasis Stefanut (2013). 21 As Klostergaard Petersen (2013, p. 35) has it. 20 Cf., e.g., Bakker (2013, pp. 172–73). 22 Cf. also the emphasis placed by McDonnell (2010), on the urgency of the question as to how he would die for 21 As Klostergaard Petersen (2013, p. 35) has it. Ignatius. 22 Cf. also the emphasis placed by McDonnell (2010), on the urgency of the question as to how he would die for

Ignatius.

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2. But grant me nothing more than to be poured out as a libation to God while there is still an altar at hand, that by becoming a chorus in love, you may sing forth to the Father in Jesus Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13 ReligionsChrist, 2019, saying10, x FOR that PEER God REVIEW has deemed the bishop of Syria worthy to be found at the setting of6 of 13 the sun, after sending him from where it rises. For it is good for me to set from the world to the sun, after sending him from where it rises. For it is good for me to set from the world to ReligionsGod,the 2019 sun, that, 10 after, Ix mayFOR sending PEER rise upREVIEW him to him. from where it rises. For it is good for me to set from the world to6 of 13 God, that I may rise up to him. God, that I may rise up to him. the sun, after sending him from where it rises. For it is good for me to set from the world to TheThe emphasisemphasis here, here however,, however, is notis not so muchso much on being on being consumed consumed by a deity, by a asdeity, the image as the of image libation of TheGod, emphasis that I may here rise, uphowever, to him. is not so much on being consumed by a deity, as the image of couldlibation suggest, could butsuggest, rather but on rather being ‘pouredon being out’ ‘poured for God. out’ This for God. changes, This however, changes, when however, Ignatius when returns Igna- libation could suggest, but rather on being ‘poured out’ for God. This changes, however, when Igna- totius the returnsThe topic emphasis of to physical the topic here annihilation of, however, physical inannihilationis ch.not 4so of much the in letter: ch. on 4 being of the consumed letter: by a deity, as the image of tius returns to the topic of physical annihilation in ch. 4 of the letter: libation could suggest, but rather on being ‘poured out’ for God. This changes, however, when Igna- 1. Ἐγὼ γράφω πάσαις ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις καὶ ἐντέλλομαι πᾶσιν, ὅτι ἐγὼ ἑκὼν ὑπὲρ θεοῦ tius returns1. Ἐγὼ toγράφω the topic πάσαις of physical ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις annihilation καὶ in ἐντέλλομαι ch. 4 of the letter:πᾶσιν, ὅτι ἐγὼ ἑκὼν ὑπὲρ θεοῦ ἀποθνήσκω, ἐάνπερ ὑμεῖς μὴ κωλύσητε. παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς, μὴ εὔνοια ἄκαιρος γένησθέ ἀποθνήσκω, ἐάνπερ ὑμεῖς μὴ κωλύσητε. παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς, μὴ εὔνοια ἄκαιρος γένησθέ μοι.1. Ἐγὼ ἄφετέ γράφω με θηρίων πάσαις εἶναι ταῖς βοράν,ἐκκλησίαις δι᾿ ὧν καὶ ἔνεστιν ἐντέλλομαι θεοῦ ἐπιτυχεῖν. πᾶσιν, ὅτι σῖτός ἐγὼ ἑκὼνεἰμι θεοῦ ὑπὲρ καὶ θεοῦ δι᾿ μοι. ἄφετέ με θηρίων εἶναι βοράν, δι᾿ ὧν ἔνεστιν θεοῦ ἐπιτυχεῖν. σῖτός εἰμι θεοῦ καὶ δι᾿ ὀδόντωνἀποθνήσκω, θηρίων ἐάνπερ ἀλήθομαι, ὑμεῖς μὴἵνα κωλύσητε. καθαρὸς ἄρτος παρακαλῶ εὑρεθῶ ὑμᾶς, τοῦ Χριστοῦ.μὴ εὔνοια ἄκαιρος γένησθέ ὀδόντων θηρίων ἀλήθομαι, ἵνα καθαρὸς ἄρτος εὑρεθῶ τοῦ Χριστοῦ. μοι. ἄφετέ με θηρίων εἶναι βοράν, δι᾿ ὧν ἔνεστιν θεοῦ ἐπιτυχεῖν. σῖτός εἰμι θεοῦ καὶ δι᾿ 2. μᾶλλον κολακεύσατε τὰ θηρία, ἵνα μοι τάφος γένωνται καὶ μηθὲν καταλίπωσι τῶν τοῦ 2.ὀδόντων μᾶλλον θηρίων κολακεύσατε ἀλήθομαι, τὰ θ ἵναηρία, καθαρὸς ἵνα μοι τάφοςἄρτος εὑρεθῶγένωνται τοῦ καὶ Χριστοῦ. μηθὲν καταλίπωσι τῶν τοῦ σώματός μου, ἵνα μὴ κοιμηθεὶς βαρύς τινι γένωμαι. τότε ἔσομαι μαθητὴς ἀληθῶς Ἰησοῦ σώματός μου, ἵνα μὴ κοιμηθεὶς βαρύς τινι γένωμαι. τότε ἔσομαι μαθητὴς ἀληθῶς Ἰησοῦ χριστοῦ,2. μᾶλλον ὅτε κολακεύσατε οὐδὲ τὸ σῶμά τὰ μουθηρία, ὁ κόσμος ἵνα μοι ὄψεται. τάφος γένωνταιλιτανεύσατε καὶ τὸνμηθὲν Χριστὸν καταλίπωσι ὑπὲρ ἐμοῦ, τῶν τοῦἵνα χριστοῦ, ὅτε οὐδὲ τὸ σῶμά μου ὁ κόσμος ὄψεται. λιτανεύσατε τὸν Χριστὸν ὑπὲρ ἐμοῦ, ἵνα διὰσώματός τῶν ὀργάνων μου, ἵνα τούτωνμὴ κοιμηθεὶς θεοῦ θ βαρύςυσία εὑρεθῶ. τινι γένωμαι. τότε ἔσομαι μαθητὴς ἀληθῶς Ἰησοῦ διὰ τῶν ὀργάνων τούτων θεοῦ θυσία εὑρεθῶ. χριστοῦ, ὅτε οὐδὲ τὸ σῶμά μου ὁ κόσμος ὄψεται. λιτανεύσατε τὸν Χριστὸν ὑπὲρ ἐμοῦ, ἵνα 1. I am writing all the churches and giving instruction to all, that I am willingly dying for God, 1.διὰ I amτῶν writing ὀργάνων all the τούτων churches θεοῦ and θυσία giving εὑρεθῶ. instruction to all, that I am willingly dying for God, 1.unless I am writingyou hinder all the me. churches I urge you, and givingdo not instructionbecome an tountimely all, that Ikindness am willingly to me. dying Allow for me God, to unless you hinder me. I urge you, do not become an untimely kindness to me. Allow me to unlessbe1. I bread am youwriting for hinder the all wild the me. churchesbeasts; I urge through you,and giving do them not instruction becomeI am able an toto untimely attainall, that to I kindnessGod.am willingly I am tothe me. dying wheat Allow for of God,God me be bread for the wild beasts; through them I am able to attain to God. I am the wheat of God toandunless be am bread you ground forhinder the by wildme.the Iteeth beasts;urge of you, throughthe do wild not thembeasts, become I amthat an able I untimelymay to attainbe found kindness to God. to be to Ithe amme. pure theAllow wheat bread me ofofto and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found to be the pure bread of GodChrist.be bread and amfor groundthe wild by beasts; the teeth through of the them wild I beasts,am able that to attain I may to be God. found I am to bethe the wheat pure of bread God Christ. and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found to be the pure bread of of2. Christ.Rather, coax the wild beasts, that they may become a tomb for me and leave no part of my 2.Christ. Rather, coax the wild beasts, that they may become a tomb for me and leave no part of my body behind, that I may burden no one once I have died. Then I will truly be a disciple of 2.body Rather, behind, coax that the wildI may beasts, burden that no they one mayonce become I have adied. tomb Then for meI will and truly leave be no a partdisciple of my of Jesus2. Rather, Christ, coax when the wildthe world beasts, does that not they see may even become my body. a tomb Petition for me Christ and onleave my no behalf, part ofthat my I bodyJesus behind,Christ, when thatI the may world burden does no not one see once even I havemy body. died. Petition Then I Christ will truly on my be abehalf, disciple that of I maybody be behind, found thata sacrifice I may throughburden theseno one instruments once I have of died. God. Then I will truly be a disciple of Jesusmay be Christ, found when a sacrifice the world through does these not see instruments even my body. of God. Petition Christ on my behalf, that I Jesus Christ, when the world does not see even my body. Petition Christ on my behalf, that I mayIgnatius be found not only a sacrifice reiterates through his desire these to instruments die here (4:1), of God. but also becomes rather explicit as to the Ignatiusmay be found not only a sacrifice reiterates through his desire these t instrumentso die here (4:1), of God. but also becomes rather explicit as to the manner of his death: by being eaten by the wild animals, as if he were bread. He varies this unusual manner of his death: by being eaten by the wild animals, as if he were bread. He varies this unusual imageryIgnatiusIgnatius—bread notnot onlyisonly not reiterates reiteratescommon hishisfood desiredesire for wild toto diedie animals herehere (4:1),(4:1),—by butbut also alsoalso comparing becomesbecomes him ratherratherself explicit explicitto wheat asas tothatto thethe is imagery—bread is not common food for wild animals—by also comparing himself to wheat that is mannerbeingmanner ground ofof hishis death:bydeath: the byteethby beingbeing of these eateneaten animals byby thethe wildinwild order animals,animals, to become asas ifif hehethe werewere pure bread. bread.bread HeofH eChrist. variesvaries thisItthis is unusualhardunusual not being ground by the teeth of these animals in order to become the pure bread of Christ. It is hard not imagery—breadtoimagery see allusions—bread to isis E notnotucharistic commoncommon imagery foodfood forfor here, wildwild even animals—byanimals if those—by allusions alsoalso comparingcomparing are derived himselfhim byself loose toto wheatwheat association thatthat isis to see allusions to Eucharistic imagery here, even if those allusions are derived by loose association beingratherbeing ground groundthan stringent byby thethe teethteeth logic. ofof The thesethese point animalsanimals is made inin orderorder clear: toto becomeearthlybecome annihilation, thethe purepure breadbread the ofof disappearance Christ.Christ. ItIt isis hardhard of notnotthe rather than stringent logic. The point is made clear: earthly annihilation, the disappearance of the tobody,to seesee allusionsleadsallusions to unification toto EucharisticEucharistic with imageryimagery Christ. here,here, eveneven ifif thosethose allusionsallusions areare derivedderived byby looselooseassociation association body, leads to unification with Christ. ratherratherSubsequently, thanthan stringentstringent Ignatius logic.logic. TheThealso point pointrestates isis made madethe rationale clear:clear: earthlyearthly behind annihilation,annihilation, his desire in thethe terms disappearancedisappearance of the paradox ofof thethe of Subsequently, Ignatius also restates the rationale behind his desire in terms of the paradox of body,becomingbody, leads leads truly to to unification unification free and completely with with Christ. Christ. belonging to Christ by means of his suffering, while comparing becoming truly free and completely belonging to Christ by means of his suffering, while comparing his fateSubsequently,Subsequently, and standing IgnatiusIgnatius with the alsoalso apostles restatesrestates Peter thethe and rationalerationale Paul: behindbehind hishis desiredesire inin termsterms ofof thethe paradoxparadox ofof his fate and standing with the apostles Peter and Paul: becomingbecoming truly truly free free and and completely completely belonging belonging to to Christ Christ by by means means of hisof his suff suffering,ering, while while comparing comparing his 3. οὐχ ὡς Πέτρος καὶ Παῦλος διατάσσομαι ὑμῖν. ἐκεῖνοι ἀπόστολοι, ἐγὼ κατάκριτος· fatehis fate and3. οὐχand standing ὡςstanding Πέτρος with with the καὶ apostlesthe Παῦλος apostles Peter διατάσσομαι Peter and and Paul: Paul: ὑμῖν. ἐκεῖνοι ἀπόστολοι, ἐγὼ κατάκριτος· ἐκεῖνοι ἐλεύθεροι, ἐγὼ δὲ μέχρι νῦν δοῦλος. ἀλλ᾿ ἐὰν πάθω, ἀπελεύθερος γενήσομαι ἐκεῖνοι ἐλεύθεροι, ἐγὼ δὲ μέχρι νῦν δοῦλος. ἀλλ᾿ ἐὰν πάθω, ἀπελεύθερος γενήσομαι Ἰησοῦ3. οὐχ Χριστοῦ ὡς Πέτρος καὶ καὶἀναστήσομαι Παῦλος διατάσσομαι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐλεύθερος. ὑμῖν. ἐκεῖνοι καὶ νῦν ἀπόστολοι, μανθάνω δεδεμένος ἐγὼ κατάκριτος· μηδὲν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ ἀναστήσομαι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐλεύθερος. καὶ νῦν μανθάνω δεδεμένος μηδὲν ἐπιθυμεῖν.ἐκεῖνοι ἐλεύθεροι, ἐγὼ δὲ μέχρι νῦν δοῦλος. ἀλλ᾿ ἐὰν πάθω, ἀπελεύθερος γενήσομαι ἐπιθυμεῖν. Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ ἀναστήσομαι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐλεύθερος. καὶ νῦν μανθάνω δεδεμένος μηδὲν 3. I am not enjoining you as Peter and Paul did. They were apostles, I am condemned; they 3.ἐπιθυμεῖν. I am not enjoining you as Peter and Paul did. They were apostles, I am condemned; they were free, until now I have been a slave. But if I suffer, I will become a freed person who were free, until now I have been a slave. But if I suffer, I will become a freed person who belongs3. I am not to Jesus enjoining Christ, you and as I Peterwill rise and up, Paul free, did. in him.They In were the meantimeapostles, I I amam condemned;learning to desire they 3.belongs I am not to Jesus enjoining Christ, you and as I Peter will rise and up, Paul free, did. in him. They In were the meantime apostles, I I am am condemned; learning to desire they nothingwere free, while until in now chains. I have been a slave. But if I suffer, I will become a freed person who werenothing free, while until in now chains. I have been a slave. But if I suffer, I will become a freed person who belongs to Jesus Christ, and I will rise up, free, in him. In the meantime I am learning to desire belongsIgnatiusto does Jesus not Christ, easily andtire of I willstating rise his up, purpose free, in in him. coming In the to meantimeRome. In fact, I am he learning casts it as to com- Ignatiusnothing whiledoes notin chains. easily tire of stating his purpose in coming to Rome. In fact, he casts it as com- ing freely to Rome and desiring death, rather than as being dragged unwillingly to a humiliating ing freelydesire to nothing Rome whileand desiring in chains. death, rather than as being dragged unwillingly to a humiliating executionIgnatius for doesthe entertainment not easily tire of of the stating Roman his populacepurpose in. H cominge returns to toRome this .even In fact, more he castsvividly it asin com-ch. 5 execution for the entertainment of the Roman populace. He returns to this even more vividly in ch. 5 ofing his freely letter to to Rome the Romans: and desiring death, rather than as being dragged unwillingly to a humiliating of his letter to the Romans: execution for the entertainment of the Roman populace. He returns to this even more vividly in ch. 5 2. ὀναίμην τῶν θηρίων τῶν ἐμοὶ ἡτοιμασμένων καὶ εὔχομαι σύντομά μοι εὑρεθῆναι· ἃ of his2. letter ὀναίμην to the τῶν Romans: θηρίων τῶν ἐμοὶ ἡτοιμασμένων καὶ εὔχομαι σύντομά μοι εὑρεθῆναι· ἃ καὶ κολακεύσω, συντόμως με καταφαγεῖν, οὐχ ὥσπερ τινῶν δειλαινόμενα οὐχ ἥψαντο. καὶ κολακεύσω, συντόμως με καταφαγεῖν, οὐχ ὥσπερ τινῶν δειλαινόμενα οὐχ ἥψαντο. κἂν2. ὀναίμην αὐτὰ δὲ τῶν ἑκόντα θηρίων μὴ θέλῃ,τῶν ἐμοὶ ἐγὼ ἡτοιμασμένωνπροσβιάσομαι. καὶ εὔχομαι σύντομά μοι εὑρεθῆναι· ἃ κἂν αὐτὰ δὲ ἑκόντα μὴ θέλῃ, ἐγὼ προσβιάσομαι. καὶ κολακεύσω, συντόμως με καταφαγεῖν, οὐχ ὥσπερ τινῶν δειλαινόμενα οὐχ ἥψαντο. κἂν αὐτὰ δὲ ἑκόντα μὴ θέλῃ, ἐγὼ προσβιάσομαι.

Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

the sun, after sending him from where it rises. For it is good for me to set from the world to God, that I may rise up to him. The emphasis here, however, is not so much on being consumed by a deity, as the image of libation could suggest, but rather on being ‘poured out’ for God. This changes, however, when Igna- tius returns to the topic of physical annihilation in ch. 4 of the letter: 1. Ἐγὼ γράφω πάσαις ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις καὶ ἐντέλλομαι πᾶσιν, ὅτι ἐγὼ ἑκὼν ὑπὲρ θεοῦ ἀποθνήσκω, ἐάνπερ ὑμεῖς μὴ κωλύσητε. παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς, μὴ εὔνοια ἄκαιρος γένησθέ μοι. ἄφετέ με θηρίων εἶναι βοράν, δι᾿ ὧν ἔνεστιν θεοῦ ἐπιτυχεῖν. σῖτός εἰμι θεοῦ καὶ δι᾿ ὀδόντων θηρίων ἀλήθομαι, ἵνα καθαρὸς ἄρτος εὑρεθῶ τοῦ Χριστοῦ. 2. μᾶλλον κολακεύσατε τὰ θηρία, ἵνα μοι τάφος γένωνται καὶ μηθὲν καταλίπωσι τῶν τοῦ σώματός μου, ἵνα μὴ κοιμηθεὶς βαρύς τινι γένωμαι. τότε ἔσομαι μαθητὴς ἀληθῶς Ἰησοῦ χριστοῦ, ὅτε οὐδὲ τὸ σῶμά μου ὁ κόσμος ὄψεται. λιτανεύσατε τὸν Χριστὸν ὑπὲρ ἐμοῦ, ἵνα διὰ τῶν ὀργάνων τούτων θεοῦ θυσία εὑρεθῶ. 1. I am writing all the churches and giving instruction to all, that I am willingly dying for God, unless you hinder me. I urge you, do not become an untimely kindness to me. Allow me to be bread for the wild beasts; through them I am able to attain to God. I am the wheat of God and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found to be the pure bread of Christ. 2. Rather, coax the wild beasts, that they may become a tomb for me and leave no part of my body behind, that I may burden no one once I have died. Then I will truly be a disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world does not see even my body. Petition Christ on my behalf, that I may be found a sacrifice through these instruments of God. Ignatius not only reiterates his desire to die here (4:1), but also becomes rather explicit as to the manner of his death: by being eaten by the wild animals, as if he were bread. He varies this unusual imagery—bread is not common food for wild animals—by also comparing himself to wheat that is being ground by the teeth of these animals in order to become the pure bread of Christ. It is hard not to see allusions to Eucharistic imagery here, even if those allusions are derived by loose association rather than stringent logic. The point is made clear: earthly annihilation, the disappearance of the body, leads to unification with Christ. Subsequently, Ignatius also restates the rationale behind his desire in terms of the paradox of becoming truly free and completely belonging to Christ by means of his suffering, while comparing his fate and standing with the apostles Peter and Paul: 3. οὐχ ὡς Πέτρος καὶ Παῦλος διατάσσομαι ὑμῖν. ἐκεῖνοι ἀπόστολοι, ἐγὼ κατάκριτος· ἐκεῖνοι ἐλεύθεροι, ἐγὼ δὲ μέχρι νῦν δοῦλος. ἀλλ᾿ ἐὰν πάθω, ἀπελεύθερος γενήσομαι Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ ἀναστήσομαι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐλεύθερος. καὶ νῦν μανθάνω δεδεμένος μηδὲν ἐπιθυμεῖν. 3. I am not enjoining you as Peter and Paul did. They were apostles, I am condemned; they were free, until now I have been a slave. But if I suffer, I will become a freed person who Religionsbelongs2020, 11 to, 637 Jesus Christ, and I will rise up, free, in him. In the meantime I am learning to desire7 of 13 nothing while in chains. IgnatiusIgnatius does does not easily not easily tire of tire stating of stating his purpose his purpose in coming in coming to Rome. to Rome In. fact, In fact, he castshe casts it as it comingas com- freelying freely to Rome to Rome and desiring and desiring death, ratherdeath, thanrather as than being as dragged being dragged unwillingly unwillingly to a humiliating to a humiliating execution forexecution the entertainment for the entertainment of the Roman of populace.the Roman He populace returns. toHe this returns even to more this vividly even more in ch. vividly 5 of his in letter ch. 5 toof thehis Romans:letter to the Romans: 2. ὀναίμην τῶν θηρίων τῶν ἐμοὶ ἡτοιμασμένων καὶ εὔχομαι σύντομά μοι εὑρεθῆναι· ἃ καὶ κολακεύσω, συντόμως με καταφαγεῖν, οὐχ ὥσπερ τινῶν δειλαινόμενα οὐχ ἥψαντο. Religions 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13 Religionsκἂν 2019 αὐτὰ, 10, x δὲ FOR ἑκόντα PEER REVIEW μὴ θέλῃ, ἐγὼ προσβιάσομαι. 7 of 13 Religions 2019,, 10,, xx FFOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13 3.3. συγγνώμην συγγνώμην μοι μοι ἔχετε· ἔχετε· τί τί μοι μοι συμφέρει, συμφέρει, ἐγὼ ἐγὼ γινώσκω. γινώσκω. νῦν νῦν ἄρχομ ἄρχομαιαι μαθητὴς μαθητὴς εἶναι. εἶναι. 3. συγγνώμην μοι ἔχετε· τί μοι συμφέρει, ἐγὼ γινώσκω. νῦν ἄρχομαι μαθητὴς εἶναι. μηθένμηθέν με με ζηλώσαι ζηλώσαι τῶν τῶν ὁρατῶν ὁρατῶν καὶ καὶ ἀοράτων, ἀοράτων, ἵνα ἵνα Ἰησοῦ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐπιτύχω. ἐπιτύχω. πῦρ πῦρ καὶ καὶ μηθέν με ζηλώσαι τῶν ὁρατῶν καὶ ἀοράτων, ἵνα Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐπιτύχω. πῦρ καὶ σταυρὸςσταυρὸς θηρίων θηρίων τε τε συστάσεις, συστάσεις, ἀνατομαί, ἀνατομαί, διαιρέσεις, διαιρέσεις, σκορπισμοὶσκορπισμοὶ ὀστέων, ὀστέων, συγκοπὴ συγκοπὴ σταυρὸς θηρίων τε συστάσεις, ἀνατομαί, διαιρέσεις, σκορπισμοὶ ὀστέων, συγκοπὴ μελῶν,μελῶν, ἀλεσμοὶἀλεσμοὶ ὅλουὅλου τοῦτοῦ σώματος,σώματος, κακαὶκακαὶ κολάσειςκολάσεις τοῦτοῦ διαβόλουδιαβόλου ἐπ᾿ἐπ᾿ ἐμὲἐμὲ ἐρχέσθωσαν,ἐρχέσθωσαν, μελῶν, ἀλεσμοὶ ὅλου τοῦ σώματος, κακαὶ κολάσεις τοῦ διαβόλου ἐπ᾿ ἐμὲ ἐρχέσθωσαν, μόνμόνονον ἵναἵνα ἸησοῦἸησοῦ ΧριστοῦΧριστοῦ ἐπιτύχω.ἐπιτύχω. μόνον ἵνα Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐπιτύχω. 2.2. MayMay II havehave thethe fullfull pleasurepleasure ofof thethe wildwild beastsbeasts preparedprepared forfor me;me; II praypray theythey willwill bebe foundfound 2.2. MayMay II havehave thethe fullfull pleasurepleasure ofof thethe wildwild beastsbeasts preparedprepared forfor me;me; II praypray theythey willwill bebe foundfound readyready forfor me.me. Indeed,Indeed, II willwill coaxcoax themthem toto devourdevour meme quicklyquickly——notnot asas happenshappens withwith some,some, readyready forfor me.me. Indeed,Indeed, II willwill coaxcoax themthem toto devourdevour meme quickly—notquickly—not asas happenshappens withwith some,some, whomwhom theythey areare afraidafraid toto touch.touch. AndAnd eveneven ifif thetheyy dodo notnot wishwish toto dodo soso willingly,willingly, II willwill forceforce whomwhom theythey are afraid afraid to to touch. touch. And And even even if the if theyy do donot notwish wish to do to so do willingly, so willingly, I will I force will them.them. forcethem. them. 3.3. GrantGrant thisthis toto me;me; II knowknow whatwhat benefitsbenefits me.me. NowNow II amam beginningbeginning toto bebe aa disciple.disciple. MayMay noth-noth- 3.3. Grant Grant this this to tome; me; I know I know what what benefits benefits me. Now me. I am Now beginning I am beginning to be a disciple. to be aMay disciple. noth- inging visiblevisible oror invisibleinvisible showshow anyany envyenvy towardtoward me,me, thatthat II maymay attainattain toto JesusJesus Christ.Christ. FireFire andand Maying visible nothing or visibleinvisible or show invisible any show envy anytoward envy me, toward that I me, may that attain I may to Jesus attain Christ. to Jesus Fire Christ. and crosscross andand packspacks ofof wildwild beasts,beasts, cuttingscuttings andand beingbeing torntorn apart,apart, thethe scatteringscattering ofof bones,bones, thethe man-man- Firecross and and cross packs and of packswild beasts, of wild cuttings beasts, and cuttings being and torn being apart, torn the apart, scattering the scattering of bones, ofthe bones, man- glinggling ofof limbs,limbs, thethe grindinggrinding ofof thethe wholewhole body,body, thethe evilevil tormentstorments ofof thethe devildevil——letlet themthem comecome thegling mangling of limbs, of the limbs, grinding the grindingof the whole of the body, whole the body,evil torments the evil of torments the devil of— thelet them devil—let come uponupon me,me, onlyonly thatthat II maymay attainattain toto JesusJesus Christ.Christ. themupon comeme, only upon that me, I may only attain that I to may Jesus attain Christ. to Jesus Christ. BeingBeing devoureddevoured isis here,here, onceonce again,again, tthehe pathwaypathway forfor attainingattaining perfectperfect communioncommunion withwith Christ.Christ. BeingBeing devoureddevoured isis here,here, onceonce again,again, thethe pathwaypathway forfor attainingattaining perfectperfect communioncommunion with Christ. InIn fact,fact, IgnatiusIgnatius eveneven contemplatescontemplates coaxingcoaxing thethe animalsanimals toto dealdeal withwith himhim quickly,quickly, oror eveneven forcforcinging InIn fact,fact, Ignatius Ignatius even even contemplates contemplates coaxing coaxing the the animals animals to dealto deal with with him him quickly, quickly, or even or forcingeven forc theming themthem toto dodo so.so. InIn hishis desiredesire toto bebe annihilatedannihilated andand,, thusthus,, toto bebecomecome oneone withwith Christ,Christ, hehe eveneven addsadds tothem do so.to do In hisso. desire In his to desire be annihilated to be annihilated and, thus, and to become,, thus,, to one be withcome Christ, one with he evenChrist, adds he destruction even adds destdestructionruction byby firefire toto thethe mixmix inin hishis descriptiondescription ofof suchsuch demolitiondemolition inin 5:3.5:3. bydest fireruction to the by mix fire in to his the description mix in hisof description such demolition of such in demolition 5:3. in 5:3. FurtherFurther substantiationsubstantiation ofof thisthis desiredesire toto suffersuffer isis foundfound againagain inin 6:36:3:: FurtherFurther substantiationsubstantiation ofof thisthis desiredesire toto susufferffer isis foundfound againagain in in 6:3: 6:3:: 3.3. ἐπιτρέψατέἐπιτρέψατέ μοιμοι μιμητὴνμιμητὴν εἶναιεἶναι τοῦτοῦ πάθουςπάθους τοῦτοῦ θεοῦθεοῦ μου.μου. εἴεἴ τιςτις αὐτὸναὐτὸν ἐνἐν ἑαυτῷἑαυτῷ ἔχει,ἔχει, 3. ἐπιτρέψατέ μοι μιμητὴν εἶναι τοῦ πάθους τοῦ θεοῦ μου. εἴ τις αὐτὸν ἐν ἑαυτῷ ἔχει, νοησάτω,νοησάτω, ὃὃ θέλω,θέλω, καὶκαὶ συμπαθείτωσυμπαθείτω μοι,μοι, εἰδὼςεἰδὼς τὰτὰ συνέχοντάσυνέχοντά με.με. νοησάτω, ὃ θέλω, καὶ συμπαθείτω μοι, εἰδὼς τὰ συνέχοντά με. 3.3. AllowAllow meme toto bebe anan imitatorimitator ofof thethe sufferingsuffering ofof mymy God.God. IfIf anyoneanyone hashas himhim withinwithin himself,himself, 3. Allow me to be an imitator of the suffering of my God. If anyone has him within himself, 3.letlet Allow himhim bothboth me tounderstandunderstand be an imitator whatwhat of II wantwant the su andandffering sympathizesympathize of my God. withwith If me,me, anyone realizingrealizing hashim thethe things withinthings thatthat himself, con-con- let him both understand what I want and sympathize with me, realizing the things that con- letstrainstrain him me.me. both understand what I want and sympathize with me, realizing the things that strain me. constrain me. Ignatius’Ignatius’ desiredesire toto bebe coconsumednsumed has,has, thereforetherefore,, threethree functionsfunctions whenwhen itit comescomes toto communioncommunion Ignatius’ desire to be consumed has, therefore,, threethree functions when it comes to communion withwithIgnatius’ Jesus:Jesus: (a)(a) desire functioningfunctioning to be consumed asas aa meansmeans has, ofof therefore, identificationidentification three functions withwith hishis whensufferingsuffering it comes;; (b)(b) offeringoffering to communion proofproof ofof with hishis with Jesus: (a) functioning as a means of identification with his suffering;; (b) offering proof of his Jesus:faithfulfaithful (a) discipleshipdiscipleship functioning untiluntil as a meansthethe veryvery of identificationendend;; (c)(c) enablingenabling with IgnatiusIgnatius his suff ering;toto disappeardisappear (b) offering fromfrom proof thisthis lifelife of his toto faithfulbecomebecome faithful discipleship until the very end;; (c)(c) enablingenabling Ignatius to disappear from this life to become discipleshipcompletelycompletely andand until safelysafely the very ensconcedensconced end; (c) withwith enabling ChristChrist Ignatius inin Christ’sChrist’s to disappear realmrealm (the(the from naturenature this ofof life whichwhich to become IgnatiusIgnatius completely doesdoes notnot completely and safely ensconced with Christ in Christ’s realm (the nature of which Ignatius does not anddwelldwell safely upon).upon). ensconced with Christ in Christ’s realm (the nature of which Ignatius does not dwell upon). dwell upon). InInIn a aa final finalfinal occurrence occurrenceoccurrence of ofof food foodfood imagery, imagery,imagery, the thethe roles rolesroles are areare slightly slightlyslightly changed changedchanged again, again,again, as nowasas nownow Ignatius IgnatiusIgnatius himself him-him- In a final occurrence of food imagery, the roles are slightly changed again, as now Ignatius him- desiresselfself desiresdesires food foodfood on the onon one thethe hand oneone handhand while whilewhile on the onon other thethe otherother he seems hehe seemsseems to be toto filled bebe filledfilled with withwith ‘living ‘‘livingliving water’: waterwater’’:: self desires food on the one hand while on the other he seems to be filled with ‘living water’:: 2.2. βασκανίαβασκανία ἐνἐν ὑμῖνὑμῖν μὴμὴ κατοικείτω.κατοικείτω. μηδ᾿μηδ᾿ ἂνἂν ἐγὼἐγὼ παρὼνπαρὼν παρακαλῶπαρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς,ὑμᾶς, πείσθητέπείσθητέ μοι·μοι· 2. βασκανία ἐν ὑμῖν μὴ κατοικείτω. μηδ᾿ ἂν ἐγὼ παρὼν παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς, πείσθητέ μοι· τούτοιςτούτοις δὲ δὲ μᾶλλον μᾶλλον πείσθητε, πείσθητε, οἷς οἷς γράφω γράφω ὑμῖν. ὑμῖν. ζῶν ζῶν γὰρ γὰρ γράφω γράφω ὑμῖν, ὑμῖν, ἐρῶν ἐρῶν τοῦ τοῦ τούτοις δὲ μᾶλλον πείσθητε, οἷς γράφω ὑμῖν. ζῶν γὰρ γράφω ὑμῖν, ἐρῶν τοῦ ἀποθανεῖνἀποθανεῖν.. ὁὁ ἐμὸςἐμὸς ἔρωςἔρως ἐσταύρωται,ἐσταύρωται, καὶκαὶ οὐκοὐκ ἔστινἔστιν ἐνἐν ἐμοὶἐμοὶ πῦρπῦρ φιλόϋλον·φιλόϋλον· ὕδωρὕδωρ δὲδὲ ζῶνζῶν ἀποθανεῖν.. ὁὁ ἐμὸςἐμὸς ἔρωςἔρως ἐσταύρωται,ἐσταύρωται, καὶκαὶ οὐκοὐκ ἔστινἔστιν ἐνἐν ἐμοὶἐμοὶ πῦρπῦρ φιλόϋλον·φιλόϋλον· ὕδωρὕδωρ δὲδὲ ζῶνζῶν καὶκαὶ λαλοῦνλαλοῦν ἐνἐν ἐμοί,ἐμοί, ἔσωθένἔσωθέν μοιμοι λέγον·λέγον· δεῦροδεῦρο πρὸςπρὸς τὸντὸν πατέρα.πατέρα. καὶ λαλοῦν ἐν ἐμοί, ἔσωθέν μοι λέγον· δεῦρο πρὸς τὸν πατέρα. 3.3. οὐχοὐχ ἥδομαιἥδομαι τροφῇτροφῇ φθορᾶςφθορᾶς οὐδὲοὐδὲ ἡδοναῖςἡδοναῖς τοῦτοῦ βίουβίου τούτου.τούτου. ἄρτονἄρτον θεοῦθεοῦ θέλω,θέλω, ὅὅ ἐστινἐστιν 3. οὐχ ἥδομαι τροφῇ φθορᾶς οὐδὲ ἡδοναῖς τοῦ βίου τούτου. ἄρτον θεοῦ θέλω, ὅ ἐστιν σὰρξσὰρξ ἸησοῦἸησοῦ Χριστοῦ,Χριστοῦ, τοῦτοῦ ἐκἐκ σπέρματοςσπέρματος ΔαΔαυίδ,υίδ, καὶκαὶ πόμαπόμα θέλωθέλω τὸτὸ αἷμααἷμα αὐτοῦ,αὐτοῦ, ὅὅ ἐστινἐστιν σὰρξ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, τοῦ ἐκ σπέρματος Δαυίδ, καὶ πόμα θέλω τὸ αἷμα αὐτοῦ, ὅ ἐστιν ἀγάπηἀγάπη ἄφθαρτος.ἄφθαρτος. ἀγάπη ἄφθαρτος. 2.2. LetLet nono envyenvy dwelldwell amongamong you.you. EvenEven ifif II urgeurge youyou otherwiseotherwise whenwhen II arrive,arrive, dodo notnot bebe per-per- 2. Let no envy dwell among you. Even if I urge you otherwise when I arrive, do not be per- suaded;suaded; insteadinstead bebe persuadedpersuaded byby whatwhat II amam writingwriting youyou now.now. ForFor II writewrite toto youyou whilewhile living,living, suaded; instead be persuaded by what I am writing you now. For I write to you while living, desiringdesiring toto die.die. MyMy passionpassion hashas beenbeen crucifiedcrucified andand therethere isis nono burningburning lovelove withinwithin meme forfor desiring to die. My passion has been crucified and there is no burning love within me for materialmaterial things;things; insteadinstead therethere isis livingliving water,water, whichwhich alsoalso isis speakingspeaking inin me,me, sayingsaying toto meme fromfrom material things; instead there is living water, which also is speaking in me, saying to me from within:within: ‘‘ComeCome toto thethe FatherFather’’.. within: ‘Come to the Father’.. 3.3. II havehave nono pleasurepleasure inin thethe foodfood thatthat perishesperishes nornor inin thethe pleasurespleasures ofof thisthis life.life. II desiredesire thethe breadbread 3. I have no pleasure in the food that perishes nor in the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread ofof God,God, whichwhich isis thethe fleshflesh ofof JesusJesus Christ,Christ, fromfrom thethe seedseed ofof David;David; andand forfor drinkdrink II desiredesire hishis of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, from the seed of David; and for drink I desire his blood,blood, whichwhich isis imperishableimperishable lovelove.. blood, which is imperishable love.. TheThe imageimage ofof thethe livingliving waterwater maymay bebe relatedrelated toto thethe HHolyoly SSpirit,pirit, whichwhich was,was, atat leastleast inin thethe Johan-Johan- The image of the living water may be related to the Holy Spirit, which was, at least in the Johan- ninenine tradition,tradition, associatedassociated withwith suchsuch waterwater (cf.(cf. JohnJohn 7:7: 3737––38,38, aa texttext usuallyusually interpretedinterpreted alongalong thesethese nine tradition, associated with such water (cf. John 7: 37–38, a text usually interpreted along these

Religions 2020, 11, 637 8 of 13

2. Let no envy dwell among you. Even if I urge you otherwise when I arrive, do not be persuaded; instead be persuaded by what I am writing you now. For I write to you while living, desiring to die. My passion has been crucified and there is no burning love within me for material things; instead there is living water, which also is speaking in me, saying to me from within: ‘Come to the Father’.

3. I have no pleasure in the food that perishes nor in the pleasures of this life. I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, from the seed of David; and for drink I desire his blood, which is imperishable love.

The image of the living water may be related to the Holy Spirit, which was, at least in the Johannine tradition, associated with such water (cf. John 7: 37–38, a text usually interpreted along these lines). And although water can be a drink, it does not function as such. By contrast, Ignatius desires to drink Christ’s blood, here identified as love, and to taste the bread of God, which is the flesh of Christ. From being eaten in order to be with Christ, here communion with Christ is expressed in terms of a form of theophagy, as mentioned at the beginning of this contribution.

2.4. Observations on Being Consumed The above presentation of sources allows for a number of analytical observations on ‘being consumed’ in Ignatius’ letter to the Romans. First, there is the matter of agency: by expressing his desire to be consumed, Ignatius interprets his upcoming and gruesome execution from his own perspective, rather than from the perspective of the Roman authorities who have captured him and intend to execute him. Bakker puts it well in this respect: ‘[N]either the executioner nor the beasts have the initiative, but Ignatius himself. He gives the impression that he alone is orchestrating [the] bizarre spectacle’23. Bizarre it may be, yet Ignatius’ desire, which translates into a complete reinterpretation of his situation, culminating in his passionate request to the Roman church not to intervene on his behalf, does have consequences as to who is (imagined to be) in charge of the course of events. In fact, according to Ignatius’ letter, the Roman authorities are now actors in a script that Ignatius has written, rather than the other way around. The same applies to the beasts, who are no longer enemies, but rather tools that help him to reach his goal of communion with Christ24. Prey and animal fodder Ignatius remains, yet he is this willingly, enthusiastically even, which makes all the difference for the exercise of agency in this situation and, presumably, enables Ignatius to cope with the situation and to retain his dignity as a Christian and as a bishop. In the context of the battle in which Ignatius has become the victim, this is of significance: Ignatius has evidently lost the battle at the level of (church/religious) politics and is therefore paying the highest price. By interpreting this defeat as the beginning of his journey towards his life’s destiny, communion with Christ, Ignatius in fact positions himself as the one who, in the end, stands to gain the most by the situation25. His desire to be consumed physically in order to be with Christ is, in this manner, more than an exotic religious longing, but also renegotiates and reinterprets a conflict, in the course of which the roles of victor and victim are completely reversed. Second, the place of consumption can be considered further. Except for the final passage from Ignatius’ letter to the Romans, as quoted above, the focus is not on Ignatius’ consumption of a deity, but rather on his own consumption by wild animals—a direct consumption of Ignatius by God or Christ does not occur. Yet consumption is closely related to Christ in the following ways. First, being consumed totally—Ignatius’ graphic imagery leaves little to the imagination; he seems to have thought his fate through rather thoroughly—is for Ignatius the final proof of his total dedication

23 Bakker(2013, pp. 172–73). 24 The topic of unity, of pervasive importance for Ignatius, also governs his longing for communion with Christ, as has been recently discussed by Hartog(2019). 25 Cf. with regard to Niederer Saxon(2017, pp. 31–57). Religions 2020, 11, 637 9 of 13 and faithfulness to Christ. He is, admittedly, somewhat anxious about this and unsure whether he will indeed remain faithful to the end. Yet, he is also intent on clearing away all possible obstacles, including well-meaning interventions on his behalf by the Roman church or animals that are too reluctant to tear him apart. Second, this ultimate proof of faithfulness is also bound up with an imitation of Christ in his suffering26; the difference between crucifixion as a means of execution and execution by means of a damnatio ad bestias does not seem to matter. The tertium comparationis is suffering, as Ignatius makes quite explicit, referring in passing to Christ as ‘god’ (6:3). A faithful disciple both endures suffering that is brought upon him (or her) due to an allegiance to Christ, and s/he achieves further identification with Christ by means of this suffering. This is, of course, closely connected to the reversal of agency that was mentioned before, yet should be highlighted as a distinct dimensionReligions of 2019 Ignatius’, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13 desire to suffer (by being consumed): enduring such suffering proves faithfulness to Christ and enables him to be with him. Third, being consumed, as Ignatius stresses, also means thatdisappears he disappears completely from this world (e.g., 4:2), which likely facilitates his transfer to the realm of completely from this world (e.g., 4:2), which likely facilitates his transfer to the realmChrist, of Christ, even even if this if is not something that the Antiochian bishop dwells upon extensively: he wants to this is not something that the Antiochian bishop dwells upon extensively: he wants to‘ ‘attain’attain’ ( ἐπιτύχω) Christ (cf. 5:3), and in order to do that he must disappear from the earthly realm as Christ (cf. 5:3), and in order to do that he must disappear from the earthly realm as a faithfulfaithful discipledisciple who identifies with Christ in his suffering. Vanishing (by being consumed) is a who identifies with Christ in his suffering. Vanishing (by being consumed) is a necessarynecessary part of this process. A final dimension of the consumption pertains to the likely allusions this process. A final dimension of the consumption pertains to the likely allusionsto to the the Eucharist Eucharist contained in Ignatius’ language involving becoming bread or wheat and being contained in Ignatius’ language involving becoming bread or wheat and being pouredpoured out27 out. This27. This is, is, at the very least, suggested by his focus on bread and drink as metaphors for at the very least, suggested by his focus on bread and drink as metaphors for his upcominghis upcoming fate and fate and his preoccupation with the Eucharist throughout his letters. The Eucharistic his preoccupation with the Eucharist throughout his letters. The Eucharistic metaphors,metaphors, of course, of course, correspond well with Ignatius’ upcoming fate in the arena: both concern being correspond well with Ignatius’ upcoming fate in the arena: both concern being eaten.eaten. Yet byYet alluding by alluding to the Eucharist, Ignatius also enhances the extent to which he is able to asso- to the Eucharist, Ignatius also enhances the extent to which he is able to associate,ciate, even even identify identify his his upcoming suffering with that of Christ—the violent background of the Eucha- upcoming suffering with that of Christ—the violent background of the Eucharist,rist, connected connected as it as is it is to Christ’s own death, and the violent aspect of eating as such, both play a key to Christ’s own death, and the violent aspect of eating as such, both play a key rolerole in in creating creating this this association28. association28. Third, the following can be observed when it comes to materiality. To begin with, Ignatius em- Third, the following can be observed when it comes to materiality. To begin with, Ignatiusbraces his embraces own physicality and his (current and) upcoming physical suffering. He also embraces his his own physicality and his (current and) upcoming physical suffering. He also embracesrelatively his relatively moderate suffering en route to Rome: travelling in chains is mentioned explicitly and in- moderate suffering en route to Rome: travelling in chains is mentioned explicitlyterpreted and interpreted in terms of his proving himself a worthy disciple of Christ who identifies with his Lord’s in terms of his proving himself a worthy disciple of Christ who identifies with hissu Lord’sffering. su ffByering. interpreting in this particular way, he gains some control over what happens to his By interpreting in this particular way, he gains some control over what happens to his body,body, but but this this in noin no way diminishes his emphasis on bodiliness: ‘performing an operation on the way diminishes his emphasis on bodiliness: ‘performing an operation on the body thatbody requires that grueling requires grueling endurance allows one to become a perfected self’, as Niederer Saxon aptly endurance allows one to become a perfected self’, as Niederer Saxon aptly puts it29. Thisputs aligns it29. This with aligns his with his emphasis on the reality of Christ’s physical suffering and resurrection emphasis on the reality of Christ’s physical suffering and resurrection elsewhere in hiselsewhere correspondence; in his correspondence; in fact, it is because Christ is physical that the equally physical Ig- in fact, it is because Christ is physical that the equally physical Ignatius can relatenatius to him can and relate even to him and even identify with him. Spiritualization of suffering, or spiritualizing the identify with him. Spiritualization of suffering, or spiritualizing the Christian faith,Christian is not something faith, is not something Ignatius is interested in, apparently. Ignatius is interested in, apparently. Furthermore, and quite in line with the first point, it is precisely the physical body of Ignatius, Furthermore, and quite in line with the first point, it is precisely the physical bodyin of all Ignatius, its materiality, in all that is the site in which the conflict that he is involved in is played out. His coping its materiality, that is the site in which the conflict that he is involved in is played out.with His his coping physical with suffering, his endurance of it, even his commitment to it and his eventual disap- his physical suffering, his endurance of it, even his commitment to it and his eventualpearance disappearance from this world due to it are the elements of Ignatius’ victory, as it were, over those who from this world due to it are the elements of Ignatius’ victory, as it were, over those whohave have captured captured and will torture and execute him. A further point is, therefore, that the body is the and will torture and execute him. A further point is, therefore, that the body is themeans means by by which which Ignatius’ allegiance to Christ is mediated, which goes widely beyond a merely cog- Ignatius’ allegiance to Christ is mediated, which goes widely beyond a merely cognitivenitive assent assent to tobelieving that Christ is Lord, for instance. Physical suffering, particularly by means of being consumed, gains a sacramental quality, as it were: it mediates communion with Christ30. In addition to this, the body plays a paradoxical role in Ignatius’ contemplation of his upcoming 26 Cf. also on the connection between Christology and discipleship in terms of imitation, e.g., Hartogordeal:(2019). See the similarly body is the necessary means by which his faithfulness to Christ is both tested and proven. Dehandschutter(2012). It is equally necessary as the means by which Ignatius identifies with the suffering of Christ and 27 Cf. for this topic, particularly in relation to imitation and martyrdom, Clancy(2009) as well as Stefanutthereby(2013). with Christ as such. At the same time, the body also needs to disappear in order for Ignatius 28 Cf. for a forceful and convincing argument along these lines: Klawiter(2007). 29 Niederer Saxon(2017, p. 38). to be united entirely with Christ. As this paradox is not resolved, it can only be mentioned here. All of this also has a flipside, as it were, which has everything to do with materiality and medi- ation (and, given the focus on suffering, with conflict as well): precisely by imitating Christ in his suffering, Ignatius also makes Christ visible—he represents him, as it were. The body of the martyr, suffering intentionally and willingly, becomes a means of mediation and functions in the manner of a sacrament. Imitation not only assimilates the imitator into the example, but also turns the imitator into a representation of the example31. This aspect of Ignatius is of course completely in line with his

27 Cf. for this topic, particularly in relation to imitation and martyrdom, Clancy (2009) as well as Stefanut (2013). 28 Cf. for a forceful and convincing argument along these lines: Klawiter (2007). 29 Niederer Saxon (2017, p. 38). 30 Cf. also, e.g., Downs (2017, p. 154), who stresses the connection between imitation of and participation in Christ in Ignatius. 31 With respect to the soteriological function of suffering (beyond its role in the redemption of Ignatius himself), here the position is also identified with the fact that Ignatius does not seek to redeem the Philippians by

Religions 2020, 11, 637 10 of 13 believing that Christ is Lord, for instance. Physical suffering, particularly by means of being consumed, gains a sacramental quality, as it were: it mediates communion with Christ30. In addition to this, the body plays a paradoxical role in Ignatius’ contemplation of his upcoming ordeal: the body is the necessary means by which his faithfulness to Christ is both tested and proven. It is equally necessary as the means by which Ignatius identifies with the suffering of Christ and thereby with Christ as such. At the same time, the body also needs to disappear in order for Ignatius to be united entirely with Christ. As this paradox is not resolved, it can only be mentioned here. All of this also has a flipside, as it were, which has everything to do with materiality and mediation (and, given the focus on suffering, with conflict as well): precisely by imitating Christ in his suffering, Ignatius also makes Christ visible—he represents him, as it were. The body of the martyr, suffering intentionally and willingly, becomes a means of mediation and functions in the manner of a sacrament.Religions 2019, Imitation10, x FOR PEER not REVIEW only assimilates the imitator into the example, but also turns the imitator10 of 13 into a representation of the example31. This aspect of Ignatius is of course completely in line with his other name, i.e.,i.e., the Godbearer’Godbearer’ ((ὁ Θεοφόρος)),, and his ideas about the bishop bishop’s’s representation of the divine32.. This This also also corresponds corresponds with with another another aspect aspect of Ignatius’ reflection reflection upon his martyrdom:martyrdom: he associates it closely with the Eucharist and uses Eucharistic imagery to to interpret interpret his his upcoming upcoming fate. fate. This enablesenables himhim toto connectconnect his his su sufferingffering with with Christ’s Christ’s su sufferingffering even even more more closely closely and an ind doingin doing so heso useshe uses a very a very material material aspect aspect of early of early Christianity Christianity in order in order to facilitate to facilitate his ownhis own understanding understanding of the of direthe straitsdire straits in which in which he finds he finds himself himself and, noand, doubt, no doubt, cope withcope itwith better. it better. Given Given the sacramental the sacramental quality quality of his ownof his body—su own bodyffering—suffering in imitation in imi oftation Christ ofmakes ChristChrist makes present—Ignatius Christ present—Ignatius can be seen can as be interpreting seen as in- oneterpreting sacramental one sacramental act by means act of by another. means Accidently,of another. inAccidently, doing so, in he doing also reminds so, he also the readerreminds of the his lettersreader ofof thehis letters violent of aspects the violent of the aspects Eucharist, of the given Eucharist, both the given inherent both the violence inherent of eatingviolence (and of eating being eaten—as(and being Ignatius eaten— isas about Ignatius to experience) is about to andexperience) the indissoluble and the connectionindissoluble between connection the Eucharist between andthe Christ’sEucharist own and su Christ’sffering andown death.suffering and death. Finally, itit isis invitinginviting toto considerconsider thesethese lines of thought (and pathways of practice) of Ignatius in terms of initiation and mystagogymystagogy3333, as was was explored explored with regard to other aspects of Ignatius th thoughtsoughts in earlierearlier contributionscontributions34.. This This is is to to say say that that what what Ignatius undergoes and and the manner in which he understands hishis currentcurrent andand upcoming upcoming fate fate can can be be seen seen as a hiss his entering entering more more deeply deeply into into the the mystery mystery of Christ,of Christ, able able to doto do so byso theby the guards guards that that currently currently accompany accompany him him on his on way his way to Rome to Rome and byand the by wild the animalswild animals that await that await him in him the in arena. the arena. What What was meant was meant to deny to Ignatiusdeny Ignatius life, from life, his from perspective his perspective allows himallows to enterhim to even enter more even profoundly more profoundly into a life-giving into a life mystery:-giving mystery: communion, communion, even union, even with union Christ, with35. Christ35. 3. Conclusions 3. ConclusionsThe above considerations of Ignatius of Antioch’s correspondence, with particular reference to his letterThe toabove the churchesconsiderations in Tralles of Ignatius and Rome, of Antioch’s shed light correspondence, on both the question with particular of consumption reference in his to thoughthis letter and to the on churches the connections in Tralles between and Rome, consumption shed light and on materiality both the question and conflict. of consumption This is to say, in first, his thatthought in the and act on of eating,the connection violence,s anbetween inherent consumption part of conflict, and and materiality physicality and (materiality) conflict. This are evidentlyis to say, closelyfirst, that connected, in the act as of eating eating, requires violence, both an violence inherent and part materiality of conflict, of and some physicality sort. Second, (materiality) for Ignatius, are evidently closely connected, as eating requires both violence and materiality of some sort. Second, for Ignatius, not so much eating the deity (with the exception of one text, as indicated above), but 30ratherCf. also,being e.g., eating Downs( 2017is the, p. pathway 154), who stresses to perfect the connection divine– betweenhuman imitation communion. of and participation The eating in Christ does in not Ignatius. take 31place,With in respect Ignatius’ to the case, soteriological by the functiondeity involved of suffering, i.e. (beyond, Christ, its role but in rather the redemption by those of Ignatiuswho appear himself), to herebe his the position is also identified with the fact that Ignatius does not seek to redeem the Philippians by means of his suffering, executionersbut rather that: wild he presents animals himself in the as an Roman example ofarena steadfast who and are, “long in su realityffering” (i.e. discipleship, in Ignatius’ in the footsteps reality) (literally, merely and instrufiguratively)ments for of Paul.proving See Kirk his( 2013faithfulness). to Christ, for achieving a fuller identification with Christ and 32 arrivingCf. Maier at (2018complete). communion with Christ. Consumption, in the sense of being consumed, here 33 Cf. also Niederer Saxon(2017, pp. 41–42), on the shaping of the self and developing spiritually through martyrdom, establishessuffering, anddivine epistolary–human reflection communion upon it. not by eating the deity (theophagy), but rather by being con- 34sumed.Cf. Smit Third,(2016, this2018a interpretation). of his damnatio ad bestias allows Ignatius to make sense of his situa- 35 Cf. also along these lines: Schröter(2018, p. 107), Die Teilhabe an der Eucharistie bewirkt eine Verbindung mit dem Leiden tionund in Sterbena positive Jesu Christimanner und: vermitteltfrom an zugleichunwilling die Teilhabe victim, an he der becomes Auferstehung. a willing Ignatius believer, entwickelt looking auf diese Weiseforward eine to hischristologisch journey, fundiertehowever Sicht painful, auf die Existenztowards der communion zu Jesus Christus with Gehörenden, his Lord die and nicht God. auf das This irdische changes Leben beschränkt, who ex- ercisessondern control erst dann and “wahrhaftiges has agency: Leben” no longer ist, wenn are sie those mit Jesus who Christus captured verbunden and execute ist und an Ignatius seiner Auferstehung in charge, teilhat. but rather he is, even to the extent that he imagines coaxing and forcing the wild animals that he is to face in the arena into assisting him in proving his faith, identifying with Christ and arriving at perfect communion. Fourth, materiality plays a key role in this: the physicality of Christ is for Ignatius of

means of his suffering, but rather that he presents himself as an example of steadfast and “long suffering” discipleship in the footsteps (literally and figuratively) of Paul. See Kirk (2013). 32 Cf. Maier (2018). 33 Cf. also Niederer Saxon (2017, pp. 41–42), on the shaping of the self and developing spiritually through mar- tyrdom, suffering, and epistolary reflection upon it. 34 Cf. Smit (2016; 2018a) 35 Cf. also along these lines: Schröter (2018, p. 107), Die Teilhabe an der Eucharistie bewirkt eine Verbindung mit dem Leiden und Sterben Jesu Christi und vermittelt zugleich die Teilhabe an der Auferstehung. Ignatius entwickelt auf diese Weise eine christologisch fundierte Sicht auf die Existenz der zu Jesus Christus Gehörenden, die nicht auf das irdische Leben beschränkt, sondern erst dann “wahrhaftiges Leben” ist, wenn sie mit Jesus Christus verbunden ist und an seiner Auferstehung teilhat.

Religions 2020, 11, 637 11 of 13 not so much eating the deity (with the exception of one text, as indicated above), but rather being eating is the pathway to perfect divine–human communion. The eating does not take place, in Ignatius’ case, by the deity involved, i.e., Christ, but rather by those who appear to be his executioners: wild animals in the Roman arena who are, in reality (i.e., in Ignatius’ reality), merely instruments for proving his faithfulness to Christ, for achieving a fuller identification with Christ and arriving at complete communion with Christ. Consumption, in the sense of being consumed, here establishes divine–human communion not by eating the deity (theophagy), but rather by being consumed. Third, this interpretation of his damnatio ad bestias allows Ignatius to make sense of his situation in a positive manner: from an unwilling victim, he becomes a willing believer, looking forward to his journey, however painful, towards communion with his Lord and God. This changes who exercises control and has agency: no longer are those who captured and execute Ignatius in charge, but rather he is, even to the extent that he imagines coaxing and forcing the wild animals that he is to face in the arena into assisting him in proving his faith, identifying with Christ and arriving at perfect communion. Fourth, materiality plays a key role in this: the physicality of Christ is for Ignatius of high theological significance as such. His own body functions in a sacramental manner, becoming the medium through which his faithfulness and identification with Christ is mediated. It is, however paradoxical, because it is precisely the disappearance of his body that facilitates his arrival at complete communion with Christ. All of this can be captured through the language of initiation or of undergoing a mystagogical process. The Eucharistic metaphors that Ignatius uses also help to further this stress on materiality, recalling this very physical ritual of the Church, which is of key importance for Ignatius throughout his letters, and connecting it with both the consumed body of Ignatius and the suffering that this involves and the body of Christ. Thus, conflict, materiality, and consumption are all key components to Ignatius of Antioch’s negotiation of his fate and constitute vital parts of his understanding and embodiment of the Christian faith: it is hard to imagine a spirituality that is so physical as this ancient Syrian bishop’s36.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: I am grateful to Edward Jacobson, PhD (Vuurtoren Editing) for proofreading this paper; all remaining mistakes are, of course, my own. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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