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A „Fekete Legenda” Árnyékában

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A „Fekete Legenda” Árnyékában AAA „FEKETE LEGENDA” ÁRNYÉKÁBAN SZTE BÖLCSÉSZETTUDOMÁNYI KAR TÖRTÉNETTUDOMÁNYI DOKTORI ISKOLA MODERNKORI TÖRTÉNETI PROGRAM PHD ÉRTEKEZÉSEK Farkas Pálma Adél A „FEKETE LEGENDA” ÁRNYÉKÁBAN SPANYOLORSZÁG ÉS AZ EGYESÜLT ÁLLAMOK KAPCSOLATA A KORABELI SAJTÓ TÜKRÉBEN MIGUEL PRIMO DE RIVERA DIKTATÚRÁJA IDEJÉN (1923–1930) Doktori értekezés Szeged, 2013 SZTE BÖLCSÉSZETTUDOMÁNYI KAR Történettudományi Doktori Iskola Modernkori Történeti Program PhD értekezések Szerkesztette: ANDERLE ÁDÁM Technikai szerkeszt ő: JENEY ZSUZSANNA © FARKAS PÁLMA ISBN: 978-963-306-184-8 Felel ős kiadó: J. NAGY LÁSZLÓ Szeged, 2013 Tartalomjegyzék El őszó....................................................................................................................7 Bevezetés ............................................................................................................17 Historiográfiai és forráskérdések ....................................................................17 A múlt lenyomata: a spanyolellenes „fekete legenda” .......................................33 A fekete legenda évszázadai ...........................................................................33 A „ fekete legenda” az Egyesült Államokban .................................................45 A spanyolellenes legenda árnyéka halványul?....................................................57 Spanyolország az észak-amerikai utazó irodalomban.....................................57 „Hispanománia” az észak-amerikai m űvészetekben és építészetben ............58 A fekete legenda ellenszere: az oktatás...........................................................65 Intézményes kezdeményezések az Egyesült Államokban ..............................65 Hemingway Spanyolországa...........................................................................70 A „szerepcsere”: a „jenkifóbia” kezdetei .......................................................72 Az érintkezés színterei: kereskedelem, diplomácia, spanyol kivándorlás ..........77 Szemben álló ideológiák: pánamerikanizmus és hispanoamericanismo.............95 A pánamerikanizmus ......................................................................................95 Hispanoamericanismo...................................................................................102 Az Egyesült Államok és Spanyolország egymásról alkotott képe a korabeli sajtóban.............................................................................................................113 Spanyolország az 1920-as évek észak-amerikai sajtójában..........................113 The New York Times................................................................................113 Véleményformáló lapok............................................................................120 Az Egyesült Államok és Hispán-Amerika a primoriverista sajtóban ...........137 Az 1929-es sevillai ibér-amerikai világkiállítás................................................175 Befejezés...........................................................................................................225 Felhasznált források és szakirodalom ...............................................................227 EL ŐSZÓ Miguel Primo de Rivera diktatúrája adta tudományos kutatásaim alapját. A diktatúrát megel őzően, majd ebben az id őszakban Spanyolország sajátos helyzete, állapota adta a pontosabb irányt űt, mely egyértelm űen az ibér ország külpolitikája, nemzetközi kapcsolatai, azon belül pedig – Latin-Amerikán keresztül – az Amerikai Egyesült Államok felé mutatott. Kutatásaim során arra a következtetésre jutottam, hogy e rövid élet ű – 1923 szeptemberében katonai puccs révén bevezetett és 1930 januárjában megbukott – politikai rendszer és témája, különösképp annak általam választott „fejezete” mind a spanyol, mind a nemzetközi történetírásban viszonylag elhanyagolt módon, s többnyire azonos szempontok alapján került feldolgozásra. E megállapításomat spanyol történészek tapasztalatai is alátámasztják. „A primoriverista diktatúra a XX. század igen csekély érdekl ődést kiváltó, következésképpen szegényesen kutatott fázisa a történelemnek” – jelenti ki Leandro Álvarez Rey, aki mindössze talán az 1970-es évek végét és az 1980-as évtized els ő felét értékeli valamiféle kivételként, de összességében véve úgy találja, hogy „a rendszer feledésbe merült, a spanyolok nem szívesen foglalkoztak vele” , következésképpen a téma „egyfajta űrbe, historiográfiai feledésbe merült”. A szerz ő ezt igazságtalannak tartja, ugyanis szerinte éppen Primo de Rivera diktatúrájának éveiben „kell keresnünk azon számos probléma és helyzet szerteágazó gyökereit, amelyeket az ország 1931 után megtapasztalt és átélt a monarchikus intézmény összeomlása, a Második Köztársaság kikiáltása, valamint a polgárháborút követ ően egy újabb, immáron a Franco-diktatúra bevezetése során” . E diktatúrához pedig – vélekedik Álvarez Rey – a „forrást” a caudillo éppen Primo de Rivera rendszeréb ől merítette 1. Az Egyesült Államok és Spanyolország relációját elemz ő José Antonio Montero Jiménez doktori értekezésében fejti ki, miszerint „ahogy magunk mögött hagyjuk az els ő világháború éveit, s belépünk az 1920-as évtizedbe, csupán a hispán–észak-amerikai kapcsolatokról készült tanulmányok hiányát állapíthatjuk meg a Primo de Rivera diktatúra idején […]; a spanyol–észak- amerikai diplomáciai kölcsönhatás nem képezi az elsődleges figyelem tárgyát” 2. 1 ALVAREZ REY, Leandro: Bajo el fuero militar: La dictadura de Primo de Rivera en sus documentos (1923–1930). Universidad de Sevilla, 2006. 15. 2 Álvarez Rey és Montero Jiménez véleményében osztozik továbbá Juan Carlos Pereira és Ángel Martínez de Velasco Farinós is – el őbbi megállapítása az, hogy a primoriverista belpolitikához képest a kor külpolitikájának kutatása csak másodlagos érdekl ődést keltett a történészek körében, míg utóbbi történész úgy véli, Primo de Rivera tábornok diktatúrájáról általánosságban kijelenthet ő, hogy a spanyol történelem igen kevéssé kutatott id őszakáról van szó; MONTERO JIMÉNEZ: El Despliegue de la potencia americana: Las relaciones Entre España y los Estados Unidos (1898–1930) . Memoria para optar al grado de doctor. Madrid: Universidad Complutense. Facultad de Geografía e Historia – Departamento de Historia Contemporánea. 2006. 11., http://eprints.ucm.es/ 8 Doktori értekezésem benyújtott változatában nem kapott helyet Primo de Rivera diktatúrájának és korszakának általános bemutatása, amire az alábbiakban röviden kitérnék, hiszen így az értekezés gondolatmenete is érthet őbbé válik. Egyes történészi értelmezések szerint 1874/1875 és 1923, mások szerint 1931- ig tartó ún. bourboni restauráció 3 korának problémái megoldatlanok maradtak, mondhatni, a kor spanyol politikusai sz őnyeg alá seperték azokat. 1885-ben XII. Alfonz király halála okán a spanyol trónt Mária Krisztina királyné foglalta el, s lett fia, XIII. Alfonz 1902-ben történt nagykorúsításáig, illetve királlyá koronázásáig Spanyolország régensként uralkodó királyn ője. Ez az id őszak látszólag egyfajta intézményes stabilitás jegyében telt: egy korlátozottan liberális állammodell kidolgozásának, valamint az ipari forradalom hatására beindult társadalmi átalakulásnak (pl. városiasodás, munkásság nagy koncentráló- dása az egyes régiókban, stb.), valamint óvatos politikai reformok id őszaka volt. A férfiak számára bevezetésre került az általános választójog és a sajtó szabadsága is ténnyé vált, valamint a munkásmozgalmak kíséretében a politikai színpadon megjelent a Republikánus Párt, az anarchizmus és a szocializmus (1879: Partido Socialista Obrero Español – Spanyol Szocialista Munkáspárt )4. 1898-ban a kubai háború ban elszenvedett spanyol vereség azonban az ország csaknem teljes gyarmatvesztését vonta maga után, amely az akkor már kilenc évtizede fogyatkozó – s őt, immáron csupán vélt – nagyhatalmi státuszának 5 egyszer s mindenkorra véget vetett, középszer ű, másodrangú, s, némi túlzással, tesis/ghi/ucm-t29570.pdf (2011. december 16.); PEREIRA CASTAÑARES, Juan Carlos: Primo de Rivera y la diplomacia española en Hispanoamérica: El instrumento de un objetivo . IN: «Quinto Centenario» , N o. 10. Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 1986. 133., http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/ghi/02116111/articulos/QUCE8686120131A.PDF (2012. január 20.); MARTÍNEZ DE VELASCO FARINÓS, Angel: La reforma del cuerpo diplomático por Primo de Rivera . Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. Instituto de Sociología “Jaime Balmes”, 1981. 409. 3 Restaurációnak nevezzük azt a korszakot, amikor az 1868-as spanyol forradalom, és az Els ő Köztársaság után a monarchia „restaurációja” , azaz visszaállítása következett; ANDERLE Ádám: Spanyolország története. Budapest, Pannonica Kiadó, 1999. 113– 114., HARSÁNYI Iván: Spanyol dilemmák – spanyol megoldások a 19–20. század útveszt őjében. Pécs: Pro Pannonia, 2006. 15–21., VILAR, Juan Bautista (ed.): Las relaciones internacionales en la España contemporánea. Murcia: Secretariado de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia, 1989. 79–85. 4 ANDERLE: uo ., Lásd még: http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partido_Socialista_Obrero_ Espa%C3%B1ol (2012. október 14.) 5 1808-ban a Spanyolország elleni francia invázió, a napóleoni háborúk, s az ország válsága jó alapot adott a spanyol-amerikai gyarmatok 1810-től meginduló függetlenségi mozgalmaihoz. A napóleoni háború végére 1815-ben pontot tev ő bécsi kongresszuson elfogadott döntések, valamint a spanyol koronától függetlened ő latin-amerikai köztársa- ságok megszületése is jelezte a spanyol nagyhatalmi birodalom végóráit. 9 szinte jelentéktelen állammá téve ezáltal
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